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Methods of Data Collection There are essentially two types: 1. Primary data – are those which are collected for the first time and are original in character 2. Secondary data – are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have been subjected to some statistical analysis
Collection of Primary Data… Primary data may be collected thru: 1. Observation Method 2. Survey Method 3. Thru Questionnaires/Schedules 4. Personal Interview
Primary Sources of Data:
Observation
Overview Introduction Meaning
Definition Why to observe ? Characteristics Types of observation Advantages and disadvantages Observation Tools And Recording Devices
Introduction The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioural science. In a way we all observe thing around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. It is also a process of recording the behavior patterns of people, objects, and occurrences, on a real time basis and in a 'natural setting‟.
Meaning • Observation means viewing or seeing. We go on observing some thing or other while we are awake. Most of such observations are just casual and have no specific purpose. • But observation as a method of data collection is different from such casual viewing.
Definition • Langley, P
OBSERVATION
involves looking and listening very
carefully. We all watch other people sometimes, but we don't usually watch them in order to discover particular information about their behavior. This is what observation in social science involves
• Gorman and Clayton define observation studies as those that
“involve the systematic recording of observable phenomena or behaviour in a natural setting”
Why to observe ? • Observation allows the researcher to study people in their 'natural setting' without their behaviour being influenced by the presence of a researcher. • Observational data usually consists of detailed information about particular groups or situations. This kind of data can 'fill out' and provide a deeper, richer, understanding than survey work which tends to produce less detailed information about a larger number of people. • Some methods only allow for the study of one individual at a time. Observation enables the research to study groups of people together, that is, it allows for the study of interaction between the of a group.
Characteristics of observation research Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics. 1. It is both a physical and a mental activity. The observation eye
„catches‟ many things which are sighted, but attention is focussed on data that are pertinent to the given study. 2. Observation is selective. A researcher does not observe anything
and everything, but select the range of things to be observed on the basis of the nature, scope and objectives of his study. 3. Observation is purposive and not casual. It is made for the
specific purpose of nothing things relevant to the study. 4. It captures the natural social context in which persons‟ behaviour occurs.
Types of observation Participant Observation Non-participant Observation Direct Observation Indirect Observation Controlled Observation
Uncontrolled Observation
• Participant Observation
: In this observation, the observer is a
part of the phenomenon or group which is observed and he acts as both an observer and a participant.
• Example, a study of tribal customs by an anthropologist by taking part in tribal activities like folk dance. The persons who are observed should not be aware of the researcher‟s purpose. Only then their behaviour will be „natural.‟
• Non - Participant Observation : In this method, the observer stands apart and does not participate in the phenomenon observed. Naturally, there is no emotional involvement on the part of the observer. This method calls for skill in recording observations in an unnoticed manner. • It may involve use of recording devices to capture the details of how people
talk, behave and interact.
• Direct Observation : This means observation of an event personally by the observer when it takes place. This method is flexible and allows the
observer to see and record subtle aspects of events and behaviour as they occur. He is also free to shift places, change the focus of the observation. Example: Observer is physically present to monitor
• Indirect Observation : This does not involve the physical presence of the observer, and the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic devices. Example : Recording customer and employee movements by a special motion picture camera mounted in a department of large store.
• Controlled Observation
:
Controlled observation is carried out
either in the laboratory or in the field. It is typified by clear and explicit decisions on what, how, and when to observe. It is primarily used for inferring causality, and testing casual hypothesis.
• Uncontrolled Observation : This does not involve structured observation. It is primarily used for descriptive research. Participant observation is a typically uncontrolled one.
Planning observation The use of observation method require proper planning. The researcher should carefully examine the relevance of observation
method to the data need of selected study. He must identify the specific investigative questions which call for use of observation method. These determine the data to be collected.
He must decide the observation content, viz., specific conditions, events and activities that have to be observed for the required data. For each variable chosen, the operational definition should be specified.
cont….
cont…. The observation setting, the subjects to be observed, the timing and mode of observation, recording procedure, recording instruments to be used, and other details of the task should be determined. Observation should be selected and trained. The persons to be selected must have sufficient concentration powers, strong memory power and unobtrusive nature. Selected persons should be imparted both theoretical and practical training
Advantages of observation method •
They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of intended or preferred behavior.
•
There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced.
•
Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.
•
If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration, observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.
Disadvantages of observation method •
The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
•
Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.
•
In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or consent.
Observation tools and recording devices Observation guides Recording sheets or checklist Schedule
Field observation log Mechanical devices
• Observation guides : These are printed forms that provide space for recording observations. They are particularly useful when several observers are involved or when you wish to obtain
comparable information from several sites/ observation points or observations of many people. The more structured the guide, the easier it will be to tally the results.
• Recording sheets or checklist : These forms are used to record observations as in YES/NO option (present – not present) or on a rating scale to indicate extent or quality of something. Checklists are used when there are specific, observable items, actions or attributes to be observed.
•
Schedule
: The data requirements are identified by analyzing the core of the
problem, the objectives of the study, the investigative questions, hypothesis and the operational definition of concepts and out of the data requirements, items of data to be collected through observation are identified. A schedule is then constructed, covering those items of data.
•
Field observation log : This may take the form of a diary or cards. Each item of
observation is recorded under appropriate subheading. At the time of observation , rough noting may be made, and at the end of the day, fully log may be made. The card system is flexible and facilitates
arrangement and re-arrangement of items in any desired order.
• Mechanical devices : These may include cameras, tape recorders, videotape and electronic devices. Still, motion , sound, colour and time lapse cameras give a permanent record of events. Microscopic and telescopic lens may be used in cameras. Eye cameras are common in advertising and package research. The camera makes a
record that can be analyzed later and may be used to illustrate your evaluation report.
Conclusion Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator„s own direct observation without asking from the respondent. For instance, in a study relating to consumer behavior, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent, may himself look at the watch. The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, as such is relatively less
demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in studies (i.e. respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.
SURVEY Information Obtained by Questioning Respondents
Classification of Survey Methods Survey Methods
Telephone
Personal
Electronic
Mail/Fax Interview
In-Home Traditional Telephone
Mail
E-Mail Mall Intercept
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Mail
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing
Internet
The Survey Method • The survey method of obtaining information is based on questioning respondents. • Perhaps the biggest issue researchers face is how to motivate respondents to candidly answer their questions. • Questions regarding behavior, intentions, attitudes, awareness, motivations, and demographic and lifestyle characteristics all lend themselves to survey research.
Advantages of Survey Research • Ease: Questionnaires are relatively easy to ister. • Reliability: Using fixed-response (multiple-choice) questions reduces variability in the results that may be caused by differences in interviewers and enhances reliability of the responses. • Simplicity: It also simplifies coding, analysis, and interpretation of data.
Disadvantages of Survey Research • Respondents may be unable or unwilling to provide the desired information. • Structured data collection involving a questionnaire with fixed-response choices may result in loss of validity for certain types of data, such as beliefs and feelings.
• Properly wording questions is not easy.
Classification of Survey Methods Survey Methods
Telephone
Personal
Electronic
Mail/Fax Interview
In-Home Traditional Telephone
Mail
E-Mail Mall Intercept
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Mail
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing
Internet
Traditional Telephone Interviews • Involve phoning a sample of respondents and asking them a series of questions. • The interviewer uses a paper questionnaire and records the responses with a pencil. • Telephone interviews are generally conducted from centrally located research facilities.
• Field service supervisors can closely monitor the telephone conversations. • Data quality is also enhanced with on-the-spot review of completed questionnaires.
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing • Uses a computerized questionnaire istered to respondents over the telephone. • The interviewer sits in front of a computer screen and wears a mini-headset. • Upon command, the computer dials the telephone number to be called. • When is made, the interviewer reads the questions posed on the CRT screen and records the respondent's answers directly into the computer.
• Interim and update reports can be compiled instantaneously, as the data are being collected. • CATI software has built-in logic, which also enhances data accuracy. • The program will personalize questions and control for logically incorrect answers, such as percentage answers that do not add up to 100 percent. • The software has built-in branching logic, which will skip questions that are not applicable or will probe for more detail when warranted.
Classification of Survey Methods Survey Methods
Telephone
Personal
Electronic
Mail/Fax Interview
In-Home Traditional Telephone
Mail
E-Mail Mall Intercept
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Mail
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing
Internet
Personal In-Home Interviews • Respondents are interviewed face-to-face in their homes. • The interviewer's task is to the respondents, ask the questions, and record the responses. • In recent years, the use of personal in-home interviews has declined.
Mall-Intercept Personal Interviews • Respondents are intercepted in shopping in malls. • The process involves stopping the shoppers, screening them for appropriateness, and either istering the survey on the spot or inviting them to a research facility located in the mall to complete the interview. • While not representative of the population in general, shopping mall customers do constitute a major share of the market for many products.
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI) • The respondent sits in front of a computer terminal and answers a questionnaire on the screen by using the keyboard or a mouse.
• Help screens and courteous error messages are provided. • The colorful screens and on- and off-screen stimuli add to the respondent's interest and involvement in the task.
• This method has been classified as a personal interview technique since an interviewer is usually present to serve as a host and to guide the respondent as needed. • This approach is used in shopping malls, preceded by the intercept and screening process described earlier. • It is also used to conduct business-to-business research at trade shows or conventions.
Figure 7.4 Classification of Survey Methods Survey Methods
Telephone
Personal
Electronic
Mail/Fax Interview
In-Home Traditional Telephone
Mail
E-Mail Mall Intercept
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Mail
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing
Internet
Mail Interviews • A typical mail interview package consists of the outgoing envelope, cover letter, questionnaire, postage-paid return envelope, and possibly an incentive. • Those individuals motivated to do so complete and return the questionnaire through the mail. • There is no verbal interaction between the researcher and the respondent.
• Individuals are selected for cold surveys through mailing lists the client maintains internally or has purchased commercially. • The type of envelope, the cover letter, the length of the questionnaire, and the incentive (if one is offered) all affect response rates.
TABLE 7.2 Some Decisions Related to the Mail Interview Package __________________________________________________
Outgoing Envelope Outgoing Envelope: size, color, return address Postage Method of Addressing Cover Letter Sponsorship
Signature
Personalization
Postscript
Type of appeal Quetionnaire Length
Layout
Content
Color
Size
Format
Reproduction
Respondent anonymity
Return Envelope Type of envelope Postage Incentives Monetary vs. nonmonetary Prepaid vs. promised amount
Mail s • Mail s consist of a large and nationally representative sample of individuals who have agreed to participate in periodic survey research. • Incentives in the form of cash or gifts are often offered to the individuals who agree to participate.
• Once the individuals have been itted to the , detailed demographic and lifestyle data are collected on each household. • The researcher uses this information to select targeted mailing lists within the based on client needs.
Classification of Survey Methods Survey Methods
Telephone
Personal
Electronic
Mail/Fax Interview
In-Home Traditional Telephone
Mail
E-Mail Mall Intercept
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Mail
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing
Internet
Email Surveys • If the addresses are known, the survey can simply be mailed electronically to respondents included in the sample. • Respondents key in their answers and send an email reply. • Typically, a computer program is used to prepare the questionnaire and email address list, and to prepare the data for analysis.
• Respondent anonymity is difficult to maintain because a reply to an email message includes the sender’s address. • Email surveys are especially suited to projects where the email lists are readily available, such as surveys of employees, institutional buyers, and consumers who frequently the organization via email (e.g., frequent fliers of an airline).
Internet Surveys • An Internet survey is a questionnaire posted on a Web site that is self istered by the respondent. • The questions are displayed on the screen and the respondents provide answers by clicking an icon, keying in an answer, or highlighting a phrase.
• Web survey systems are available for constructing and posting Internet surveys.
• The researcher can obtain at any time survey completion statistics, descriptive statistics of the responses, and graphical display of the data. • As compared to email surveys, Internet surveys offer more flexibility, greater interactivity, personalization, automatic skip patterns and visual appeal. • Several Web sites, such as WebSurveyor (www.websurveyor.com), allow s to design surveys online without ing the software.
TABLE 7.1 Relative Advantages of Different Survey Methods _______________________________________________________________________________________________
METHOD
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Telephone
Fast High sample control Good control of field force Good response rate Moderate cost
No use of physical stimuli Limited to simple questions Quantity of data is low
In-Home
Complex questions can be asked Good for physical stimuli Very good sample control High quantity of data Very good response rate
Low control of field force High social desirability Potential for interviewer bias Most expensive
Mall-Intercept
Complex questions can be asked High social desirability Very good for physical stimuli Potential for interviewer bias Very good control of environment Quantity of data is moderate Very good response rate High cost ________________________________________________________________________________
TABLE 7.1 (Cont.) Relative Advantages of Different Survey Methods ________________________________________________________________________________ METHOD ADVANATAGES DISADVANTAGES CAPI
Complex questions can be asked Very good for physical stimuli Very good control of environment Very good response rate Low potential for interviewer bias
High social desirability Quantity of data is moderate High cost
Mail
No field force problems No interviewer bias Moderate/High quantity of data Social desirability is low Low/moderate cost
Limited to simple questions Low sample control for cold mail No control of environment Low response rate for cold mail Low speed
Electronic
No field force problems Limited to simple questions No interviewer bias Low sample control Low cost No control of environment Social desirability is low Low response rate High speed Moderate quantity of data ________________________________________________________________________________
Lecture plan Methods of Obtaining Quantitative Data in Descriptive Research
Survey Methods: • Advantages and Disadvantages • Classification of survey methods • Criteria for selecting a survey method • Improving survey response rate
Observation Methods: • Classification of Observation Methods • Advantages and Disadvantages A comparison between Survey and Observation Methods
Criteria for Selecting a Survey Method • When evaluating the various survey methods within the context of a specific research project, one has to consider the salient factors relevant to data collection. • Often, certain factors dominate, leading to a particular survey method as the natural choice. • If no method is clearly superior, the choice must be based on an overall consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods. • Often, in large projects these methods are combined to enhance the quality of data in a cost-effective manner.
Lecture plan Methods of Obtaining Quantitative Data in Descriptive Research
Survey Methods: • Advantages and Disadvantages • Classification of survey methods • Criteria for selecting a survey method • Improving survey response rate
Observation Methods: • Classification of Observation Methods • Advantages and Disadvantages A comparison between Survey and Observation Methods
Improving Response Rates
Methods of Improving Response Rates
Prior Notification
Incentives
Monetary
Prepaid
Follow-up
Nonmonetary
Promised
Other Facilitators
Improving Survey Response Rates • Prior notification consists of sending a letter or email, or making a telephone call to potential respondents, thereby notifying them of the imminent mail, telephone, personal, or electronic survey. • Offering monetary as well as nonmonetary incentives to potential respondents can increase response rates. The prepaid incentive is included with the survey or questionnaire. The promised incentive is sent to only those respondents who complete the survey. Prepaid incentives have been shown to increase response rates to a greater extent than promised incentives.
• Follow-up, or ing the nonrespondents periodically after the initial , is particularly effective in decreasing refusals in mail surveys. Follow-up can also be done by telephone, e-mail, or personal . • Personalization, or sending letters addressed to specific individuals, is effective in increasing response rates.
Lecture plan Methods of Obtaining Quantitative Data in Descriptive Research
Survey Methods: • Advantages and Disadvantages • Classification of survey methods • Criteria for selecting a survey method • Improving survey response rate
Observation Methods:
• Classification of Observation Methods (Personal and Mechanical) • Advantages and Disadvantages
A comparison between Survey and Observation Methods
Observation Methods Personal Observation • A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs. • The observer does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon being observed but merely records what takes place. • For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a department store.
Observation Methods Mechanical Observation Do not require respondents' direct participation. – the AC Nielsen audimeter – turnstiles that record the number of people entering or leaving a building. – On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video) – Optical scanners in supermarkets Do require respondent involvement. – eye-tracking monitors, pupilometers – psychogalvanometers – voice pitch analyzers – devices measuring response latency
Relative Advantages of Observation • They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of intended or preferred behavior. • There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced. • Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.
• If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration, observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.
Relative Disadvantages of Observation • The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined, since little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences. • Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.
• Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive, and it is difficult to observe certain forms of behavior. • In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or consent. • It is best to view observation as a complement to survey methods, rather than as being in competition with them.
TABLE 7.3 Relative Advantages of Observation Methods METHOD
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Personal Observation
Most flexible Highly suitable in natural settings
High observation bias High analysis bias
Mechanical observation
Low observation bias Low to medium analysis bias
Can be intrusive Not always suitable in natural settings
Interview Method The Interview Method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in of oral – verbal responses
Personal Interview PI Method requires the interviewer asking questions in a face-to-face with the person Collecting information thru PI is structured – the use of a set of predetermined questions and highly standardized techniques of recording
Personal Interview… Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure, asking questions in a form and order prescribed In unstructured interviews – there is a flexibility of approach to questioning Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording information
Other Interview Techniques Focused Interview – to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its effects The Interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence of questions to elicit/explore reasons and motives. The main task is to confine the respondent to a discussion of issues
Other Interview Techniques… Clinical Interview – is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of an individual’s life experience. Eliciting information is left to the interviewer’s discretion Non-Directive Interview – the interviewer's function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk about the topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning. The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the respondent’s feelings and beliefs
Advantages 1. 2.
3. 4.
5. 6.
More information and in greater depth can be obtained Resistance may be overcome by a skilled interviewer Greater flexibility – an opportunity to restructure questions Observation method can also be applied to recording verbal answers Personal information can be obtained Possibility of spontaneous responses and thus more honest responses
Disadvantages 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
Expensive method Interviewer bias Respondent bias Time consuming Under the interview method the organization required for selecting, training, and supervising the field staff is complex with formidable problems Establishing rapport to facilitate free and frank responses is very difficult
Survey using questionnaires (Data Collection Thru Questionnaires) Popular in major studies Briefly – a Questionnaire is sent (by post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the Questionnaire A Questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in a definite order on a form The Questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space provided
Merits of Questionnaire Method 1. Low cost – even when the universe is large and is widespread 2. Free from interviewer bias 3. Respondents have adequate time to think thru their answers 4. Respondents who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently 5. Large samples can be used
Demerits 1. Low rate of return 2. Respondents need to be educated and cooperative 3. Inbuilt inflexibility 4. Possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of items 5. This method is slow
Features of a Questionnaire Questionnaire is the heart of a survey – needs to be carefully constructed Need to understand the features of the Questionnaire – its general form, question sequence and question formulation and the wording of the questions
1. General Form • May be either structured or unstructured • Structured Questionnaires – are those in which there are definite, concrete, predetermined questions • The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order to all respondents • The form of the questions may be either closed (yes or no) or open (inviting free responses
General Form… • Structured Questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions in which responses are limited to the stated alternatives • Thus, a highly structured Questionnaire is one in which all the questions and answers are specified and comments in the respondents’ own words are held to the minimum • Unstructured Questionnaire – when the above characteristics are absent, it is known as a unstructured Questionnaire • The Interviewer is provided with a general guideline on the type of information to be obtained
2. Question Sequence • Proper sequence is needed to elicit valid responses • Sequence must be clear – that is, the relation of one question to the next • To establish rapport and to gain cooperation from the respondent – difficult questions, personal questions etc should preferably come at the appropriate time rather than at the begining
3. Question Formulation & Wording • Phrasing the questions must be clear and unambiguous • Questions should be impartial and unbiased • Should be easily understood • Should be simple (one idea at a time) • Should be concrete • Form of questions may be multiple choice or open-ended
Survey using Schedules (Data Collection Thru Schedules) Very similar to the Questionnaire method The main difference is that a schedule is filled by the enumerator who is specially appointed for the purpose Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks them the questions from the Performa in the order listed, and records the responses in the space provided Enumerators must be trained in istering the schedule
Collection of Secondary Data Published data are available in: 1. Publications of State/Central govts 2. Publications of International Bodies 3. Technical and Trade Journals 4. Books, Magazines and Newspapers 5. Reports/Publications of various organizations (banks, stock exchanges, business houses, etc) 6. Reports – by scholars, Universities, etc 7. Public records, Historical Documents, etc
Secondary Data must possess the following characteristics: Reliability of data – may be tested by checking: Who collected the data? What were the sources of the data? Was the data collected properly? Suitability of data – data that are suitable for one enquiry may not be necessarily suitable in another enquiry Therefore, the researcher must scrutinize the definition of various and units of collection. Also, the objectives, scope and nature of the original enquiry must be studied Adequacy of data – the data will be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry
Collection of Primary Data… Primary data may be collected thru: 1. Observation Method 2. Survey Method 3. Thru Questionnaires/Schedules 4. Personal Interview
Primary Sources of Data:
Observation
Overview Introduction Meaning
Definition Why to observe ? Characteristics Types of observation Advantages and disadvantages Observation Tools And Recording Devices
Introduction The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioural science. In a way we all observe thing around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. It is also a process of recording the behavior patterns of people, objects, and occurrences, on a real time basis and in a 'natural setting‟.
Meaning • Observation means viewing or seeing. We go on observing some thing or other while we are awake. Most of such observations are just casual and have no specific purpose. • But observation as a method of data collection is different from such casual viewing.
Definition • Langley, P
OBSERVATION
involves looking and listening very
carefully. We all watch other people sometimes, but we don't usually watch them in order to discover particular information about their behavior. This is what observation in social science involves
• Gorman and Clayton define observation studies as those that
“involve the systematic recording of observable phenomena or behaviour in a natural setting”
Why to observe ? • Observation allows the researcher to study people in their 'natural setting' without their behaviour being influenced by the presence of a researcher. • Observational data usually consists of detailed information about particular groups or situations. This kind of data can 'fill out' and provide a deeper, richer, understanding than survey work which tends to produce less detailed information about a larger number of people. • Some methods only allow for the study of one individual at a time. Observation enables the research to study groups of people together, that is, it allows for the study of interaction between the of a group.
Characteristics of observation research Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics. 1. It is both a physical and a mental activity. The observation eye
„catches‟ many things which are sighted, but attention is focussed on data that are pertinent to the given study. 2. Observation is selective. A researcher does not observe anything
and everything, but select the range of things to be observed on the basis of the nature, scope and objectives of his study. 3. Observation is purposive and not casual. It is made for the
specific purpose of nothing things relevant to the study. 4. It captures the natural social context in which persons‟ behaviour occurs.
Types of observation Participant Observation Non-participant Observation Direct Observation Indirect Observation Controlled Observation
Uncontrolled Observation
• Participant Observation
: In this observation, the observer is a
part of the phenomenon or group which is observed and he acts as both an observer and a participant.
• Example, a study of tribal customs by an anthropologist by taking part in tribal activities like folk dance. The persons who are observed should not be aware of the researcher‟s purpose. Only then their behaviour will be „natural.‟
• Non - Participant Observation : In this method, the observer stands apart and does not participate in the phenomenon observed. Naturally, there is no emotional involvement on the part of the observer. This method calls for skill in recording observations in an unnoticed manner. • It may involve use of recording devices to capture the details of how people
talk, behave and interact.
• Direct Observation : This means observation of an event personally by the observer when it takes place. This method is flexible and allows the
observer to see and record subtle aspects of events and behaviour as they occur. He is also free to shift places, change the focus of the observation. Example: Observer is physically present to monitor
• Indirect Observation : This does not involve the physical presence of the observer, and the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic devices. Example : Recording customer and employee movements by a special motion picture camera mounted in a department of large store.
• Controlled Observation
:
Controlled observation is carried out
either in the laboratory or in the field. It is typified by clear and explicit decisions on what, how, and when to observe. It is primarily used for inferring causality, and testing casual hypothesis.
• Uncontrolled Observation : This does not involve structured observation. It is primarily used for descriptive research. Participant observation is a typically uncontrolled one.
Planning observation The use of observation method require proper planning. The researcher should carefully examine the relevance of observation
method to the data need of selected study. He must identify the specific investigative questions which call for use of observation method. These determine the data to be collected.
He must decide the observation content, viz., specific conditions, events and activities that have to be observed for the required data. For each variable chosen, the operational definition should be specified.
cont….
cont…. The observation setting, the subjects to be observed, the timing and mode of observation, recording procedure, recording instruments to be used, and other details of the task should be determined. Observation should be selected and trained. The persons to be selected must have sufficient concentration powers, strong memory power and unobtrusive nature. Selected persons should be imparted both theoretical and practical training
Advantages of observation method •
They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of intended or preferred behavior.
•
There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced.
•
Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.
•
If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration, observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.
Disadvantages of observation method •
The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
•
Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.
•
In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or consent.
Observation tools and recording devices Observation guides Recording sheets or checklist Schedule
Field observation log Mechanical devices
• Observation guides : These are printed forms that provide space for recording observations. They are particularly useful when several observers are involved or when you wish to obtain
comparable information from several sites/ observation points or observations of many people. The more structured the guide, the easier it will be to tally the results.
• Recording sheets or checklist : These forms are used to record observations as in YES/NO option (present – not present) or on a rating scale to indicate extent or quality of something. Checklists are used when there are specific, observable items, actions or attributes to be observed.
•
Schedule
: The data requirements are identified by analyzing the core of the
problem, the objectives of the study, the investigative questions, hypothesis and the operational definition of concepts and out of the data requirements, items of data to be collected through observation are identified. A schedule is then constructed, covering those items of data.
•
Field observation log : This may take the form of a diary or cards. Each item of
observation is recorded under appropriate subheading. At the time of observation , rough noting may be made, and at the end of the day, fully log may be made. The card system is flexible and facilitates
arrangement and re-arrangement of items in any desired order.
• Mechanical devices : These may include cameras, tape recorders, videotape and electronic devices. Still, motion , sound, colour and time lapse cameras give a permanent record of events. Microscopic and telescopic lens may be used in cameras. Eye cameras are common in advertising and package research. The camera makes a
record that can be analyzed later and may be used to illustrate your evaluation report.
Conclusion Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator„s own direct observation without asking from the respondent. For instance, in a study relating to consumer behavior, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent, may himself look at the watch. The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, as such is relatively less
demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in studies (i.e. respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.
SURVEY Information Obtained by Questioning Respondents
Classification of Survey Methods Survey Methods
Telephone
Personal
Electronic
Mail/Fax Interview
In-Home Traditional Telephone
E-Mail Mall Intercept
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing
Internet
The Survey Method • The survey method of obtaining information is based on questioning respondents. • Perhaps the biggest issue researchers face is how to motivate respondents to candidly answer their questions. • Questions regarding behavior, intentions, attitudes, awareness, motivations, and demographic and lifestyle characteristics all lend themselves to survey research.
Advantages of Survey Research • Ease: Questionnaires are relatively easy to ister. • Reliability: Using fixed-response (multiple-choice) questions reduces variability in the results that may be caused by differences in interviewers and enhances reliability of the responses. • Simplicity: It also simplifies coding, analysis, and interpretation of data.
Disadvantages of Survey Research • Respondents may be unable or unwilling to provide the desired information. • Structured data collection involving a questionnaire with fixed-response choices may result in loss of validity for certain types of data, such as beliefs and feelings.
• Properly wording questions is not easy.
Classification of Survey Methods Survey Methods
Telephone
Personal
Electronic
Mail/Fax Interview
In-Home Traditional Telephone
E-Mail Mall Intercept
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing
Internet
Traditional Telephone Interviews • Involve phoning a sample of respondents and asking them a series of questions. • The interviewer uses a paper questionnaire and records the responses with a pencil. • Telephone interviews are generally conducted from centrally located research facilities.
• Field service supervisors can closely monitor the telephone conversations. • Data quality is also enhanced with on-the-spot review of completed questionnaires.
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing • Uses a computerized questionnaire istered to respondents over the telephone. • The interviewer sits in front of a computer screen and wears a mini-headset. • Upon command, the computer dials the telephone number to be called. • When is made, the interviewer reads the questions posed on the CRT screen and records the respondent's answers directly into the computer.
• Interim and update reports can be compiled instantaneously, as the data are being collected. • CATI software has built-in logic, which also enhances data accuracy. • The program will personalize questions and control for logically incorrect answers, such as percentage answers that do not add up to 100 percent. • The software has built-in branching logic, which will skip questions that are not applicable or will probe for more detail when warranted.
Classification of Survey Methods Survey Methods
Telephone
Personal
Electronic
Mail/Fax Interview
In-Home Traditional Telephone
E-Mail Mall Intercept
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing
Internet
Personal In-Home Interviews • Respondents are interviewed face-to-face in their homes. • The interviewer's task is to the respondents, ask the questions, and record the responses. • In recent years, the use of personal in-home interviews has declined.
Mall-Intercept Personal Interviews • Respondents are intercepted in shopping in malls. • The process involves stopping the shoppers, screening them for appropriateness, and either istering the survey on the spot or inviting them to a research facility located in the mall to complete the interview. • While not representative of the population in general, shopping mall customers do constitute a major share of the market for many products.
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI) • The respondent sits in front of a computer terminal and answers a questionnaire on the screen by using the keyboard or a mouse.
• Help screens and courteous error messages are provided. • The colorful screens and on- and off-screen stimuli add to the respondent's interest and involvement in the task.
• This method has been classified as a personal interview technique since an interviewer is usually present to serve as a host and to guide the respondent as needed. • This approach is used in shopping malls, preceded by the intercept and screening process described earlier. • It is also used to conduct business-to-business research at trade shows or conventions.
Figure 7.4 Classification of Survey Methods Survey Methods
Telephone
Personal
Electronic
Mail/Fax Interview
In-Home Traditional Telephone
E-Mail Mall Intercept
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing
Internet
Mail Interviews • A typical mail interview package consists of the outgoing envelope, cover letter, questionnaire, postage-paid return envelope, and possibly an incentive. • Those individuals motivated to do so complete and return the questionnaire through the mail. • There is no verbal interaction between the researcher and the respondent.
• Individuals are selected for cold surveys through mailing lists the client maintains internally or has purchased commercially. • The type of envelope, the cover letter, the length of the questionnaire, and the incentive (if one is offered) all affect response rates.
TABLE 7.2 Some Decisions Related to the Mail Interview Package __________________________________________________
Outgoing Envelope Outgoing Envelope: size, color, return address Postage Method of Addressing Cover Letter Sponsorship
Signature
Personalization
Postscript
Type of appeal Quetionnaire Length
Layout
Content
Color
Size
Format
Reproduction
Respondent anonymity
Return Envelope Type of envelope Postage Incentives Monetary vs. nonmonetary Prepaid vs. promised amount
Mail s • Mail s consist of a large and nationally representative sample of individuals who have agreed to participate in periodic survey research. • Incentives in the form of cash or gifts are often offered to the individuals who agree to participate.
• Once the individuals have been itted to the , detailed demographic and lifestyle data are collected on each household. • The researcher uses this information to select targeted mailing lists within the based on client needs.
Classification of Survey Methods Survey Methods
Telephone
Personal
Electronic
Mail/Fax Interview
In-Home Traditional Telephone
E-Mail Mall Intercept
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing
Internet
Email Surveys • If the addresses are known, the survey can simply be mailed electronically to respondents included in the sample. • Respondents key in their answers and send an email reply. • Typically, a computer program is used to prepare the questionnaire and email address list, and to prepare the data for analysis.
• Respondent anonymity is difficult to maintain because a reply to an email message includes the sender’s address. • Email surveys are especially suited to projects where the email lists are readily available, such as surveys of employees, institutional buyers, and consumers who frequently the organization via email (e.g., frequent fliers of an airline).
Internet Surveys • An Internet survey is a questionnaire posted on a Web site that is self istered by the respondent. • The questions are displayed on the screen and the respondents provide answers by clicking an icon, keying in an answer, or highlighting a phrase.
• Web survey systems are available for constructing and posting Internet surveys.
• The researcher can obtain at any time survey completion statistics, descriptive statistics of the responses, and graphical display of the data. • As compared to email surveys, Internet surveys offer more flexibility, greater interactivity, personalization, automatic skip patterns and visual appeal. • Several Web sites, such as WebSurveyor (www.websurveyor.com), allow s to design surveys online without ing the software.
TABLE 7.1 Relative Advantages of Different Survey Methods _______________________________________________________________________________________________
METHOD
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Telephone
Fast High sample control Good control of field force Good response rate Moderate cost
No use of physical stimuli Limited to simple questions Quantity of data is low
In-Home
Complex questions can be asked Good for physical stimuli Very good sample control High quantity of data Very good response rate
Low control of field force High social desirability Potential for interviewer bias Most expensive
Mall-Intercept
Complex questions can be asked High social desirability Very good for physical stimuli Potential for interviewer bias Very good control of environment Quantity of data is moderate Very good response rate High cost ________________________________________________________________________________
TABLE 7.1 (Cont.) Relative Advantages of Different Survey Methods ________________________________________________________________________________ METHOD ADVANATAGES DISADVANTAGES CAPI
Complex questions can be asked Very good for physical stimuli Very good control of environment Very good response rate Low potential for interviewer bias
High social desirability Quantity of data is moderate High cost
No field force problems No interviewer bias Moderate/High quantity of data Social desirability is low Low/moderate cost
Limited to simple questions Low sample control for cold mail No control of environment Low response rate for cold mail Low speed
Electronic
No field force problems Limited to simple questions No interviewer bias Low sample control Low cost No control of environment Social desirability is low Low response rate High speed Moderate quantity of data ________________________________________________________________________________
Lecture plan Methods of Obtaining Quantitative Data in Descriptive Research
Survey Methods: • Advantages and Disadvantages • Classification of survey methods • Criteria for selecting a survey method • Improving survey response rate
Observation Methods: • Classification of Observation Methods • Advantages and Disadvantages A comparison between Survey and Observation Methods
Criteria for Selecting a Survey Method • When evaluating the various survey methods within the context of a specific research project, one has to consider the salient factors relevant to data collection. • Often, certain factors dominate, leading to a particular survey method as the natural choice. • If no method is clearly superior, the choice must be based on an overall consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods. • Often, in large projects these methods are combined to enhance the quality of data in a cost-effective manner.
Lecture plan Methods of Obtaining Quantitative Data in Descriptive Research
Survey Methods: • Advantages and Disadvantages • Classification of survey methods • Criteria for selecting a survey method • Improving survey response rate
Observation Methods: • Classification of Observation Methods • Advantages and Disadvantages A comparison between Survey and Observation Methods
Improving Response Rates
Methods of Improving Response Rates
Prior Notification
Incentives
Monetary
Prepaid
Follow-up
Nonmonetary
Promised
Other Facilitators
Improving Survey Response Rates • Prior notification consists of sending a letter or email, or making a telephone call to potential respondents, thereby notifying them of the imminent mail, telephone, personal, or electronic survey. • Offering monetary as well as nonmonetary incentives to potential respondents can increase response rates. The prepaid incentive is included with the survey or questionnaire. The promised incentive is sent to only those respondents who complete the survey. Prepaid incentives have been shown to increase response rates to a greater extent than promised incentives.
• Follow-up, or ing the nonrespondents periodically after the initial , is particularly effective in decreasing refusals in mail surveys. Follow-up can also be done by telephone, e-mail, or personal . • Personalization, or sending letters addressed to specific individuals, is effective in increasing response rates.
Lecture plan Methods of Obtaining Quantitative Data in Descriptive Research
Survey Methods: • Advantages and Disadvantages • Classification of survey methods • Criteria for selecting a survey method • Improving survey response rate
Observation Methods:
• Classification of Observation Methods (Personal and Mechanical) • Advantages and Disadvantages
A comparison between Survey and Observation Methods
Observation Methods Personal Observation • A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs. • The observer does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon being observed but merely records what takes place. • For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a department store.
Observation Methods Mechanical Observation Do not require respondents' direct participation. – the AC Nielsen audimeter – turnstiles that record the number of people entering or leaving a building. – On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video) – Optical scanners in supermarkets Do require respondent involvement. – eye-tracking monitors, pupilometers – psychogalvanometers – voice pitch analyzers – devices measuring response latency
Relative Advantages of Observation • They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of intended or preferred behavior. • There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced. • Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.
• If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration, observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.
Relative Disadvantages of Observation • The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined, since little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences. • Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.
• Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive, and it is difficult to observe certain forms of behavior. • In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or consent. • It is best to view observation as a complement to survey methods, rather than as being in competition with them.
TABLE 7.3 Relative Advantages of Observation Methods METHOD
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Personal Observation
Most flexible Highly suitable in natural settings
High observation bias High analysis bias
Mechanical observation
Low observation bias Low to medium analysis bias
Can be intrusive Not always suitable in natural settings
Interview Method The Interview Method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in of oral – verbal responses
Personal Interview PI Method requires the interviewer asking questions in a face-to-face with the person Collecting information thru PI is structured – the use of a set of predetermined questions and highly standardized techniques of recording
Personal Interview… Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure, asking questions in a form and order prescribed In unstructured interviews – there is a flexibility of approach to questioning Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording information
Other Interview Techniques Focused Interview – to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its effects The Interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence of questions to elicit/explore reasons and motives. The main task is to confine the respondent to a discussion of issues
Other Interview Techniques… Clinical Interview – is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of an individual’s life experience. Eliciting information is left to the interviewer’s discretion Non-Directive Interview – the interviewer's function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk about the topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning. The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the respondent’s feelings and beliefs
Advantages 1. 2.
3. 4.
5. 6.
More information and in greater depth can be obtained Resistance may be overcome by a skilled interviewer Greater flexibility – an opportunity to restructure questions Observation method can also be applied to recording verbal answers Personal information can be obtained Possibility of spontaneous responses and thus more honest responses
Disadvantages 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
Expensive method Interviewer bias Respondent bias Time consuming Under the interview method the organization required for selecting, training, and supervising the field staff is complex with formidable problems Establishing rapport to facilitate free and frank responses is very difficult
Survey using questionnaires (Data Collection Thru Questionnaires) Popular in major studies Briefly – a Questionnaire is sent (by post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the Questionnaire A Questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in a definite order on a form The Questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space provided
Merits of Questionnaire Method 1. Low cost – even when the universe is large and is widespread 2. Free from interviewer bias 3. Respondents have adequate time to think thru their answers 4. Respondents who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently 5. Large samples can be used
Demerits 1. Low rate of return 2. Respondents need to be educated and cooperative 3. Inbuilt inflexibility 4. Possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of items 5. This method is slow
Features of a Questionnaire Questionnaire is the heart of a survey – needs to be carefully constructed Need to understand the features of the Questionnaire – its general form, question sequence and question formulation and the wording of the questions
1. General Form • May be either structured or unstructured • Structured Questionnaires – are those in which there are definite, concrete, predetermined questions • The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order to all respondents • The form of the questions may be either closed (yes or no) or open (inviting free responses
General Form… • Structured Questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions in which responses are limited to the stated alternatives • Thus, a highly structured Questionnaire is one in which all the questions and answers are specified and comments in the respondents’ own words are held to the minimum • Unstructured Questionnaire – when the above characteristics are absent, it is known as a unstructured Questionnaire • The Interviewer is provided with a general guideline on the type of information to be obtained
2. Question Sequence • Proper sequence is needed to elicit valid responses • Sequence must be clear – that is, the relation of one question to the next • To establish rapport and to gain cooperation from the respondent – difficult questions, personal questions etc should preferably come at the appropriate time rather than at the begining
3. Question Formulation & Wording • Phrasing the questions must be clear and unambiguous • Questions should be impartial and unbiased • Should be easily understood • Should be simple (one idea at a time) • Should be concrete • Form of questions may be multiple choice or open-ended
Survey using Schedules (Data Collection Thru Schedules) Very similar to the Questionnaire method The main difference is that a schedule is filled by the enumerator who is specially appointed for the purpose Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks them the questions from the Performa in the order listed, and records the responses in the space provided Enumerators must be trained in istering the schedule
Collection of Secondary Data Published data are available in: 1. Publications of State/Central govts 2. Publications of International Bodies 3. Technical and Trade Journals 4. Books, Magazines and Newspapers 5. Reports/Publications of various organizations (banks, stock exchanges, business houses, etc) 6. Reports – by scholars, Universities, etc 7. Public records, Historical Documents, etc
Secondary Data must possess the following characteristics: Reliability of data – may be tested by checking: Who collected the data? What were the sources of the data? Was the data collected properly? Suitability of data – data that are suitable for one enquiry may not be necessarily suitable in another enquiry Therefore, the researcher must scrutinize the definition of various and units of collection. Also, the objectives, scope and nature of the original enquiry must be studied Adequacy of data – the data will be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry
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