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I Social Dimensions of Education Introduction Sociologists see education as one of the major institutions that constitutes society. While theories guide research and policy formulation in the sociology of education, they also provide logical explanations tor why things happen the way they do. These theories help sociologists understand educational systems. This chapter presents an introduction to the social science theories of education-consensus and conflict, structural functionalist and interaction theories as related to education.

Consensus and Conflict Theory In order for us to understand why sociological theories could be classified into 'consensus' and 'conflict' perspectives let us examine the definitions of consensus .and conflict. Dahrendorf (1959, 1968) as cited by Ritzer(2000) is the major exponent of the position that society has two faces (conflict and consensus) and that sociological theory therefore should be divided into two parts, conflict theory and consensus theory.

Consensus is a general or widespread agreement among all of a particular society.

1

CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

Conflict is a clash between ideas, principles and people.

Conflict theory focuses on the struggle of social classes to maintain dominance and power in social systems.

Consensus theory emphasizes on social order, stability and social regulation.

Consensus theories see shared norms and values as fundamental to society, focus on social order based on tacit agreements, and view social change as occurring in a slow and orderly fashion. In contrast, conflict theories emphasize the dominance of some social groups by others, see social order as based on manipulation and control by dominant groups, and view social change as occurring rapidly and in a disorderly fashion as subordinate groups overthrow dominant groups (Ritzer, 2000). Consensus theorists examine value integration in society, and conflict theorists examine conflicts of interest anj the coercion that holds society together in the face of these stresses. Dahrendorf recognizes that society can not exis* without both conflict and consensus, which are prerequisites for each other. Thus, we cannot have conflict unless there is some prior consensus. Consensus is a concept of society ;n which the absence of conflict if seen as the equilibrium state of society based on a general or widespread agreement among all of a particular society. Conflict is a disagreement or clash between opposing ideas, principles, or people - this can be a covert or overt conflict. The conf.ict theory, according to Horton and Hunt (1984) focuses on the heterogeneous nature of society and the differential distribution of political and social power. A struggle between social classes and class conflicts between the powerful and less powerful groups occur. Groups which have vested interest and power work for rules and laws, particularly those that serve their own interests, to be ed to the exclusion of others. Conflict theorists ask how schools contribute to the unequal distribution of people into jobs in society so that more powerful of society maintain the best positions and the less powerful groups (often women, racial and ethnic groups) often minority groups, are allocated to lower ranks in society. The larger issue for conflict theorists is the role that education plays in maintaining the prestige, power, and economic and social position of the dominant group in society (Ballantine and Spade, 2004). The conflict perspective assumes that social behavior is best understood in of conflict or tensions between competing groups. Such conflict need not be violent; it can take the form of labor negotiations, party politics, competition between religious groups for , or disputes over the budget. Conflict theory grew out of the work of Karl Marx and focuses on the struggle of social classes to maintain dominance and power in social systems. It is a theory or collection of theories which places emphasis on conflict in human society (Jary and Jary, 2000:105).

CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

Social structures produce patterns of The conflict model is concerned with the stresses and conflicts that emerge in society because of competition over scarce resources. It focuses on the inequalities that are built into social structures rather than on those that emerge because of personal characteristics.

inequality in the distribution of scarce resources

Conflict

Reorganisation and Change

Figure 1. The Conflict Model (Source: Sociology and Anthropology, Javier et a/., 2002)

The discourse of conflict theory is on the emergence of conflict and what causes conflict within ? particular human society. Or we can say that conflict theory deals with the incompatible aspects of society. Conflict theory emerged out of the sociology of conflict, crisis and social change. The conflict theorists are interested in how society's institutions - the family, government, religion, education, and the media - may help to maintain the privileges of some groups and keep others in a Subservient position. Their emphasis on social change and redistribution of resources makes conflict theorists more "radical" and "activist" than furctfonplicts (Schaefer, 2003). Consensus theory, on the other hand, is a sociological perspective or collection of theories, in which social order and stability/social regulation form the base of emphasis. In other words, consensus theory is concerned with the maintenance or continuation of social order in society, in relation to accepted norms, values, rules and regulations as widely accepted or collectively by the society-or within a particular society itself. It emerged out of the sociology of social order and social stability/social regulation. The consensus and conflict sociological theories are reflected in ihe works of certain dominant social theorists such as Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber and other prominent social theorists such as Talcott Parsons & Robert Merton, Louis Althusser & Ralph Dahrendorf and Herbert Mead & Herbert Blumer.

Conflict theorists emphasize social change and redistribution of resources.

CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

tendency to the "optimization of gratification" and whose relation to their situations, including each other, is defined and mediated in of a system of culturally structured and shared symbols. In his analysis of the social system, Parsons was primarily interested in its structural components. In addition to a concern with the status-role, he was interested in such large-scale components of social systems as collectivities, norms, and values. Parsons was not simply a structuralist but also a functionalist.

Functional Requisites of a Social System 1. Social system must be structured so that they operate compatibly with other systems. 2.

To survive, the social system must have the requisite from other systems.

3.

The system mus* meet a sighiricant proportion of the needs of its actors.

4.

The system must elicit adequate participation from its .

5. It must have at least a minimum of coiitrol over potentially disruptive behavior. 6. If conflict becomes sufficiently disruptive, it must be controlled. J. Finally, a social system requires a language in order to survVe.

Key principles of the functionalist theory • interdepe ndency • functions of social structure and culture • consensus and cooperation • equilibrium

- Talcott Parsons The functionalist perspective is primarily concerned with why a society assumes a particular form. This perspective assumes that any society takes its particular form because that form works well for the society given its particular situation. Societies exist under a wide range of environmental situations. Some societies have highly advanced technologies and they also differ in of their interactions with other societies. Thus, what works for one society cannot be expected to work for another. In any society, however, the functionalist perspective makes one basic argument. Whatever are the characteristics of a society, those characteristics developed because they met the needs of that society in its particular situation. The key principles of the functionalist perspective (Farley, 1990) include the following: 1. Interdependency. One of the most important principles of functionalist theory is that society is made up of interdependent parts. This means that every part of society is dependent to some extent on other parts of society, so that what happens at one place in society has important effects elsewhere. For example, the class requires a faculty member to teach a subject and the students to learn it. Someone has to provide electricity to light the room, and in order for that electricity to be provided, someone had to build a dam or provide fuel to the power plant.

CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

2. Functions of Social Structure and Culture. Closely related to interdependency is the idea that each part of the social system exists because it serves some function. This principle is applied by functionalists to both social structure and culture. Social structure refers to the organization of society, including its institutions, its social positions, and its distribution of resources. Culture refers to a set of beliefs, language, rules, values, and knowledge held in common by of a society. 5. Consensus and cooperation. Another key principle in Equilibriu functionalist theory is that societies have a tendency m toward consensus; that is to have certain basic values characteris that nearly everyone in the society agrees upon. For tic of a example, we all believe in the principles of democracy society and freedom. Societies tend toward consensus in order when it has to achieve cooperation. Functionalists believe that achieved inability to cooperate w'll paralyze the society, and the form people will devote more and more effort to fighting that is best one another rather than getting anything done. adapted its 4. Equilibrium, A final principle of functionalist theories situation is that of equilibrium. This view holds that, once a society has achieved the form that is best adapted to its situation, it has reached a state of balance or equilibrium, and !t will remain in that condition until it is forced to change by some new condition. New technology, a change in climate, or with an outside society are all conditions to which a society might have to adapt. When such conditions occur, social change will take place: society will changc just enough to adapt to the new situation. However, once that adaptation has been made, the society has attained a new state of balance or equilibrium with its environment, and it will not change again until some new situation requires further adaptation. Social structures provide preset patterns which evolve to meet human ^iPj needs Stability, order, and harmony

.Maintenance of society

Figure 3. The Structural-Functional Model (Source: Sociological Theory, George Ritzer, 2000)

CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

Status cultures refer to groups in society with similar interests and positions in the status hierarchy.

The works of Marx in his early years was interpreted by some social theorists as emphasizing the role of human beings in social conflict. They explained change as emerging from the crisis between human beings and their society. They argued that Marx's theory was a theory characterized by class conflicts or the conflict between the bourgeoisie (rich owners) and the proletariat (poor workers). Max Weber argues that schools teach and maintain particular "status cultures," that is, groups in society with similar interests and positions in the status hierarchy. Located in neighborhoods, schools are often rather homogeneous in their student bodies and teach to that constituency, thus perpetuating that status culture. Weber outlines types of education found in societies at different time periods, dist'nguishing between inborn "charisma" and training in school, and the modern, rational method of education. Education systems may train individuals in specialties to fill needed positions or prepare "cultivated individuals," those who stand above others because of their superior knowledge and reasoning abilities. Individuals who had access to this type of education in eariv China were from the educated elite, thus perpetuating their family status culture (Sadovnik et al, 1994).

Structural Functionalism Structural functionalism states that society is made up of various institutions that work together in cooperation.

Structural functionalism, especially in the work of Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton, and their students and followers, was for many years the dominant sociological theory. However, in the last three decades it has declined dramatically in importance (Chriss, 1995) and, in at least some senses, has receded into the recent history of sociological theory. Parsons' structural functionalism has four functional imperatives for all "action" systems, embodied in his famous AGIL scheme. These functional imperatives that are necessary for all systems are: 1. Adaptation: A system must cope with external situational exigencies. It must adapt to its environment and adapt environment to its needs. 2. Goal attainment: A system must define and achieve its primary goals. 3. Integration-. A system must regulate the interrelationship of its component parts. It must also manage the relationship among the other three functional imperatives (A,G,L). 4. Latency (pattern maintenance): A system must furnish, maintain, and renew both the motivation of individuals and the cultural patterns that create and sustain the motivation. Parsons designed the AGIL scheme to be used at all levels in this theoretical system. The behavioral organism is the action system that handles the adaptation function by adjusting to and transforming the external world. The personality system performs the goal-attainment function by defining system goals and mobilizing resources to attain

CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

them. The social system copes with the integration function by controlling its component parts. Finally, the cultural system performs the latency function by providing actors with the norms and values that motivate them for action (Ritzer, 2000). Parson's four action systems are shown in Figure 2. Cultural System

Social System

. Action System

Personality System

CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

Figure 2: Structure of the General Action System (Source: Sociological Theory, George Ritzer, 2000).

The heart of Parsons' work is found in his four action systems. In the assumptions that Parson made regarding his action systems we encounter the problem of order which was his overwhelming concern and that has become a major source of criticism of his work. Parsons found his answer to the problem of order in structural functionalism, which operates in his view with the following sets of assumptions: 1. Systems have the property of order and interdependence of parts. 2. Systems tend toward self-maintaining order, or equilibrium. 3. The system may be static or involved in an ordered process of change. 4. The nature of one part of the system has an impact on the form that the other parts can take. 5. Systems maintain boundaries with their environments. 6. Allocation and integration are two fundamental processes necessary for a given state of equilibrium of a system. 7. Systems tend toward self-maintenance involving the maintenance of the relationships of parts to the whole, control of environmental variations, and control of tendencies to change the system from within. These assumptions led Parsons to make the analysis of the ordered structure of society his first priority. Parsons' conception of the social system begins at the micro level with interaction between ego and alter ego, defined as the most elementary form of the social system. He described a social system as something which consists of a plurality of individual actors interacting with each other in a situation which has at least a physical or environmental aspect, actors who are motivated in of a

Social system begins at the micro level with interaction between the ego and alter ego, defined as the most elementary form of the social system.

CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

The structural functional model addresses the question of social organization and how it is maintained. This theoretical perspective is the legacy of Durkheim and Spencer. It has its roots in natural science and the analogy between a society and an organization. In the analysis of living organism, the scientist's task is to identify the various parts (structures) and determine how they work (function). In the study of society, a sociologist with this perspective tries to identify the structures of society and how they function; hence the name structural functio-nalism (Javier et al., 2002). The component parts of a social structure are The component families, neighbors, associations, schools, churches, parts of a social banks, countries, and the like. Functionalists maintain structure that social structures exist in society for the functions they have to carry out (Panopio et al., 1994). • families Functionalist sociologists begin with a picture of •i neighbors society that stresses tne interdependence of the social • associations system; these researchers often examine how well parts • schools are integrated with each other. Functionalists view • churches society as a kind of machine, where one part articulates • banks with another to produce the dynamic energy required to • countries make society work. Most important, functionalism stresses the processes that maintain social order by stressing consensus and agreement. Although function alists understand that change is inevitable, they Schooling per- underscore the evolutionary nature of change. Further, forms an although they acknowledge that conflict between group important exists, functionalists argue that without a common bond function in the to unite groups, society will disintegrate. 1 hus functiondevelopment alists examine the social processes necessary to the and establishment and maintenance of social order maintenance of (Ballantine and Spade, 2004). modern, Structural functionalism puts emphasis on social democratic order and social stability not on conflict. It claims that society, society is made up of different institutions or especially with organizations that work together in cooperation - to regard to equality achieve their orderly relationship and to maintain social of opportunity for order and social stability. This maintenance of society is all citizens. Thus, extracted from the internal rules, norms, values and in modern societ- regulations of these various ordered institutions. ies, education Modern functionalist theories of education have becomes the key their origin in the work of Talcott Parsons. As cited by institution in a Ballantine and Spade (2004), Parsons believes that meritocratic education is a vital part of a modern society, a society selection process. that differs considerably from all previous societies. From this perspective, schooling performs an important - Ballantine & function in the development and maintenance of a Spade, 20C4

CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

modern, democratic society, especially with regard to equality of opportunity for all citizens. Thus, in modern societies education becomes the key institution in a meritocratic selection process. In addition to its role in a meritocratic society, education plays a significant function in the maintenance of the modern democratic and technocratic society. In a political democracy, schools provide citizens with the knowledge and dispositions to participate actively in civic life

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION Q

In ever increasingly technical society, schools provide students with the skills and dispositions to work in such a society. Although schools teach specific work skills, they also teach students how to learn so they may adapt to new work roles and requirements (http://allfreeesays. com/student/ConsensusConflict/Perspectives/html). Interactionist Theories In general, interactionist theories about the relation of school and society are critiques and extensions of the functionalist and conflict perspectives. The critique arises from the observation that functionalist and conflict theories are very abstract and emphasize structure and process at a societal (macro-sociological) level of analysis. While this level of analysis helps us to understand education in the "big picture", macro-sociological theories hardly provide us with an ir.terpretable snapshot of what schools are like on an everyday level. What do students and teachers actually do in school? Interactionist theories attempt to make the "commonplace strange" by turning on their heads everyday taken-for-granted behaviors and interactions between students and students and between students and teachers. It is exactly what most people do not question that is most problematic to the inieractionist. For example, the processes by which students arc labeled "gifted" or "learning disabled" are, from an interactionist point of view, important to analyze because such processes carry with them many implicit assumptions about learning and children (Ballantine and Spade, 2004). • Symbolic Interactionism Interactionist theory has its origin in the social psychology of early twentieth century sociologists George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooiey. Mead and Cooley examined the ways in which the individual is related to society through ongoing social interactions. This school of thought, known as symbolic interactionism, views the self as socially constructed in relation to social forces and structures and the product of ongoing negotiations of meanings. Thus, the social self is an active product of human agency rather than a deterministic product of social structure. The basic idea is a result of interaction between individuals mediated by symbols" in particular, language. The distinctive attributes of human behavior grow from people's participation in varying types of social structure which depend in turn, on the existence of language behavior (http://itsa.ucsf. edu/~eliotf?W.iy I am alsoaSymbolic.html). Symbolic interactionists are, of course, interested not simply in socialization but also in interaction in general, which is of "vital importance in its own right." Interaction is the process in

Symbolic interactionism views the self as socially constructed in relation to social forces and social structures.

CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

which the ability to think is both developed and expressed. All types of interaction, not just interaction during socialization, refine our ability to think. Beyond that, thinking shapes the interaction process. In most interaction, actors must take others into consideration and decide if and how to fit their activities to others. However, not all interaction involves thinking. PRINCIPLES OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONS Human beings unlike lower animals, are endowed w:th a capacity for thought. The 2. capacity for thought is shaped by social interaction. In social interaction, people learn the meanings and the symbols that allow them to exercise their distinctively human canity for thought. Meanings and symbols allow people to carry on distinctively human action and 4 interaction. . People are able to modify or alter meanings and symbols that they use in action and interaction on the basis of their interpretation of the situation. People are able to make these modifications and alterations because, in part, of their ability to interact witn themselves, which allows them to examine possible courses of action, assess their relative advantages and disadvantages, and then choose one. The intertwined patterns of action and interaction make up groups and societies. • Non-Symbolic Interactionism The differentiation made by Blumer (following Mead) between two basic forms of social interaction is relevant here. The first, nonsymbolic interaction - Mead's conversation of gestures - does not involve thinking. The second symbolic interaction does require mental processes (Ritzer, 2000). Mead's approach to symbolic interaction rested on three basic premises. 1. The first is that people act toward the things they encounter on the basis of what those things mean to them. (Things, in this context, refer Basic forms of not just to objects, but also to people, activities, and situations). Social 2. Second, we learn what things are by observing how other people Interaction respond to them, that is through social interaction. • non3. Third, as a result of ongoing interaction, the sounds (or words), symbolic gestures, facial expressions, and body postures we use in dealing with interaction others acquire symbolic meanings that are shared by people who belong which does to the same culture. The meaning of a symbolic gesture extends beyond not involve the act itself. A handshake, for instance, is a symbolic gesture of greeting thinking among Filipinos. As such, it conveys more than just a mutual grasping of • symbolic fingers and palms. It expresses both parties' shared understanding that a interaction social interaction is beginning. In other cultures, such which require mental processes 1.

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as Japan, willingness to interact is expressed or symbolized in a bow (Calhoun et al.,1994). The importance of thinking to symbolic interactionists is reflected in their views on objects. Blunter differentiates among three types of objects: physical objects, such as a chair or a tree; social objects, such as a student or a mother; and abstract objects, such as an idea or a moral principle. Objects are seen simply as things "out there" in the real world: what is of greatest significance is the way that they are defined by actors. The latter leads to the relativistic view that different objects have different meanings for different individuals: "A tree will be a different object to a botanist, a lumberman, a poet, and a home gardener" (Blumer as Looking-glass cited by Ritzer, 2000). SelfAnother important concept that has long been usedWe see by symbolic interactionist is the looking-glass self. Thisourselves as concept was developed by the early symbolicothers ste us. interactionist theorist Charles Horton Cooley. The basic-Charles Cooley notion of the looking-glass self can be summed up as "We see ourselves as others see us." In other words, we come to develop a self-image on the basis of the messages we get from others, as we understand them. If your teachers and fellow students give you the message that you are "smart," you will come to think of your self as an intelligent person. If others tel! you thai you are attractive, you will likely think of yourself as attractive. Conversely, if people repeatedly laugh at you and tease you about being clumsy, you will probably come to decide that you are clumsy. In Cooley's , you use other people as a mirror into which you look to see what you are like (Farley, 1990)

Summary Education is one of the major Institutions that constitute society. There are various social science theories that relate to education consensus, conflict, structural functionalist and interaction theones. Conflict theory deals with the emergence of conflict within a particular human society while consensus is a concept of society in which the absence of conflict is seen as the equilibrium state of society based on a general or widespread agreement among all of a particular society. The consensus and conflict theories are reflected in the works of certain dominant social theorists such as Karl Marx. Emile Durkheim, Max Weber and other social theorists. Structural functicnalism is concerned with the functions of schooling in the maintenance of social order, it asserts that society is made up of different institutions or organizations that work together in cooperation to achieve orderly relationship and to maintain social order and

social stability. Symbolic interactionists are interested not simply in socialization but in interactions between students and students and between students and teachers. All types of interactions refine our ability to think.

CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION