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The University of the State of New York • THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.gov
Reference Tables for Physical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE Radioactive Decay Data
Specific Heats of Common Materials
RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE (years) ISOTOPE Carbon-14
14
Potassium-40
40
C
3
14
5.7 × 10
N
40
K
Ar
9
1.3 × 10
40
Ca
Uranium-238
238
206
Rubidium-87
87
87
U
Rb
9
Pb
4.5 × 10
Sr
4.9 × 10
10
Equations Eccentricity = Gradient =
distance between foci length of major axis
SPECIFIC HEAT (Joules/gram • °C)
Liquid water Solid water (ice) Water vapor Dry air Basalt Granite Iron Copper Lead
4.18 2.11 2.00 1.01 0.84 0.79 0.45 0.38 0.13
Properties of Water
change in field value distance
Rate of change =
MATERIAL
Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
change in value time
Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g
mass Density = volume
Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL
Average Chemical Composition of Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere ELEMENT (symbol) Oxygen (O) Silicon (Si) Aluminum (Al) Iron (Fe) Calcium (Ca) Sodium (Na) Magnesium (Mg) Potassium (K) Nitrogen (N) Hydrogen (H) Other
HYDROSPHERE
TROPOSPHERE
Percent by mass
CRUST Percent by volume
Percent by volume
Percent by volume
46.10 28.20 8.23 5.63 4.15 2.36 2.33 2.09
94.04 0.88 0.48 0.49 1.18 1.11 0.33 1.42
33.0
21.0
78.0 0.91
0.07
2011 EDITION This edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in the classroom beginning in the 2011–12 school year. The first examination for which these tables will be used is the January 2012 Regents Examination in Physical Setting/Earth Science.
66.0 1.0
1.0
Eurypterus remipes
New York State Fossil
Lake Erie
Ap p
Grenville Province (Highlands)
at Pl
u ea
( Key
) ds n la p U
Tug Hill Plateau
e
International boundary
State boundary
Landscape region boundary
ds
Adirondack Mountains
Lo
an wl
The Catskills
e nc
Major geographic province boundary
Allegheny Plateau
Erie-Ontario Lowlands (Plains)
Lake Ontario
S
a t. L
wr
Interior Lowlands
Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State
Interior Lowlands
ala c h ia n
Champlain Lowlands
ew En (H gla i gh nd l P a nd ro v N 0
20 40 60 Kilometers
80
Miles 0 10 20 30 40 50
tic n a l At
W S
N
e lain P l a st Coa
nds ighla H n o H uds rong tan P t a h Man
Huds o nM o h a w k Lo wlands Taco n i c M ounta ins
N Lo ewa w l an rk ds
in c s)
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
2
E
79°
JAMESTOWN
ERIE
BUFFALO
NIAGARA FALLS
78°
78°
77°
SYRACUSE
limestones, shales, sandstones, and dolostones
CAMBRIAN and EARLY ORDOVICIAN sandstones and dolostones moderately to intensely metamorphosed east of the Hudson River CAMBRIAN and ORDOVICIAN (undifferentiated) quartzites, dolostones, marbles, and schists intensely metamorphosed; includes portions of the Taconic Sequence and Cortlandt Complex TACONIC SEQUENCE sandstones, shales, and slates slightly to intensely metamorphosed rocks of CAMBRIAN through MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN ages MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC gneisses, quartzites, and marbles Lines are generalized structure trends. MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC anorthositic rocks
ORDOVICIAN CAMBRIAN
74°
NEW YORK CITY
41°
RS EY
Intensely metamorphosed rocks (regional metamorphism about 1,000 m.y.a.)
JE
}
W
NE
KINGSTON
SLIDE MT.
ALBANY
R iv e r
}
Dominantly sedimentary origin
75°
wk
MT. MARCY
74°
Dominantly metamorphosed rocks
}
Moha
Rive r
} }
UTICA
OLD FORGE
MASSENA
are
CRETACEOUS and PLEISTOCENE (Epoch) weakly consolidated to unconsolidated gravels, sands, and clays LATE TRIASSIC and EARLY JURASSIC conglomerates, red sandstones, red shales, basalt, and diabase (Palisades sill) PENNSYLVANIAN and MISSISSIPPIAN conglomerates, sandstones, and shales DEVONIAN limestones, shales, sandstones, and conglomerates SILURIAN also contains salt, gypsum, and hematite. SILURIAN
76°
Susquehanna
BINGHAMTON
ITHACA
P E N N S Y L V A N I A
77°
WATERTOWN
76°
OSWEGO
LAKES
44°
ELMIRA
FINGER
ROCHESTER
LAKE ONTARIO
elevation 75 m
modified from GEOLOGICAL SURVEY NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 1989
75°
law
GEOLOGIC PERIODS AND ERAS IN NEW YORK
42°
LAKE
elevation 175 m
43°
79°
ar a River ag Ni
e nc
er iv
Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York State
Ge
r ve Ri ee ne s
S
t.
La w
re R
R iv e r
73° 45°
PLATTSBURGH
AIN MPL
44°
CH A
43°
0
0
20
40
60
20 40 60 80 Kilometers Kilometers
80
W
Miles Miles 20 30 40 50 0 100 2010 30 40 50
73°30'
41° 72°
S
N E
ATLANTIC OCEAN
UND
40°30' 73°
D ISLAN LONG
RIVERHEAD
ND SO ISLA G 73° N 41° LO
42°
LAKE
R r iv e
on ds Hu Hu ds on
VERMONT MASSACHUSETTS
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
CONNECTICUT
45°
De
3
Rive r
Surface Ocean Currents Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
4
Mi d
Eurasian Plate
n ia ou nd I the st e e as g t hw Rid t Ind u ia n So Ridg e
a Tr ria n a e n ch
Fiji Plate
st Ea
Convergent plate boundary (subduction zone)
subducting plate
overriding plate
Antarctic Plate
Nazca Plate
r
Sandwich Plate
Mantle hot spot
Bouvet Hot Spot
St. Helena Hot Spot
African Plate
Eurasian Plate
Iceland Hot Spot
Complex or uncertain plate boundary
Scotia Plate
Canary Islands Hot Spot
Mi d At la n t i cR idg e
South American Plate
an ibbe Car late P
Pe
Galapagos Hot Spot
Yellowstone Hot Spot
Cocos Plate
Easter Island Hot Spot
Pacific Plate
Hawaii Hot Spot
San Andreas Fault
Juan de Fuca Plate
Divergent plate boundary (usually broken by transform faults along mid-ocean ridges)
Tasman Hot Spot
To n g a Tr e n c h
North American Plate
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Tectonic Plates
h Aleutian Trenc
Indian-Australian Plate
M
Philippine Plate
Transform plate boundary (transform fault)
NOTE: Not all mantle hot spots, plates, and boundaries are shown.
Relative motion at plate boundary
Antarctic Plate
S
Key
frican Rif st A
Ea
t
ian ab Ar late P idge
dian Ridge -In
Pa cifi cR
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
hile Tren u-C ch
5
C
Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust r nd/o na tio ation c pa ent om em C
Relationship of Transported Particle Size to Water Velocity
Depo s and B ition uria l
100.0 Boulders 25.6
n
r Pressure t and/o Hea tamorphism e M
IGNEOUS ROCK
Sand 0.01
0.006
Silt
0.001
Clay
at
0.0001
1000 500
100 50
li
10 5
So
ic di f
1 0.5
g
MAGMA
0.2
0.1 0.05
l ti n
Pebbles
0.1
0.01
Me
1.0
0.0004 io
METAMORPHIC ROCK
n
6.4
n
lift) rosio (U p &E in g r e th Wea lting Me
PARTICLE DIAMETER (cm)
( U p l if t ) n Weathering & Erosio
M e lt i n g
e ss ur H e a t a nd/or Pre m is M e ta m or p h
(U We athe plift) ring & Ero sio
E r o s i on
SEDIMENTARY ROCK
Cobbles
10.0
SEDIMENTS
STREAM VELOCITY (cm/s) This generalized graph shows the water velocity needed to maintain, but not start, movement. Variations occur due to differences in particle density and shape.
noncrystalline
Basaltic glass
Pumice
Scoria Vesicular andesite
Rhyolite
Andesite
Vesicular basalt Basalt
INTRUSIVE (Plutonic)
Diabase Diorite
Granite
Gabbro
Peridotite
Pegmatite
LOWER FELSIC (rich in Si, Al)
Dunite
Vesicular rhyolite
CRYSTAL SIZE
10 mm 1 mm less than or to 1 mm larger 10 mm
EXTRUSIVE (Volcanic)
Obsidian (usually appears black)
LIGHTER
MINERAL COMPOSITION (relative by volume)
CHARACTERISTICS
IGNEOUS ROCKS
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION
Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification
COLOR
DARKER
DENSITY
HIGHER
TEXTURE
Glassy
Nonvesicular Vesicular (gas pockets)
Fine
Coarse
Nonvesicular
Very coarse
MAFIC (rich in Fe, Mg)
COMPOSITION
100%
100% Potassium feldspar (pink to white)
75%
Quartz (clear to white)
75% Plagioclase feldspar (white to gray)
50%
50%
Pyroxene (green) Biotite (black)
25% Amphibole (black)
0% Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
Olivine (green)
25%
0%
6
Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS TEXTURE
GRAIN SIZE
COMPOSITION
Pebbles, cobbles, and/or boulders embedded in sand, silt, and/or clay Clastic (fragmental)
Sand (0.006 to 0.2 cm) Silt (0.0004 to 0.006 cm) Clay (less than 0.0004 cm)
COMMENTS
Rounded fragments Mostly quartz, feldspar, and clay minerals; may contain fragments of other rocks and minerals
Angular fragments
ROCK NAME
MAP SYMBOL
Conglomerate Breccia
Fine to coarse
Sandstone
Very fine grain
Siltstone
Compact; may split easily
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shale
CHEMICALLY AND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS TEXTURE
GRAIN SIZE
Crystalline
Fine to coarse crystals
COMPOSITION
COMMENTS
Halite Gypsum
Microscopic to very coarse
Bioclastic
MAP SYMBOL
Rock salt Crystals from chemical precipitates and evaporites
Rock gypsum Dolostone
Dolomite Crystalline or bioclastic
ROCK NAME
Calcite
Precipitates of biologic origin or cemented shell fragments
Carbon
Compacted plant remains
Limestone Bituminous coal
Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification TEXTURE
GRAIN SIZE
COMPOSITION
TYPE OF METAMORPHISM
Medium to coarse
AMPHIBOLE GARNET PYROXENE
Fine to medium
Regional (Heat and pressure increases) MICA QUARTZ FELDSPAR
MINERAL ALIGNMENT NONFOLIATED
BANDING
FOLIATED
Fine
Fine
Carbon
Regional
Fine
Various minerals
(heat)
Quartz Fine to coarse
COMMENTS
ROCK NAME
Low-grade metamorphism of shale
Slate
Foliation surfaces shiny from microscopic mica crystals
Phyllite
Platy mica crystals visible from metamorphism of clay or feldspars
Schist
High-grade metamorphism; mineral types segregated into bands
Gneiss
Metamorphism of bituminous coal
MAP SYMBOL
Anthracite coal
Various rocks changed by heat from nearby magma/lava
Hornfels
Metamorphism of quartz sandstone
Quartzite
Regional Calcite and/or dolomite
or
Metamorphism of limestone or dolostone
Marble
Coarse
Various minerals
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
Pebbles may be distorted or stretched
Metaconglomerate
7
GEOLOGIC HISTORY Eon
Era
Period
PHANEROZOIC
QUATERNARY
CENOZOIC
L A T E PROTEROZOIC
M I D D L E
0.01
PLEISTOCENE 1.8 PLIOCENE 5.3
MIOCENE
23.0 OLIGOCENE 33.9 EOCENE 55.8 PALEOCENE 65.5
Large carnivorous mammals Abundant grazing mammals Earliest grasses Many modern groups of mammals Mass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonoids, and many land plants
CRETACEOUS First sexually reproducing organisms
Earliest flowering plants Diverse bony fishes
EARLY 146
LATE MIDDLE
JURASSIC
Earliest birds Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids
EARLY
Oceanic oxygen begins to enter the atmosphere
MIDDLE EARLY 251 LATE MIDDLE
PALEOZOIC
CARBONIFEROUS
Oceanic oxygen produced by cyanobacteria combines with iron, forming iron oxide layers on ocean floor
M I D D L E Earliest stromatolites Oldest microfossils
E A R L Y
Earliest mammals
LATE
TRIASSIC
EARLY
318
LATE MISSISSIPPIAN
MIDDLE EARLY
DEVONIAN
359
416 LATE
SILURIAN
Mammal-like reptiles
EARLY
Extensive coal-forming forests Abundant amphibians Large and numerous scale trees and seed ferns (vascular plants); earliest reptiles Earliest amphibians and plant seeds Extinction of many marine organisms Earth’s first forests Earliest ammonoids and sharks Abundant fish
MIDDLE EARLY
Evidence of biological carbon
Mass extinction of many land and marine organisms (including trilobites)
Abundant reptiles
LATE EARLY
PENNSYLVANIAN
Earliest dinosaurs
299
LATE
444
Earliest insects Earliest land plants and animals Abundant eurypterids
LATE Oldest known rocks
ORDOVICIAN
Invertebrates dominant Earth’s first coral reefs
MIDDLE 488
LATE
Estimated time of origin of Earth and solar system
MIDDLE
CAMBRIAN
EARLY 542 580
(Index fossils not drawn to scale)
B
Humans, mastodonts, mammoths
LATE
MESOZOIC
EARLY 4600
Bedrock
200
E A R L Y
L A T E
4000
A
Sediment
HOLOCENE 0
PERMIAN
ARCHEAN
P R E C A M B R I A N
3000
NEOGENE PALEOGENE
1000
2000
Life on Earth
Million years ago
Million years ago 0
500
Epoch
NY Rock Record
C
1300
D
E
F
G
H
I
Burgess shale fauna (diverse soft-bodied organisms) Earliest fishes Extinction of many primitive marine organisms Earliest trilobites Great diversity of life-forms with shelly parts Ediacaran fauna (first multicellular, soft-bodied marine organisms)
Abundant stromatolites
J
K
L
M
N
Cryptolithus Centroceras Tetragraptus Valcouroceras Eucalyptocrinus Coelophysis Stylonurus Hexameroceras Manticoceras Dicellograptus Eurypterus Ctenocrinus Phacops Elliptocephala Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
8
OF NEW YORK STATE Time Distribution of Fossils
Important Geologic Events in New York
(including important fossils of New York) The center of each lettered circle indicates the approximate time of existence of a specific index fossil (e.g. Fossil A lived at the end of the Early Cambrian).
S
I H
E
BIRDS
MAMMALS VASCULAR PLANTS EURYPTERIDS
Q
N
P
M
BRACHIOPODS
GASTROPODS
Pangaea begins to break up
232 million years ago Alleghenian orogeny caused by collision of North America and Africa along transform margin, forming Pangaea
R X
Catskill delta forms Erosion of Acadian Mountains Acadian orogeny caused by collision of North America and Avalon and closing of remaining part of Iapetus Ocean
Z
V Y
U
D
T J
359 million years ago
Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins
K B
119 million years ago
Intrusion of Palisades sill CORALS
CRINOIDS
G
59 million years ago
Sands and clays underlying Long Island and Staten Island deposited on margin of Atlantic Ocean
Initial opening of Atlantic Ocean North America and Africa separate
PLACODERM FISH
F
GRAPTOLITES
C
Advance and retreat of last continental ice
Dome-like uplift of Adirondack region begins
L
TRILOBITES
AMMONOIDS
DINOSAURS
NAUTILOIDS
O
Inferred Positions of Earth’s Landmasses
Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston delta forms Taconian orogeny caused by closing of western part of Iapetus Ocean and collision between North America and volcanic island arc
W
458 million years ago
Widespread deposition over most of New York along edge of Iapetus Ocean
A
Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus Ocean Erosion of Grenville Mountains Grenville orogeny: metamorphism of bedrock now exposed in the Adirondacks and Hudson Highlands
O
P
Q
R
Mastodont Cooksonia Naples Tree Beluga Whale Bothriolepis Aneurophyton Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
S
Condor
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Cystiphyllum Maclurites Eospirifer Mucrospirifer Lichenaria Pleurodictyum Platyceras ADU (2011)
9
Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
10
Earthquake P-Wave and S-Wave Travel Time
24 23 22 21 20 19 18
S
17
TRAVEL TIME (min)
16 15 14 13 12 11 10
P
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
EPICENTER DISTANCE (× 103 km)
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
11
Dewpoint (°C) Dry-Bulb Temperature (°C) – 20 –18 –16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°) 0 – 20 –18 –16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
1 – 33 – 28 – 24 – 21 –18 –14 –12 –10 –7 –5 –3 –1 1 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 19 21 23 25 27 29
2
– 36 – 28 – 22 –18 –14 –12 –8 –6 –3 –1 1 3 6 8 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
– 29 – 22 –17 – 29 –13 – 20 – 9 –15 – 24 – 6 –11 –17 – 4 – 7 –11 –19 –1 – 4 – 7 –13 – 21 1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –14 4 1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –14 – 28 6 4 1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –16 9 6 4 1 – 2 – 5 –10 –17 11 9 7 4 1 –1 – 6 –10 –17 13 11 9 7 4 2 – 2 – 5 –10 –19 –2 – 5 –10 –19 15 14 12 10 7 4 2 3 –1 – 5 –10 –19 17 16 14 12 10 8 5 6 2 –1 – 5 –10 –18 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 9 6 3 0 –4 –9 22 20 18 17 15 13 11 11 9 7 4 1 –3 24 22 21 19 17 16 14 14 12 10 8 5 1 26 24 23 21 19 18 16
Relative Humidity (%) Dry-Bulb Temperature (°C) – 20 –18 –16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°) 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
1 28 40 48 55 61 66 71 73 77 79 81 83 85 86 87 88 88 89 90 91 91 92 92 92 93 93
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
11 23 33 41 48 54 58 63 67 70 72 74 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 86
13 20 32 37 45 51 56 59 62 65 67 69 71 72 74 75 76 77 78 79
11 20 28 36 42 46 51 54 57 60 62 64 66 68 69 70 71 72
1 11 20 27 35 39 43 48 50 54 56 58 60 62 64 65 66
6 14 22 28 33 38 41 45 48 51 53 55 57 59 61
10 17 24 28 33 37 40 44 46 49 51 53 55
6 13 19 25 29 33 36 40 42 45 47 49
4 10 16 21 26 30 33 36 39 42 44
2 8 14 19 23 27 30 34 36 39
1 7 12 17 21 25 28 31 34
1 6 11 15 20 23 26 29
5 10 14 18 21 25
4 9 13 17 20
4 9 12 16
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
12
Pressure
Temperature
110 Water boils
220 100 200
90
180
80
160
70
140
60
120
50
100
40 30
80 Room temperature
20 60 10 40
Water freezes
0 20 0 –20
–10 –20 –30
–40
–40
–60
–50
28
30.70
1036.0
30.60
380 370 360
1032.0
350
1028.0
30.50 30.40 30.30
340
1024.0
330
310
30.10
1016.0
30.00
1012.0
29.90
One atmosphere
300
30.20
1020.0
320
29.80
290
1008.0 29.70
280 1004.0
270
29.60
260
1000.0
250
996.0
29.40
992.0
29.30
240 230
988.0
220
29.50
29.20 29.10
984.0
Key to Weather Map Symbols Station Model
1040.0
29.00
Station Model Explanation
980.0
28.90
976.0
28.80
972.0
28.70
968.0
28.60
196
1 2
+19/
27
.25
28.50
Air Masses
Present Weather
cA continental arctic Drizzle
Rain
Smog
Hail
ThunderRain storms showers
continental polar cT continental tropical mT maritime tropical
Snow
Sleet
Freezing rain
Fog
Haze
Snow showers
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
mP maritime polar
Fronts
Hurricane
Cold Warm Stationary
Tornado
Occluded
13
Selected Properties of Earth’s Atmosphere
Planetary Wind and Moisture Belts in the Troposphere The drawing on the right shows the locations of the belts near the time of an equinox. The locations shift somewhat with the changing latitude of the Sun’s vertical ray. In the Northern Hemisphere, the belts shift northward in the summer and southward in the winter. (Not drawn to scale)
Electromagnetic Spectrum X rays Gamma rays
Microwaves Ultraviolet
Infrared
Radio waves
Decreasing wavelength
Increasing wavelength Visible light Violet
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
Blue
Green Yellow Orange
Red
(Not drawn to scale)
14
Characteristics of Stars (Name in italics refers to star represented by a .) (Stages indicate the general sequence of star development.) 1,000,000
Deneb
Luminosity
(Rate at which a star emits energy relative to the Sun)
100,000
Massive Stars
Betelgeuse
SUPERGIANTS
Rigel
(Intermediate stage)
Spica 10,000
GIANTS
Polaris
1,000
(Intermediate stage)
Aldebaran 100
MA IN
10
(E a
Pollux
SE
Sirius
rly QU s ta E N ge C )
Alpha Centauri
E
1
Sun
0.1
40 Eridani B 0.01
Barnard’s Star
WHITE DWARFS (Late stage)
0.001
Procyon B 0.0001 30,000
20,000
10,000 8,000
Small Stars
Proxima Centauri
6,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
Surface Temperature (K) Blue
Blue White
White
Yellow
Orange
Red
Color
Solar System Data Celestial Object
SUN
Mean Distance from Sun (million km)
Period of Revolution (d=days) (y=years)
Period of Rotation at Equator
Eccentricity of Orbit
Equatorial Diameter (km)
Mass (Earth = 1)
Density (g/cm3)
—
—
27 d
—
1,392,000
333,000.00
1.4
57.9
88 d
59 d
0.206
4,879
0.06
5.4
VENUS
108.2
224.7 d
243 d
0.007
12,104
0.82
5.2
EARTH
149.6
365.26 d
23 h 56 min 4 s
0.017
12,756
1.00
5.5
MARS
227.9
687 d
24 h 37 min 23 s
0.093
6,794
0.11
3.9
JUPITER
778.4
11.9 y
9 h 50 min 30 s
0.048
142,984
317.83
1.3
SATURN
1,426.7
29.5 y
10 h 14 min
0.054
120,536
95.16
0.7
URANUS
2,871.0
84.0 y
17 h 14 min
0.047
51,118
14.54
1.3
NEPTUNE
4,498.3
164.8 y
16 h
0.009
49,528
17.15
1.8
149.6
27.3 d
27.3 d
0.055
3,476
0.01
3.3
MERCURY
EARTH’S MOON
(0.386 from Earth)
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
15
Either
Metallic luster
HARDNESS
FRACTURE
LUSTER
CLEAVAGE
Properties of Common Minerals DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS
USE(S)
COMPOSITION*
MINERAL NAME
1–2
silver to gray
black streak, greasy feel
pencil lead, lubricants
C
Graphite
2.5
metallic silver
gray-black streak, cubic cleavage, density = 7.6 g/cm3
ore of lead, batteries
PbS
Galena
5.5 – 6.5
black to silver
black streak, magnetic
ore of iron, steel
Fe3O4
Magnetite
6.5
brassy yellow
green-black streak, (fool’s gold)
ore of sulfur
FeS2
Pyrite
5.5 – 6.5 or 1
metallic silver or earthy red
red-brown streak
ore of iron, jewelry
Fe2O3
Hematite
white to green
greasy feel
ceramics, paper
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
Talc
yellow to amber
white-yellow streak
sulfuric acid
S
Sulfur
1
2
Nonmetallic luster
COMMON COLORS
2
white to pink or gray
easily scratched by fingernail
plaster of paris, drywall
CaSO4•2H2O
Selenite gypsum
2 – 2.5
colorless to yellow
flexible in thin sheets
paint, roofing
KAl3Si3O10(OH)2
Muscovite mica
2.5
colorless to white
cubic cleavage, salty taste
food additive, melts ice
NaCl
Halite
2.5 – 3
black to dark brown
flexible in thin sheets
construction materials
K(Mg,Fe)3 AlSi3O10(OH)2
Biotite mica
3
colorless or variable
bubbles with acid, rhombohedral cleavage
cement, lime
CaCO3
Calcite
3.5
colorless or variable
bubbles with acid when powdered
building stones
CaMg(CO3)2
Dolomite
4
colorless or variable
cleaves in 4 directions
hydrofluoric acid
CaF2
Fluorite
5–6
black to dark green
cleaves in 2 directions at 90°
mineral collections, jewelry
(Ca,Na) (Mg,Fe,Al) (Si,Al)2O6
Pyroxene (commonly augite)
5.5
black to dark green
cleaves at 56° and 124°
6
white to pink
cleaves in 2 directions at 90°
ceramics, glass
KAlSi3O8
Potassium feldspar (commonly orthoclase)
6
white to gray
cleaves in 2 directions, striations visible
ceramics, glass
(Na,Ca)AlSi3O8
Plagioclase feldspar
mineral collections, CaNa(Mg,Fe)4 (Al,Fe,Ti)3 jewelry Si6O22(O,OH)2
Amphibole (commonly hornblende)
6.5
green to gray or brown
commonly light green and granular
furnace bricks, jewelry
(Fe,Mg)2SiO4
Olivine
7
colorless or variable
glassy luster, may form hexagonal crystals
glass, jewelry, electronics
SiO2
Quartz
6.5 – 7.5
dark red to green
often seen as red glassy grains in NYS metamorphic rocks
jewelry (NYS gem), abrasives
Fe3Al2Si3O12
Garnet
*Chemical symbols:
Al = aluminum C = carbon Ca = calcium
Cl = chlorine F = fluorine Fe = iron
H = hydrogen K = potassium Mg = magnesium
Na = sodium O = oxygen Pb = lead
S = sulfur Si = silicon Ti = titanium
= dominant form of breakage Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
16
Reference Tables for Physical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE Radioactive Decay Data
Specific Heats of Common Materials
RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE (years) ISOTOPE Carbon-14
14
Potassium-40
40
C
3
14
5.7 × 10
N
40
K
Ar
9
1.3 × 10
40
Ca
Uranium-238
238
206
Rubidium-87
87
87
U
Rb
9
Pb
4.5 × 10
Sr
4.9 × 10
10
Equations Eccentricity = Gradient =
distance between foci length of major axis
SPECIFIC HEAT (Joules/gram • °C)
Liquid water Solid water (ice) Water vapor Dry air Basalt Granite Iron Copper Lead
4.18 2.11 2.00 1.01 0.84 0.79 0.45 0.38 0.13
Properties of Water
change in field value distance
Rate of change =
MATERIAL
Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
change in value time
Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g
mass Density = volume
Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL
Average Chemical Composition of Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere ELEMENT (symbol) Oxygen (O) Silicon (Si) Aluminum (Al) Iron (Fe) Calcium (Ca) Sodium (Na) Magnesium (Mg) Potassium (K) Nitrogen (N) Hydrogen (H) Other
HYDROSPHERE
TROPOSPHERE
Percent by mass
CRUST Percent by volume
Percent by volume
Percent by volume
46.10 28.20 8.23 5.63 4.15 2.36 2.33 2.09
94.04 0.88 0.48 0.49 1.18 1.11 0.33 1.42
33.0
21.0
78.0 0.91
0.07
2011 EDITION This edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in the classroom beginning in the 2011–12 school year. The first examination for which these tables will be used is the January 2012 Regents Examination in Physical Setting/Earth Science.
66.0 1.0
1.0
Eurypterus remipes
New York State Fossil
Lake Erie
Ap p
Grenville Province (Highlands)
at Pl
u ea
( Key
) ds n la p U
Tug Hill Plateau
e
International boundary
State boundary
Landscape region boundary
ds
Adirondack Mountains
Lo
an wl
The Catskills
e nc
Major geographic province boundary
Allegheny Plateau
Erie-Ontario Lowlands (Plains)
Lake Ontario
S
a t. L
wr
Interior Lowlands
Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State
Interior Lowlands
ala c h ia n
Champlain Lowlands
ew En (H gla i gh nd l P a nd ro v N 0
20 40 60 Kilometers
80
Miles 0 10 20 30 40 50
tic n a l At
W S
N
e lain P l a st Coa
nds ighla H n o H uds rong tan P t a h Man
Huds o nM o h a w k Lo wlands Taco n i c M ounta ins
N Lo ewa w l an rk ds
in c s)
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
2
E
79°
JAMESTOWN
ERIE
BUFFALO
NIAGARA FALLS
78°
78°
77°
SYRACUSE
limestones, shales, sandstones, and dolostones
CAMBRIAN and EARLY ORDOVICIAN sandstones and dolostones moderately to intensely metamorphosed east of the Hudson River CAMBRIAN and ORDOVICIAN (undifferentiated) quartzites, dolostones, marbles, and schists intensely metamorphosed; includes portions of the Taconic Sequence and Cortlandt Complex TACONIC SEQUENCE sandstones, shales, and slates slightly to intensely metamorphosed rocks of CAMBRIAN through MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN ages MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC gneisses, quartzites, and marbles Lines are generalized structure trends. MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC anorthositic rocks
ORDOVICIAN CAMBRIAN
74°
NEW YORK CITY
41°
RS EY
Intensely metamorphosed rocks (regional metamorphism about 1,000 m.y.a.)
JE
}
W
NE
KINGSTON
SLIDE MT.
ALBANY
R iv e r
}
Dominantly sedimentary origin
75°
wk
MT. MARCY
74°
Dominantly metamorphosed rocks
}
Moha
Rive r
} }
UTICA
OLD FORGE
MASSENA
are
CRETACEOUS and PLEISTOCENE (Epoch) weakly consolidated to unconsolidated gravels, sands, and clays LATE TRIASSIC and EARLY JURASSIC conglomerates, red sandstones, red shales, basalt, and diabase (Palisades sill) PENNSYLVANIAN and MISSISSIPPIAN conglomerates, sandstones, and shales DEVONIAN limestones, shales, sandstones, and conglomerates SILURIAN also contains salt, gypsum, and hematite. SILURIAN
76°
Susquehanna
BINGHAMTON
ITHACA
P E N N S Y L V A N I A
77°
WATERTOWN
76°
OSWEGO
LAKES
44°
ELMIRA
FINGER
ROCHESTER
LAKE ONTARIO
elevation 75 m
modified from GEOLOGICAL SURVEY NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 1989
75°
law
GEOLOGIC PERIODS AND ERAS IN NEW YORK
42°
LAKE
elevation 175 m
43°
79°
ar a River ag Ni
e nc
er iv
Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York State
Ge
r ve Ri ee ne s
S
t.
La w
re R
R iv e r
73° 45°
PLATTSBURGH
AIN MPL
44°
CH A
43°
0
0
20
40
60
20 40 60 80 Kilometers Kilometers
80
W
Miles Miles 20 30 40 50 0 100 2010 30 40 50
73°30'
41° 72°
S
N E
ATLANTIC OCEAN
UND
40°30' 73°
D ISLAN LONG
RIVERHEAD
ND SO ISLA G 73° N 41° LO
42°
LAKE
R r iv e
on ds Hu Hu ds on
VERMONT MASSACHUSETTS
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
CONNECTICUT
45°
De
3
Rive r
Surface Ocean Currents Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
4
Mi d
Eurasian Plate
n ia ou nd I the st e e as g t hw Rid t Ind u ia n So Ridg e
a Tr ria n a e n ch
Fiji Plate
st Ea
Convergent plate boundary (subduction zone)
subducting plate
overriding plate
Antarctic Plate
Nazca Plate
r
Sandwich Plate
Mantle hot spot
Bouvet Hot Spot
St. Helena Hot Spot
African Plate
Eurasian Plate
Iceland Hot Spot
Complex or uncertain plate boundary
Scotia Plate
Canary Islands Hot Spot
Mi d At la n t i cR idg e
South American Plate
an ibbe Car late P
Pe
Galapagos Hot Spot
Yellowstone Hot Spot
Cocos Plate
Easter Island Hot Spot
Pacific Plate
Hawaii Hot Spot
San Andreas Fault
Juan de Fuca Plate
Divergent plate boundary (usually broken by transform faults along mid-ocean ridges)
Tasman Hot Spot
To n g a Tr e n c h
North American Plate
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Tectonic Plates
h Aleutian Trenc
Indian-Australian Plate
M
Philippine Plate
Transform plate boundary (transform fault)
NOTE: Not all mantle hot spots, plates, and boundaries are shown.
Relative motion at plate boundary
Antarctic Plate
S
Key
frican Rif st A
Ea
t
ian ab Ar late P idge
dian Ridge -In
Pa cifi cR
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
hile Tren u-C ch
5
C
Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust r nd/o na tio ation c pa ent om em C
Relationship of Transported Particle Size to Water Velocity
Depo s and B ition uria l
100.0 Boulders 25.6
n
r Pressure t and/o Hea tamorphism e M
IGNEOUS ROCK
Sand 0.01
0.006
Silt
0.001
Clay
at
0.0001
1000 500
100 50
li
10 5
So
ic di f
1 0.5
g
MAGMA
0.2
0.1 0.05
l ti n
Pebbles
0.1
0.01
Me
1.0
0.0004 io
METAMORPHIC ROCK
n
6.4
n
lift) rosio (U p &E in g r e th Wea lting Me
PARTICLE DIAMETER (cm)
( U p l if t ) n Weathering & Erosio
M e lt i n g
e ss ur H e a t a nd/or Pre m is M e ta m or p h
(U We athe plift) ring & Ero sio
E r o s i on
SEDIMENTARY ROCK
Cobbles
10.0
SEDIMENTS
STREAM VELOCITY (cm/s) This generalized graph shows the water velocity needed to maintain, but not start, movement. Variations occur due to differences in particle density and shape.
noncrystalline
Basaltic glass
Pumice
Scoria Vesicular andesite
Rhyolite
Andesite
Vesicular basalt Basalt
INTRUSIVE (Plutonic)
Diabase Diorite
Granite
Gabbro
Peridotite
Pegmatite
LOWER FELSIC (rich in Si, Al)
Dunite
Vesicular rhyolite
CRYSTAL SIZE
10 mm 1 mm less than or to 1 mm larger 10 mm
EXTRUSIVE (Volcanic)
Obsidian (usually appears black)
LIGHTER
MINERAL COMPOSITION (relative by volume)
CHARACTERISTICS
IGNEOUS ROCKS
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION
Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification
COLOR
DARKER
DENSITY
HIGHER
TEXTURE
Glassy
Nonvesicular Vesicular (gas pockets)
Fine
Coarse
Nonvesicular
Very coarse
MAFIC (rich in Fe, Mg)
COMPOSITION
100%
100% Potassium feldspar (pink to white)
75%
Quartz (clear to white)
75% Plagioclase feldspar (white to gray)
50%
50%
Pyroxene (green) Biotite (black)
25% Amphibole (black)
0% Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
Olivine (green)
25%
0%
6
Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS TEXTURE
GRAIN SIZE
COMPOSITION
Pebbles, cobbles, and/or boulders embedded in sand, silt, and/or clay Clastic (fragmental)
Sand (0.006 to 0.2 cm) Silt (0.0004 to 0.006 cm) Clay (less than 0.0004 cm)
COMMENTS
Rounded fragments Mostly quartz, feldspar, and clay minerals; may contain fragments of other rocks and minerals
Angular fragments
ROCK NAME
MAP SYMBOL
Conglomerate Breccia
Fine to coarse
Sandstone
Very fine grain
Siltstone
Compact; may split easily
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shale
CHEMICALLY AND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS TEXTURE
GRAIN SIZE
Crystalline
Fine to coarse crystals
COMPOSITION
COMMENTS
Halite Gypsum
Microscopic to very coarse
Bioclastic
MAP SYMBOL
Rock salt Crystals from chemical precipitates and evaporites
Rock gypsum Dolostone
Dolomite Crystalline or bioclastic
ROCK NAME
Calcite
Precipitates of biologic origin or cemented shell fragments
Carbon
Compacted plant remains
Limestone Bituminous coal
Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification TEXTURE
GRAIN SIZE
COMPOSITION
TYPE OF METAMORPHISM
Medium to coarse
AMPHIBOLE GARNET PYROXENE
Fine to medium
Regional (Heat and pressure increases) MICA QUARTZ FELDSPAR
MINERAL ALIGNMENT NONFOLIATED
BANDING
FOLIATED
Fine
Fine
Carbon
Regional
Fine
Various minerals
(heat)
Quartz Fine to coarse
COMMENTS
ROCK NAME
Low-grade metamorphism of shale
Slate
Foliation surfaces shiny from microscopic mica crystals
Phyllite
Platy mica crystals visible from metamorphism of clay or feldspars
Schist
High-grade metamorphism; mineral types segregated into bands
Gneiss
Metamorphism of bituminous coal
MAP SYMBOL
Anthracite coal
Various rocks changed by heat from nearby magma/lava
Hornfels
Metamorphism of quartz sandstone
Quartzite
Regional Calcite and/or dolomite
or
Metamorphism of limestone or dolostone
Marble
Coarse
Various minerals
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
Pebbles may be distorted or stretched
Metaconglomerate
7
GEOLOGIC HISTORY Eon
Era
Period
PHANEROZOIC
QUATERNARY
CENOZOIC
L A T E PROTEROZOIC
M I D D L E
0.01
PLEISTOCENE 1.8 PLIOCENE 5.3
MIOCENE
23.0 OLIGOCENE 33.9 EOCENE 55.8 PALEOCENE 65.5
Large carnivorous mammals Abundant grazing mammals Earliest grasses Many modern groups of mammals Mass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonoids, and many land plants
CRETACEOUS First sexually reproducing organisms
Earliest flowering plants Diverse bony fishes
EARLY 146
LATE MIDDLE
JURASSIC
Earliest birds Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids
EARLY
Oceanic oxygen begins to enter the atmosphere
MIDDLE EARLY 251 LATE MIDDLE
PALEOZOIC
CARBONIFEROUS
Oceanic oxygen produced by cyanobacteria combines with iron, forming iron oxide layers on ocean floor
M I D D L E Earliest stromatolites Oldest microfossils
E A R L Y
Earliest mammals
LATE
TRIASSIC
EARLY
318
LATE MISSISSIPPIAN
MIDDLE EARLY
DEVONIAN
359
416 LATE
SILURIAN
Mammal-like reptiles
EARLY
Extensive coal-forming forests Abundant amphibians Large and numerous scale trees and seed ferns (vascular plants); earliest reptiles Earliest amphibians and plant seeds Extinction of many marine organisms Earth’s first forests Earliest ammonoids and sharks Abundant fish
MIDDLE EARLY
Evidence of biological carbon
Mass extinction of many land and marine organisms (including trilobites)
Abundant reptiles
LATE EARLY
PENNSYLVANIAN
Earliest dinosaurs
299
LATE
444
Earliest insects Earliest land plants and animals Abundant eurypterids
LATE Oldest known rocks
ORDOVICIAN
Invertebrates dominant Earth’s first coral reefs
MIDDLE 488
LATE
Estimated time of origin of Earth and solar system
MIDDLE
CAMBRIAN
EARLY 542 580
(Index fossils not drawn to scale)
B
Humans, mastodonts, mammoths
LATE
MESOZOIC
EARLY 4600
Bedrock
200
E A R L Y
L A T E
4000
A
Sediment
HOLOCENE 0
PERMIAN
ARCHEAN
P R E C A M B R I A N
3000
NEOGENE PALEOGENE
1000
2000
Life on Earth
Million years ago
Million years ago 0
500
Epoch
NY Rock Record
C
1300
D
E
F
G
H
I
Burgess shale fauna (diverse soft-bodied organisms) Earliest fishes Extinction of many primitive marine organisms Earliest trilobites Great diversity of life-forms with shelly parts Ediacaran fauna (first multicellular, soft-bodied marine organisms)
Abundant stromatolites
J
K
L
M
N
Cryptolithus Centroceras Tetragraptus Valcouroceras Eucalyptocrinus Coelophysis Stylonurus Hexameroceras Manticoceras Dicellograptus Eurypterus Ctenocrinus Phacops Elliptocephala Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
8
OF NEW YORK STATE Time Distribution of Fossils
Important Geologic Events in New York
(including important fossils of New York) The center of each lettered circle indicates the approximate time of existence of a specific index fossil (e.g. Fossil A lived at the end of the Early Cambrian).
S
I H
E
BIRDS
MAMMALS VASCULAR PLANTS EURYPTERIDS
Q
N
P
M
BRACHIOPODS
GASTROPODS
Pangaea begins to break up
232 million years ago Alleghenian orogeny caused by collision of North America and Africa along transform margin, forming Pangaea
R X
Catskill delta forms Erosion of Acadian Mountains Acadian orogeny caused by collision of North America and Avalon and closing of remaining part of Iapetus Ocean
Z
V Y
U
D
T J
359 million years ago
Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins
K B
119 million years ago
Intrusion of Palisades sill CORALS
CRINOIDS
G
59 million years ago
Sands and clays underlying Long Island and Staten Island deposited on margin of Atlantic Ocean
Initial opening of Atlantic Ocean North America and Africa separate
PLACODERM FISH
F
GRAPTOLITES
C
Advance and retreat of last continental ice
Dome-like uplift of Adirondack region begins
L
TRILOBITES
AMMONOIDS
DINOSAURS
NAUTILOIDS
O
Inferred Positions of Earth’s Landmasses
Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston delta forms Taconian orogeny caused by closing of western part of Iapetus Ocean and collision between North America and volcanic island arc
W
458 million years ago
Widespread deposition over most of New York along edge of Iapetus Ocean
A
Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus Ocean Erosion of Grenville Mountains Grenville orogeny: metamorphism of bedrock now exposed in the Adirondacks and Hudson Highlands
O
P
Q
R
Mastodont Cooksonia Naples Tree Beluga Whale Bothriolepis Aneurophyton Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
S
Condor
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Cystiphyllum Maclurites Eospirifer Mucrospirifer Lichenaria Pleurodictyum Platyceras ADU (2011)
9
Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
10
Earthquake P-Wave and S-Wave Travel Time
24 23 22 21 20 19 18
S
17
TRAVEL TIME (min)
16 15 14 13 12 11 10
P
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
EPICENTER DISTANCE (× 103 km)
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
11
Dewpoint (°C) Dry-Bulb Temperature (°C) – 20 –18 –16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°) 0 – 20 –18 –16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
1 – 33 – 28 – 24 – 21 –18 –14 –12 –10 –7 –5 –3 –1 1 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 19 21 23 25 27 29
2
– 36 – 28 – 22 –18 –14 –12 –8 –6 –3 –1 1 3 6 8 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
– 29 – 22 –17 – 29 –13 – 20 – 9 –15 – 24 – 6 –11 –17 – 4 – 7 –11 –19 –1 – 4 – 7 –13 – 21 1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –14 4 1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –14 – 28 6 4 1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –16 9 6 4 1 – 2 – 5 –10 –17 11 9 7 4 1 –1 – 6 –10 –17 13 11 9 7 4 2 – 2 – 5 –10 –19 –2 – 5 –10 –19 15 14 12 10 7 4 2 3 –1 – 5 –10 –19 17 16 14 12 10 8 5 6 2 –1 – 5 –10 –18 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 9 6 3 0 –4 –9 22 20 18 17 15 13 11 11 9 7 4 1 –3 24 22 21 19 17 16 14 14 12 10 8 5 1 26 24 23 21 19 18 16
Relative Humidity (%) Dry-Bulb Temperature (°C) – 20 –18 –16 –14 –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°) 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
1 28 40 48 55 61 66 71 73 77 79 81 83 85 86 87 88 88 89 90 91 91 92 92 92 93 93
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
11 23 33 41 48 54 58 63 67 70 72 74 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 86
13 20 32 37 45 51 56 59 62 65 67 69 71 72 74 75 76 77 78 79
11 20 28 36 42 46 51 54 57 60 62 64 66 68 69 70 71 72
1 11 20 27 35 39 43 48 50 54 56 58 60 62 64 65 66
6 14 22 28 33 38 41 45 48 51 53 55 57 59 61
10 17 24 28 33 37 40 44 46 49 51 53 55
6 13 19 25 29 33 36 40 42 45 47 49
4 10 16 21 26 30 33 36 39 42 44
2 8 14 19 23 27 30 34 36 39
1 7 12 17 21 25 28 31 34
1 6 11 15 20 23 26 29
5 10 14 18 21 25
4 9 13 17 20
4 9 12 16
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
12
Pressure
Temperature
110 Water boils
220 100 200
90
180
80
160
70
140
60
120
50
100
40 30
80 Room temperature
20 60 10 40
Water freezes
0 20 0 –20
–10 –20 –30
–40
–40
–60
–50
28
30.70
1036.0
30.60
380 370 360
1032.0
350
1028.0
30.50 30.40 30.30
340
1024.0
330
310
30.10
1016.0
30.00
1012.0
29.90
One atmosphere
300
30.20
1020.0
320
29.80
290
1008.0 29.70
280 1004.0
270
29.60
260
1000.0
250
996.0
29.40
992.0
29.30
240 230
988.0
220
29.50
29.20 29.10
984.0
Key to Weather Map Symbols Station Model
1040.0
29.00
Station Model Explanation
980.0
28.90
976.0
28.80
972.0
28.70
968.0
28.60
196
1 2
+19/
27
.25
28.50
Air Masses
Present Weather
cA continental arctic Drizzle
Rain
Smog
Hail
ThunderRain storms showers
continental polar cT continental tropical mT maritime tropical
Snow
Sleet
Freezing rain
Fog
Haze
Snow showers
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
mP maritime polar
Fronts
Hurricane
Cold Warm Stationary
Tornado
Occluded
13
Selected Properties of Earth’s Atmosphere
Planetary Wind and Moisture Belts in the Troposphere The drawing on the right shows the locations of the belts near the time of an equinox. The locations shift somewhat with the changing latitude of the Sun’s vertical ray. In the Northern Hemisphere, the belts shift northward in the summer and southward in the winter. (Not drawn to scale)
Electromagnetic Spectrum X rays Gamma rays
Microwaves Ultraviolet
Infrared
Radio waves
Decreasing wavelength
Increasing wavelength Visible light Violet
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
Blue
Green Yellow Orange
Red
(Not drawn to scale)
14
Characteristics of Stars (Name in italics refers to star represented by a .) (Stages indicate the general sequence of star development.) 1,000,000
Deneb
Luminosity
(Rate at which a star emits energy relative to the Sun)
100,000
Massive Stars
Betelgeuse
SUPERGIANTS
Rigel
(Intermediate stage)
Spica 10,000
GIANTS
Polaris
1,000
(Intermediate stage)
Aldebaran 100
MA IN
10
(E a
Pollux
SE
Sirius
rly QU s ta E N ge C )
Alpha Centauri
E
1
Sun
0.1
40 Eridani B 0.01
Barnard’s Star
WHITE DWARFS (Late stage)
0.001
Procyon B 0.0001 30,000
20,000
10,000 8,000
Small Stars
Proxima Centauri
6,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
Surface Temperature (K) Blue
Blue White
White
Yellow
Orange
Red
Color
Solar System Data Celestial Object
SUN
Mean Distance from Sun (million km)
Period of Revolution (d=days) (y=years)
Period of Rotation at Equator
Eccentricity of Orbit
Equatorial Diameter (km)
Mass (Earth = 1)
Density (g/cm3)
—
—
27 d
—
1,392,000
333,000.00
1.4
57.9
88 d
59 d
0.206
4,879
0.06
5.4
VENUS
108.2
224.7 d
243 d
0.007
12,104
0.82
5.2
EARTH
149.6
365.26 d
23 h 56 min 4 s
0.017
12,756
1.00
5.5
MARS
227.9
687 d
24 h 37 min 23 s
0.093
6,794
0.11
3.9
JUPITER
778.4
11.9 y
9 h 50 min 30 s
0.048
142,984
317.83
1.3
SATURN
1,426.7
29.5 y
10 h 14 min
0.054
120,536
95.16
0.7
URANUS
2,871.0
84.0 y
17 h 14 min
0.047
51,118
14.54
1.3
NEPTUNE
4,498.3
164.8 y
16 h
0.009
49,528
17.15
1.8
149.6
27.3 d
27.3 d
0.055
3,476
0.01
3.3
MERCURY
EARTH’S MOON
(0.386 from Earth)
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
15
Either
Metallic luster
HARDNESS
FRACTURE
LUSTER
CLEAVAGE
Properties of Common Minerals DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS
USE(S)
COMPOSITION*
MINERAL NAME
1–2
silver to gray
black streak, greasy feel
pencil lead, lubricants
C
Graphite
2.5
metallic silver
gray-black streak, cubic cleavage, density = 7.6 g/cm3
ore of lead, batteries
PbS
Galena
5.5 – 6.5
black to silver
black streak, magnetic
ore of iron, steel
Fe3O4
Magnetite
6.5
brassy yellow
green-black streak, (fool’s gold)
ore of sulfur
FeS2
Pyrite
5.5 – 6.5 or 1
metallic silver or earthy red
red-brown streak
ore of iron, jewelry
Fe2O3
Hematite
white to green
greasy feel
ceramics, paper
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
Talc
yellow to amber
white-yellow streak
sulfuric acid
S
Sulfur
1
2
Nonmetallic luster
COMMON COLORS
2
white to pink or gray
easily scratched by fingernail
plaster of paris, drywall
CaSO4•2H2O
Selenite gypsum
2 – 2.5
colorless to yellow
flexible in thin sheets
paint, roofing
KAl3Si3O10(OH)2
Muscovite mica
2.5
colorless to white
cubic cleavage, salty taste
food additive, melts ice
NaCl
Halite
2.5 – 3
black to dark brown
flexible in thin sheets
construction materials
K(Mg,Fe)3 AlSi3O10(OH)2
Biotite mica
3
colorless or variable
bubbles with acid, rhombohedral cleavage
cement, lime
CaCO3
Calcite
3.5
colorless or variable
bubbles with acid when powdered
building stones
CaMg(CO3)2
Dolomite
4
colorless or variable
cleaves in 4 directions
hydrofluoric acid
CaF2
Fluorite
5–6
black to dark green
cleaves in 2 directions at 90°
mineral collections, jewelry
(Ca,Na) (Mg,Fe,Al) (Si,Al)2O6
Pyroxene (commonly augite)
5.5
black to dark green
cleaves at 56° and 124°
6
white to pink
cleaves in 2 directions at 90°
ceramics, glass
KAlSi3O8
Potassium feldspar (commonly orthoclase)
6
white to gray
cleaves in 2 directions, striations visible
ceramics, glass
(Na,Ca)AlSi3O8
Plagioclase feldspar
mineral collections, CaNa(Mg,Fe)4 (Al,Fe,Ti)3 jewelry Si6O22(O,OH)2
Amphibole (commonly hornblende)
6.5
green to gray or brown
commonly light green and granular
furnace bricks, jewelry
(Fe,Mg)2SiO4
Olivine
7
colorless or variable
glassy luster, may form hexagonal crystals
glass, jewelry, electronics
SiO2
Quartz
6.5 – 7.5
dark red to green
often seen as red glassy grains in NYS metamorphic rocks
jewelry (NYS gem), abrasives
Fe3Al2Si3O12
Garnet
*Chemical symbols:
Al = aluminum C = carbon Ca = calcium
Cl = chlorine F = fluorine Fe = iron
H = hydrogen K = potassium Mg = magnesium
Na = sodium O = oxygen Pb = lead
S = sulfur Si = silicon Ti = titanium
= dominant form of breakage Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
16
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