Concentration (dharana) 732x2g

Concentration (Dhâranâ)

Compiled by: Trisha Lamb Last Revised: April 27, 2006

© International Association of Yoga Therapists (IAYT) 2005

International Association of Yoga Therapists P.O. Box 2513 • Prescott • AZ 86302 • Phone: 928-541-0004 E-mail: [email protected] • URL: www.iayt.org The contents of this bibliography do not provide medical advice and should not be so interpreted. Before beginning any exercise program, see your physician for clearance.

Baier, Karl. Dharana in asana. From the article “Iyengar & the yoga tradition, part 2.” Yoga & Health, Oct 1997, p. 31. Bhat, Vasanthi. Concentration. In Vasanthi Bhat, The Power of Conscious Breathing in Hatha Yoga. San Jose, Calif.: Vasanthi Bhat, 1997, p. 220. The Buddhist Lodge. Concentration and Meditation: A Manual of Mind Development. Westminster, England: The Buddhist Lodge, 1935. Contents: The importance of right motive, Self-development or service, Meditation and prayer, The nature of self, The power of thought, Preliminary observations, Concentration, Exercises in concentration, Lower meditation, Objects of meditation, Character building, The culture of the emotions, Higher meditation, The raising of consciousness, The doctrine of the act, The jhanas, Zen meditation, Contemplation, Ways to the One, Conclusion, Notes on group meditation, Subjects for meditation Carter, O. L., D. E. Presti, C. Callistemon, Y. Ungerer, G. B. Liu, and J. D. Pettigrew. Meditation alters perceptual rivalry in Tibetan Buddhist monks. Current Biology, 7 Jun 2005, 15:R412-R413. From EurekAlert!, 6 Jun 2005: In an unusual but fruitful collaboration between Tibetan Buddhist monks and neuroscientists, researchers have uncove red clues to how mental states—and their underlying neural mechanisms—can impact conscious visual experience. In their study, reported in the June 7 issue of Current Biology, the researchers found evidence that the skills developed by Tibetan Buddhist monks in their practice of a certain type of meditation can strongly influence their experience of a phenomenon, termed “perceptual rivalry, ” that deals with attention and consciousness. The work is reported by Olivia Carter and Jack Pettigrew of the University of Queensland, Australia, and colleagues at the University of Queensland and the University of California, Berkeley. Perceptual rivalry arises normally when two different images are presented to each eye, and it is manifested as a fluctuation—typically, over the course of seconds—in the “dominant” image that is consciously perceived. The neural events underlying perceptual rivalry are not well understood but are thought to involve brain mechanisms that regulate attention and conscious awareness. Some previous work had suggested that skilled meditation can alter certain aspects of the brain’s neural activity, though the significance of such changes in of actually understanding brain function remains unclear.

2

To gain insight into how visual perception is regulated within the brain, researchers in the new study chose to investigate the extent to which certain types of trained meditative practice can influence the conscious experience of visual perceptual rivalry. With the of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, 76 Tibetan Buddhist monks participated in the study, which was carried out at or near their mountain retreats in the Himalaya, Zanskar, and Ladakhi Ranges of India. The monks possessed meditative training ranging from 5 to 54 years; among the group were three “retreatist” meditators, each with at least 20 years of experience in isolated retreats. The researchers tested the experience of visual rivalry by monks during the practice of two types of meditation: a “comion”-oriented meditation, described as a contemplation of suffering within the world combined with an emanation of loving kindness, and “one-point” meditation, described as the maintained focus of attention on a single object or thought, a focus that leads to a stability and clarity of mind. Whereas no observable change in the rate of “visual switching” during rivalry was seen in monks practicing comion meditation, major increases in the durations of perceptual dominance were experienced by monks practicing one-point meditation. Within this group, three monks, including two of the retreatists, reported complete visual stability during the entire five- minute meditation period. Increases in duration of perceptual dominance were also seen in monks after a period of one-point meditation. In a different test of perceptual rivalry, in this case prior to any meditation, the duration of stable perception experienced by monks averaged 4.1 seconds, compared to 2.6 seconds for meditation-naïve control subjects. Remarkably, when instructed to actively maintain the duration, one of the retreatist monks could maintain a constant visual perception during this test for 723 seconds. The findings suggest that processes particularly associated with one-point meditation— perhaps involving intense attentional focus and the ability to stabilize the mind— contribute to the prolonged rivalry dominance experienced by the monks. The researchers conclude from their study that individuals trained in meditatio n can considerably alter the normal fluctuations in conscious state that are induced by perceptual rivalry and suggest that, in combination with previous work, the new findings the idea that perceptual rivalry can be modulated by high- level, top-down neural influences. Christensen, Alice. [Concentration]. Easy Does It® Yoga: A Complete Fitness Program for Those Challenged by Age, Illness, Injury, or Inactivity. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999, pp. 57, 60, 102, 103, 131, 132. Coulter-Parker, Nancy. Find your focus: Learning to balance in a variety of challenging yoga poses can help you reach new and improved levels of concentration. Yoga Journal, Jan/Feb 2003, pp. 67-69.

3

Dostalek, C., et al. Jogická koncentracní cvicení v obraze EEG a EMG [Yogic concentration exercises as reflected in EEG and EMG]. 15th mexioborová konf. o exper. o klin. výzk. vyšš, nerv. funkcí, Mar. Lázne, 1978, pp. 1-10. [In Czechoslovakian.] Farhi, Donna. Concentration: Building mind stamina. In Donna Farhi, The Breathing Book. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1996, p. 212. Ghanananda, Swami. The yoga concentration. In Monks of the Ramakrishna Order, Meditation. Mylapore, Madras, India: Sri Ramakrishna Math, [n.d.]. Goyeche, J. R. M. EEG activity during the yoga concentration and auditory : A review and case study. Fuki Univ Dept Educ Bulletin, 1975, 4:25. ___________, and Y. Ikemi. Two concentration methods: A preliminary comparison. Psychologia, 1972, 15:110-111. Gupta, R. C. Concentration and meditation : An integral view. Yoga Awareness, Jan 1978, II(1):37-43. Hopkins, J. T., and L. J. Hopkins. A study of yoga and concentration. Academic Therapy, 1979, 14(3):341-345. Joshi, Dimple. Email: [email protected] Her thesis topic at UNBC was Yoga and its effects on improving children’s concentration. ed IAYT 11/8/01. Khalsa, Dharma Singh, with Cameron Stauth. Brain Longevity: Regenerate Your Concentration, Energy, and Learning Ability for a Lifetime of Peak Mental Performance. New York: Warner Books, 1997. (See Yoga and meditation sections.) Krishnananda, Swami. Dharana or concentration. In Swami Krishnananda, The Yoga System. Shivanandanagar, India: The Divine Life Society, 1992, pp. 82-93. Kriyananda, Goswami. Concentration (dharana). In Goswami Kriyananda, The Spiritual Science of Kriya Yoga. Chicago: The Temple of Kriya Yoga, 1976, 2002, pp. 254-269. Krishnananda, Swami. Dharana or concentration. In Swami Krishnananda, The Yoga System. Shivanandanagar, India: The Divine Life Society, 1992, pp. 82-93. Kriyananda, Goswami. Concentration (dharana). In Goswami Kriyananda, The Spiritual Science of Kriya Yoga. Chicago: The Temple of Kriya Yoga, 1976, 2002, pp. 254-269. Lerner, M. Recientes investigaciones medicas sobre yoga estados concentrativos. Acta Psiquiatr Psicol Amer Lat, 1975, 21:56-62. [In Spanish.]

4

Leung, Paul. Comparative effects of training in external and internal concentration on two counseling behaviors. In D. H. Shapiro, and R. N. Walsh, eds., Meditation: Classic and Contemporary Perspectives. New York: Aldine Publishing, 1984, pp. 188-195. Levy, Joel and Michelle. The Fine Arts of Relaxation, Concentration, and Meditation. Wisdom Publications, 2001. Maharshi Vinod Research Foundation. Effect of training in Ashtanga Yoga on attention, numerical memory, concentration and reaction time in youth. Yoga-Mimamsa, 1986. Mandlik, Vishwas V., and Ramesh Varkhede. Effect of Omkar chanting on concentration, memory and level of fatigue. In H. R. Nagendra, R. Ragarathna, and S. Telles, Yoga Research & Applications: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Frontiers in Yoga Research and Applications. Bangalore, Vivekananda Kendra Yoga Research Foundation, 2000, pp. 269-272. Article available online: http://www.yogapoint.com/info/research.htm#. Mehta, Silva, Mira Mehta, and Shyam Mehta. Concentration, lack of. In Silva, Mira, and Shyam Mehta, Yoga: The Iyengar Way. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992, p. 185. Mumford, Jonn. Chakra dharana. In Jonn Mumford, Psychosomatic Yoga. New York: Samuel Weiser, 1974, pp. 46-53. ___________. Concentration. In Jonn Mumford, Psychosomatic Yoga. New York: Samuel Weiser, 1974, pp. 30-36. Niranjanananda Saraswati, Swami. Dharana Darshan. Monger, Bihar, India: Bihar School of Yoga. “Dharana Darshan includes classic meditation practices derived from the Upanishads, the Tantras and other traditional yogic texts. The core of the book is Swami Niranjanananda¹s adaptation of the complex upanishadic akasha (space) dharanas for modern practitioners, including chidakasha, hridayakasha, daharakasha and vyoma panchaka dharanas, along with advanced stages of the classic ajapa japa and trataka practices. Also included is an introduction explaining the theory and purpose of concentration, psychic symbol, visualisation, and the obstacles commonly encountered by practitioners. This book is designed for those already familiar with the fundamentals of meditation and have a degree of mastery in the pratyahara (sensory withdrawal) practices.” Paramananda, Swami. Concentration and Meditation. 7th ed. Cohasset, Mass.: The Vedanta Center and La Crescenta, Calif.: Ananda Ashram, 1974. Contents: Concentration, Key to concentration, Power of concentration, Meditation, Aids to meditation, Superconscious vision, The groundwork of thought, Practical hints

5

Pasek, T. Cwiszenia relaksowo-koncentrujace jogi [Relaxation and concentration exercises of yoga]. Rekreacja fizyczna, 19073, 16(138). [In Polish.] ___________. Relaxation-concentration investigations and training according to the yoga model in Poland. In Collected Papers on Yoga. Lonavla, India: Kaivalyadhama, 1975, pp. 37-40. ___________, et al. Problems of the influence of relaxation-concentration exercises according to yoga on resistivity. Wych Fiz I Sport, 1971, 4:141. Rama, Swami. A few glimpses of concentration. In Swami Rama, Lectures on Yoga. 6th ed. Honesdale, Pa.: The Himalayan International Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy, 1979, pp. 107-118. Romanowski, W., ed. Teoria i Metodyka Cwiczen Relaksowo-Koncentrujacych [Theory and Praxis of Relaxation and Concentration]. Warsaw, 1975. [In Polish.] ___________, and T. Pasek. Tentative introduction of relaxation-concentration gymnastics according to the yoga system as supplementary exercises in physical education. Paper presented at conference of Med Facult Poznan Acad Med, Poznan, 1971. ___________. Experiment in introducing relaxation-concentration yoga exercises as supplementary exercises to the program of physical education. In Proceedings Poznan Acad Med, Poznan, 1971. Sabel, B. A. Transcendental Meditation and concentration ability. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1980, 50(3, part 1):799-802. Sadhu, Mouni. Concentration: A Guide to Mental Mastery. No. Hollywood, Calif.: Melvin Powers/Wilshire Book Co., 1959. “This book was written to bridge the gap between the many existing theoretical works on mental concentration and meditation, and the general application of the mind’s powers to everyday life. [The author] teaches concentration by showing the use and results of it . . . After a careful explanation of the role of concentration in a spiritual search and some helpful advice on proper approach, the author introduces exercises in concentration. He offers material from both Western and Eastern sources, relating the achievements of early Christian saints and Indian yogis to their mastery of mental powers.” Contents: Foreword and definitions, The method, The use of concentration, The role of concentration in a spiritual search, Who is qualified to study concentration?, Conditions for success, Advice to the student, Eastern methods of yoga (mind before heart), The Western tradition (heart before mind), Obstacles and aids, Inner attitude—the key to attainment, What is the mind?, Different aspects of consciousness, The psychology of success, Direct preparation for exercises, First series (elementary exercises), Second

6

series, Third series (advanced exercises), Fourth series, Fifth series (final exercises), On the threshold of meditation, Resurrection into a new consciousness Satyadharma Saraswa ti, Swami. From pratyahara to dharana. Yoga (Sivananda Math), Sep 1999, 10(5):36-42. Also in Yoga (Australia edition), Feb 1999. ___________. Antar mouna. Yoga (Sivananda Math), Feb 2005, pp. 7-15. “When you concentrate and try to unify the vagrant tendencies of your ind, sometimes you feel strain. Because of that strain, you get a headache or some other complaint. Therefore, while pratising concentration, you have to evolve a method by which there may be no strain . . .” Shah, J. T. Lack of concentration. In J. T. Shah, Therapeutic Yoga. Mumbai, India: Vakils, Feffer and Simons, 1999, pp. xviii, 10-11, 38-41, 52-61, 64-65, 98-99, 102-103. Sinha, Phulgenda. Concentration. In Phulgenda Sinha, Yoga: Meaning, Values and Practice. Bombay: Jaico Publishing Ho use, 1990, pp. 15-32. Sivananda, Swami. Concentration. In Swami Sivananda, Bliss Divine. Article available online: http://www.sivanandadlshq.org/teachings/concentration.htm. Sivananda Yoga Veda. Concentration. Yoga & Health, Oct 2003, pp. 3-5 Stokes, Mike. Part 7: Dharana: The circle. Yogitimes, Apr 2004, p. 20 Wood, Ernest. Concentration: A Practical Course. Chicago: The Theosophical Press, 1925. Contents: Success in life, The magic box, Aids to concentration, Chains of gold, Concentration in daily life, Control of the body and senses, The removal of intruding thoughts, Gymnastics of concentration, What meditation is, Methods of meditation, Mantric and symbolic meditation, Obstacles to meditation, Contemplation, Conclusion ___________. Concentration, an Approach to Meditation. Adyar, Madras, India: Theosophical Publishing, 1949. Yoga to improve performance in schools. New Kerala, 21 Jun 2004. “Yoga, says the Madhya Pradesh government, is the magic pill that will improve the dismal performance of students in its schools. “The state will introduce yoga in government-run schools in the new academic session to improve the concentration of students. “The percentage of high school students in Madhya Pradesh board this year was

7

dismally low, with over 70 percent of 660,794 students who took the examination failing. “Alarmed over the poor result, Minister of State for School Education Anup Mishra called a meeting of his officials to discuss the reasons for the poor results and find ways of tackling the problem. “Mishra and his officials reached the conclusion that lack of concentration among school students was the major reason for the poor percentage. “They felt only yoga could improve concentration among students, and decided to introduce yoga in schools. “‘Yoga would be made compulsory at all government schools from Class 5 to Class 12 but for the time being it will not be added to the school curricula,’ said an official of the education department while talking to IANS. “‘Later private schools would also be asked to introduce yoga,’ added the official. “But the stumbling block before the government at present is the lack of teachers trained in yoga. So the government intends to train teachers in yoga first. “‘The training of teachers will be complete by October or November this year. Then we can have at least one teacher in every government school,’ said the official.”

8