Gramatica 2410p

TRANSPARENCY 16 Gramática, Unidad 1, Lección 1

R EPASO

Direct Object Pronouns

Direct object pronouns can be used to replace direct object nouns. Here’s how:

Direct Object Pronouns Singular

masculine feminine

me te lo la

Plural nos os los las

me you (familiar) you (formal), him, it you (formal), her, it

us you (familiar) you, them

masculine

you, them

feminine

Direct object pronouns are placed directly before conjugated verbs.

Copyright © by McDougal Littell, a division of Houghton Mifflin Company.

replaced by

before verb

Veo a la profesora.

La veo.

I see the teacher.

I see her.

Héctor tiene el itinerario.

Héctor lo tiene.

Héctor has the itinerary.

Héctor has it.

When an infinitive follows the conjugated verb, the direct object pronoun can be placed before the conjugated verb or attached to the infinitive. before

No voy a hacer la maleta hoy. I’m not going to pack the suitcase today.

No la voy a hacer hoy. attached

or No voy a hacerla hoy. I’m not going to pack it today.

¡Avancemos! 2

Unidad 1, Lección 1

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Indirect Object Pronouns In Spanish, indirect object pronouns are used to accompany or replace nouns that act as indirect objects. Here’s how: The indirect object pronouns me, te, nos, and os are the same as the direct object pronouns. Only the usted/ él/ella and ustedes/ellos/ellas forms are different. Indirect Object Pronouns


Singular

Plural

me me te you (familiar)

nos os

us

le

les

you, them

you (formal), him, her

you (familiar)

In Spanish, you must use the indirect object pronoun to accompany the noun it modifies or to replace the noun. The pronoun appears before conjugated verbs. accompanies

replaces

Mamá les da el dinero a José y Ana.

Mamá les da el dinero.

Mom gives José and Ana the money.

Mom gives them the money.

When an infinitive follows the conjugated verb, the indirect object pronoun can be placed before the conjugated verb or attached to the infinitive. Le voy a vender mi coche a Sara.

before

I’m going to sell Sara my car.

Le voy a vender mi coche.

becomes

attached

or

Voy a venderle mi coche. I’m going to sell her my car.

¡Avancemos! 2


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Preterite of -ar Verbs The preterite tense in Spanish tells what happened at a particular moment in the past. How do you form the preterite of -ar verbs? Here’s how: Like present-tense verbs, you form the preterite tense of regular verbs by adding tense endings to the verb stem. visitar to visit yo

visité

nosotros(as) visitamos

tú

visitaste

vosotros(as) visitasteis

usted, él, ella

visitó

ustedes, ellos(as)

visitaron


Durante las vacaciones, yo monté a caballo, mi mamá visitó un museo y mis hermanos nadaron. During vacation, I went horseback riding, my mom visited a museum, and my brothers went swimming.

The nosotros ending in the preterite tense is the same as in the present tense. Look for clues in the sentence to help you determine whether the verb is in the present or past tense. Acampamos anoche en el parque. We camped last night in the park.

The word anoche tells you that the verb acampamos is in the preterite tense, not the present.

¡Avancemos! 2


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Preterite of ir, ser, hacer, ver, dar The verbs ir, ser, hacer, ver, and dar are irregular in the preterite tense. They are formed without regular past-tense endings. Here’s how: The preterite forms of ir and ser are exactly the same. You must use clues in the sentence to determine whether ir or ser is used in the preterite.

fui fuiste fue

fuimos fuisteis fueron

Fuimos al parque de diversiones.

¡Fue un día muy divertido!

We went to the amusement park.

It was a very fun day!

Hacer has its own preterite-tense forms. In the usted/él/ella form, the c of the stem becomes a z before o.


ir to go / ser to be

¿Qué hizo usted ayer?

Hice la tarea.

What did you do yesterday?

I did homework.

hacer to do; to make hice hiciste hizo

hicimos hicisteis hicieron

The verbs ver and dar take regular -er/-ir past tense endings in the preterite but have no written accent marks. ver to see vi viste vio

vimos visteis vieron

dar to give di diste dio

dimos disteis dieron

Vimos mucho arte interesante en el museo.

Mi amigo me dio un regalo.

We saw a lot of interesting art at the museum.

My friend gave me a gift.

¡Avancemos! 2


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Preterite of -er, -ir verbs Regular -er and -ir verbs are different from regular -ar verbs in the preterite tense. Here’s how: Regular -er and -ir verbs have the same preterite endings. comer

to eat

yo

comí

nosotros(as)

comimos

tú

comiste

vosotros(as)

comisteis

usted, él, ella

comió

ustedes, ellos(as)

comieron


escribir to write yo

escribí

nosotros(as)

escribimos

tú

escribiste

vosotros(as)

escribisteis

usted, él, ella

escribió

ustedes, ellos(as)

escribieron

Note that the nosotros form of -ir verbs is the same in the preterite and in the present tense (-imos). Look for clues in the sentence to help you know whether the verb is in the present or past tense. Recibimos el premio ayer. We received the prize yesterday.

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The word ayer tells you that recibimos is in the preterite tense.


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Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns Demonstratives indicate where something is. In Spanish, they show if something is close to, not as close to, or far away from the speaker. Here’s how: Demonstrative Adjectives close

not close

far away

m.

f.

m.

f.

m.

f.

Singular

este this

esta this

ese that

esa that

aquel that

aquella that

Plural

estos these

estas these

esos those

esas those

aquellos those

aquellas those


Demonstrative Pronouns Singular

éste

ésta

ése

ésa

aquél

aquélla

Plural

éstos

éstas

ésos

ésas

aquéllos

aquéllas

Demonstrative pronouns have accents, but there is no change in pronunciation.

Demonstrative adjectives appear before the noun. They agree in gender and number with the noun they describe.

Demonstrative pronouns take the place of nouns. They agree in gender and number with the noun they replace.

¿Cuánto cuesta este anillo? How much does this ring cost? Ese anillo cuesta diez dólares.

¿Cuánto cuesta éste? How much does this one cost? Ése cuesta diez dólares.

That ring costs ten dollars. Aquel anillo es más barato. That ring (over there) is cheaper.

That one costs ten dollars. Aquél es más barato. That one (over there) is cheaper.

¡Avancemos! 2


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Reflexive Verbs In Spanish, all reflexive verbs are expressed with a reflexive pronoun. Here’s how: In the infinitive form of reflexive verbs, the reflexive pronoun attaches to the end: bañarse. When you conjugate reflexive verbs, the pronoun appears before the conjugated verb. bañarse to take a bath yo

me baño

nosotros(as)

nos bañamos

tú

te bañas

vosotros(as)

os bañáis

usted, él, ella

se baña

ustedes, ellos(as)

se bañan


Jorgito se baña a las ocho.

Jorgito takes a bath at eight.

When a reflexive verb follows a conjugated verb, use the correct reflexive pronoun with the infinitive.

attached

¿A qué hora quieres despertarte?

You can attach the pronoun to the infinitive.

What time do you want to wake up? before

You can also place the pronoun before the conjugated verb.

Me quiero despertar a las siete. I want to wake up at seven.

Some verbs are not always reflexive. not reflexive reflexive

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Yo despierto a Celia a las siete. I wake up Celia at seven. Yo me despierto a las siete. I wake (myself) up at seven.


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Present Progressive Use the present tense of estar plus the present participle to form the present progressive. Here’s how: To make a present participle, drop the end of the infinitive and add -ando (-ar verbs) or -iendo (-er/-ir verbs). becomes

comprar

comprando

comer

comiendo

escribir

escribiendo


Estoy comprando las toallas. I am buying the towels.

¿Qué estás comiendo? What are you eating? becomes

When the stem of an -er or -ir verb ends in a vowel, change the -iendo to -yendo.

leer

Some -ir verbs change vowels e → i: decir in the stem of the present o → u: dormir participle form.

becomes becomes

leyendo

diciendo durmiendo

Pronouns can either be placed before the conjugated form of estar or attached to the end of the present participle. When you attach a pronoun to the present participle, you need to add an accent to the stressed vowel. before

Me estoy arreglando. or I am getting ready.

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attached

Estoy arreglándome. I am getting ready.


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REPASO Present Tense of Irregular yo Verbs

Some present-tense verbs are irregular only in the yo form. They have endings different from the -o ending of regular verbs. Here’s how: The verbs hacer, poner, salir, and traer end in -go in the yo form. Compare them with their tú forms in the present tense. hacer to make; to do yo tú

hago haces

poner to put

salir to go out; to leave

traer to bring

pongo pones

salgo sales

traigo traes


The verbs decir, venir, and tener also end in -go in the yo form. All are stem-changing verbs, but only decir changes in the yo form.

yo tú

decir (e → i) to say; to tell

venir (e → ie) to come

tener (e → ie) to have

digo dices

vengo vienes

tengo tienes

Conocer, dar, saber, and ver also have irregular yo forms in the present tense. conocer to know; to meet yo tú

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conozco conoces

dar to give

saber to know

ver to see

doy das

sé sabes

veo ves


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Pronouns after Prepositions Pronouns that follow prepositions are different from subject pronouns and object pronouns. Here’s how: Use these pronouns after prepositions like para, de, a, and con.

Pronouns after Prepositions mí ti él, ella, usted

nosotros(as) vosotros(as) ellos, ellas, ustedes

Notice that these pronouns are the same as the subject pronouns in all forms except mí (yo) and ti (tú).


Clara vive lejos de nosotros. Clara lives far from us.

Tengo un regalo para ti. I have a gift for you.

With verbs like gustar, use pronouns after the preposition a to add emphasis. A mí no me gusta la ropa de cuadros.

I really don’t like plaid clothes.

The pronoun after a can also clarify to whom a sentence refers. Uncertain Certain

Le gusta ir a la librería. A él le gusta ir a la librería.

He/She/You like(s) to go to the bookstore. He likes to go to the bookstore.

When you use mí and ti after the preposition con, they combine with con to form the words conmigo and contigo. ¿Vas a la fiesta conmigo o con Jorge? No voy con él; voy contigo.

¡Avancemos! 2

Are you going to the party with me or with Jorge? I’m not going with him; I’m going with you.


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Irregular Preterite Verbs The verbs estar, poder, poner, saber, and tener are irregular in the preterite tense. To form the preterite of these verbs, you must change their stems and add irregular preterite endings. Here’s how: Each of these verbs has a unique stem in the preterite, but they all take the same endings.

Verb


estar poder poner saber tener

to be to be able to put to know to have

Stem

Preterite Endings

estuvpudpussuptuv-

-e -iste -o

¿Dónde pusiste mi cartera? Where did you put my wallet?

-imos -isteis -ieron

Note that there are no accents on these endings.

Ella estuvo en casa ayer. She was at home yesterday.

The verb saber usually has a different meaning in the preterite. It means to find out. Yo supe la verdad ayer. I found out the truth yesterday.

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Preterite of -ir Stem-Changing Verbs that many -ir verbs have stem changes in the present tense. These verbs change stems in some forms of the preterite tense too. Here’s how: Stem-changing -ir verbs in the preterite change only in the usted/él/ella and the ustedes/ellos/ellas forms. Preterite tense e → i

Preterite tense o → u

pedir to ask for

dormir to sleep

pedí

pedimos

dormí

dormimos

pediste

pedisteis

dormiste

dormisteis

pidió

pidieron

durmió

durmieron


¿Qué pidieron en el mercado? What did they ask for at the market?

Zulma durmió diez horas anoche. Zulma slept ten hours last night

Here are some other e → i preterite stem-changing verbs that follow the pattern of pedir.

preferir servir vestirse competir seguir

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to prefer to serve to get dressed to compete to follow

¿Quiénes compitieron en el campeonato? Who competed in the championship? Nosotros competimos y ganamos. We competed and we won.


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The Imperfect Tense The imperfect is another past tense in Spanish. How do you use it? Here’s how:

The imperfect is used to describe something that was not perfected or not completed in the past. You use it to . . .

• talk about something that was happening • talk about something you used to do

• say how old someone was • tell what time it was

Regular verbs in the imperfect take these endings:


Note that the yo form and the usted/él/ ella forms are the same.

yo tú usted, él, ella nosotros(as) vosotros(as) ustedes, ellos(as)

estar estaba estabas estaba estábamos estabais estaban

hacer hacía hacías hacía hacíamos hacíais hacían

salir salía salías salía salíamos salíais salían

Él estaba aquí cuando yo hacía el pastel. He was here when I was making the cake.

Only three verbs are irregular in the imperfect. Cuando yo era niña, íbamos a la playa. When I was little, we used to go to the beach.

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ser

ir

ver

era eras era éramos erais eran

iba ibas iba íbamos ibais iban

veía veías veía veíamos veíais veían


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Preterite and Imperfect You have learned two verb forms used for the past tense: the preterite and the imperfect. How do you know when to use each one? Here’s how: Decide whether an action had a specific beginning and ending. Use the preterite if the action started and ended at a definite time. La guerra empezó en 1846. The war began in 1846. Santa Ana fue presidente de México. Santa Ana was the president of Mexico.


Use the imperfect to talk about past actions without saying when they began or ended. Los guerreros no tenían miedo del enemigo. The warriors were not afraid of the enemy. El ejército peleaba valientemente. The army fought bravely. You can apply both tenses to talk about two overlapping events. • the preterite for the action that occurred • the imperfect for what was going on at the time Cuando la guerra terminó, Santa Ana era presidente de México. When the war ended, Santa Ana was president of Mexico. Note that you use the preterite of ser (fue) to say that Santa Ana was once president of Mexico, but you use the imperfect of ser (era) to say that Santa Ana was president during an unspecified time.

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Preterite of -car, -gar, and -zar Verbs In the preterite, verbs that end in -car, -gar, and -zar are spelled differently in the yo form to maintain their pronunciation. Here’s how:

buscar

c

becomes

qu

(yo) busqué

pagar

g

becomes

gu

(yo) pagué

empezar

z

becomes

c

(yo) empecé


tú Form

yo Form

¿Buscaste las ruinas? Did you look for the ruins?

Sí, busqué las ruinas. Yes, I looked for the ruins.

¿Pagaste la cuenta? Did you pay the bill?

No, no pagué la cuenta. No, I didn’t pay the bill.

¿Cuándo empezaste la excavación? When did you begin the excavation?

Empecé la excavación ayer. I began the excavation yesterday.

Here are some other verbs that change in the same way.

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-car

-gar

-zar

sacar tocar

llegar jugar

almorzar comenzar


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More Verbs with Irregular Preterite Stems The verbs venir, querer, decir, and traer are irregular in the preterite. Here’s how:

All four verbs have irregular preterite stems. Venir and querer take the same preterite endings as estar, poder, poner, saber, and tener.

Verb

Stem

venir to come querer to want

vinquis-

Irregular Preterite Endings -e -iste -o

-imos -isteis -ieron

¿Ustedes vinieron de la biblioteca?


Did you come from the library? The verb querer usually has a different meaning in the preterite. It means tried. Quisimos ver las ruinas, pero no pudimos. We tried to see the ruins, but we couldn’t. The preterite stems of decir and traer end in j. Use the same irregular preterite endings as above, but drop the i from the ustedes/ellos/ellas ending. Verb decir traer

Stem to say; to tell dijto bring traj-

ustedes/ellos/ellas dijeron trajeron

Ellos trajeron unas cerámicas Marcos me dijo que están hechas de México. a mano. They brought some ceramics from Mexico. Marcos told me that they’re handmade.

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Usted/Ustedes Commands To tell someone respectfully to do or not do something, use usted commands. Commands require a change in verb endings. Here’s how: You form usted commands with the yo form of verbs in the present tense. Drop the -o and add the following endings.


Commands Infinitive

Present Tense

usted

ustedes

probar (ue) comer añadir

yo pruebo yo como yo añado

pruebe coma añada

prueben coman añadan

Pruebe el té.

Coman la merienda.

Añada más sal.

Taste the tea.

Eat the snack.

Add more salt.

Add no before the verb to make commands negative.

No añada más sal. Don’t add more salt.

Some common verbs have irregular usted/ustedes command forms.

usted ustedes

dar

estar

ir

saber

ser

dé den

esté estén

vaya vayan

sepa sepan

sea sean

Vaya a la cocina. Go to the kitchen.

No estén tristes. Don’t be sad.

Verbs ending in -car, -gar, and -zar have a spelling change in the command form. buscar

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busque empezar

pagar empiece

pague


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Pronoun Placement with Commands In Spanish, the placement of pronouns depends on whether a command is affirmative or negative. Here’s how: In affirmative commands, you attach object pronouns to the end of the verb. attached

Affirmative:

Llévenos al supermercado. Take us to the supermarket.

Pónganlas en la mesa. Put them on the table.


Note that when a pronoun is attached to an affirmative command of two syllables or more, the stressed vowel carries an accent. In negative commands, you place object pronouns before the verb and after no. before

Negative:

No le venda esta camisa. Don’t sell her this shirt.

No lo prueben. Don’t taste it.

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Affirmative and Negative Words Indefinite words refer to non-specific people, things, or situations and can be affirmative or negative. How do you use them in Spanish? Here’s how: Affirmative Words

Negative Words

algo

something

nada

nothing

alguien

someone

nadie

no one

algún/alguno(a) some

ningún/ninguno(a) none, not any

o... o

either . . . or

ni... ni

neither . . . nor

siempre

always

nunca

never

también

also

tampoco

neither, either


Alguno(a) and ninguno(a) have different forms before masculine singular nouns. alguno

becomes

algún

¿Quieres algún filete? Do you want some steak?

ninguno

becomes

ningún

No, no quiero ningún plato con carne. No, I do not want any dish with meat.

A double negative is required in Spanish when no comes before the verb. Indefinite words that follow no must be negative. No veo nada.

I do not see anything.

When alguien or nadie is the object of a verb, it is preceded by the personal a. ¿Conoces a alguien de España? Do you know anyone from Spain?

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No, no conozco a nadie de España. No, I do not know anyone from Spain.


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Double Object Pronouns In Spanish, direct object pronouns and indirect object pronouns appear before the conjugated verb. How do you place both in the same sentence? Here’s how:

In sentences with both object pronouns, the indirect object pronoun comes first. indirect object

La camarera nos trajo el caldo a Juan y a mí. The waitress brought the broth to Juan and me.

direct object

La camarera nos lo trajo. The waitress brought it to us.

When a conjugated verb appears with an infinitive or a verb in the -ndo form, you can put the pronouns before the conjugated verb, or you can attach them to the infinitive or -ndo form.


before

attached

Me los vas a pedir.

or

Vas a pedírmelos.

Me los estás pidiendo.

or

Estás pidiéndomelos.

When you attach pronouns, you need to add an accent to the stressed vowel. If both pronouns start with the letter l, change the indirect object pronoun to se. Le pedí la cuenta al camarero. I asked the waiter for the bill.

le

becomes

¿Les puedes llevar el té a esas mujeres? Can you take the tea to those women? les becomes

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se

Se la pedí. I asked him for it.

se ¿Puedes llevárselo? Can you take it to them?


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Negative tú Commands

You learned that negative usted commands begin with the word no and change the verb ending. Negative tú commands follow a similar pattern. Here’s how: You form negative tú commands with the yo form of verbs in the present tense. -ar verbs -o changes to -es -o changes to -as -er, -ir verbs Infinitive

Present Tense

Negative tú Commands

mirar

yo miro

¡No mires esa película de terror! Don’t watch that horror film!

poner

¡No pongas el micrófono allí!

yo pongo

Don’t put the microphone there!

escribir

¡No escribas otra escena!

yo escribo


Don’t write another scene!

Verbs that end in -car, -gar, and -zar have spelling changes. tocar

no toques

jugar

no juegues

almorzar

no almuerces

The negative tú command forms of some verbs are irregular. dar estar ir

no des no estés no vayas

saber ser

no sepas no seas

Pronouns with negative tú commands appear before the verb. ¿Ves esta cámara? No se la des. Do you see this camera? Don’t give it to her.

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R EPASO

Affirmative tú Commands

You use affirmative tú commands to tell someone you know well to do something. How do you form these commands? Here’s how: Regular affirmative tú commands are the same as the usted/él/ella form of a verb in the present tense. Present Tense

Affirmative tú Command

Él escribe el guión y filma la película.

Escribe el guión y filma la película.

He writes the script and films the movie.

Write the script and film the movie.

The verbs hacer, ir, and ser are irregular in the tú command form.


hacer ir ser

Haz un documental. Make a documentary. Ve al cine. Go to the movie theater. ¡Sé bueno! Be good!

Some irregular tú commands are based on the present-tense yo form. For these verbs, drop the -go ending to form the commands.

decir poner salir tener venir

yo Form

tú Command

digo pongo salgo tengo vengo

di pon sal ten ven

The rules of pronoun placement also apply to affirmative tú commands. Attach pronouns to affirmative commands. When you attach pronouns to verbs with two or more syllables, add an accent to show stress.

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Dime. Tell me. Preséntanos a la directora. Introduce us to the director.


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Present Subjunctive with Ojalá One way to express a hope or wish is to use the phrase ojalá que... with the present subjunctive. How do you form the subjunctive of regular verbs? Here’s how: Use what you already know about forming usted commands. -ar verbs = -e endings -er, -ir verbs = -a endings


Present Subjunctive of Regular Verbs yo These forms tú are the usted, él, ella same in the subjunctive. nosotros(as) vosotros(as) ustedes, ellos(as)

hablar

tener

escribir

hable hables hable hablemos habléis hablen

tenga tengas tenga tengamos tengáis tengan

escriba escribas escriba escribamos escribáis escriban

Fact: Ganamos un premio hoy. We’re winning a prize today.

Hope: ¡Ojalá que ganemos un premio hoy! I hope that we win a prize today!

Stem-changing -ar and -er verbs in the present tense also change in the subjunctive. pensar piense pienses piense

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e → ie pensemos penséis piensen

poder pueda puedas pueda

o → ue podamos podáis puedan


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More Subjunctive Verbs with Ojalá The verbs dar, estar, ir, saber, and ser are irregular in the subjunctive. Here’s how:

dar

estar

ir

saber

ser

dé des dé demos deis den

esté estés esté estemos estéis estén

vaya vayas vaya vayamos vayáis vayan

sepa sepas sepa sepamos sepáis sepan

sea seas sea seamos seáis sean

Ojalá que vayan a la gala.

I hope they go to the gala.


Stem-changing -ir verbs in the present tense also change stems in the subjunctive. The e → i stem change applies to all forms. Ojalá que ellos pidan un entremés. I hope they order an appetizer.

The e → ie stem change applies to all forms except nosotros and vosotros. Those forms change e → i. preferir prefiera prefieras prefiera

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e → ie, i prefiramos prefiráis prefieran

pedir pida pidas pida

e→i pidamos pidáis pidan

The o → ue stem change applies to all forms except nosotros and vosotros. Those forms change o → u. dormir duerma duermas duerma

o → ue, u durmamos durmáis duerman


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Subjunctive with Impersonal Expressions You know how to form the subjunctive and how to use it after expressions of hope. You also use the subjunctive after some impersonal expressions to show uncertainty that something will happen. Here’s how: When an impersonal expression gives an opinion that something should happen, the verbs that follow are in the subjunctive. Fact: Mis amigos y yo estudiamos para los exámenes. My friends and I study for the exams. Opinion: Es importante que todos estudiemos para los exámenes. It’s important that we all study for the exams.


In the second example, the speaker thinks it is important that everyone study, but it is uncertain that everyone will. Use the subjunctive with impersonal expressions to tell what you think is necessary, important, preferable, good, or bad. Es necesario que presentemos la verdad. It’s necessary that we present the truth. Es preferible que escribas tres artículos. It’s preferable that you write three articles. Es bueno que tenga la cámara. It’s a good idea that she have the camera. Es malo que publiquen ese titular. It’s bad that they may publish that headline. Pronouns appear before verbs in the subjunctive. Es importante que nos expliques tu punto de vista. It’s important that you explain to us your point of view.

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Por and para The prepositions por and para have similar meanings but different uses in Spanish. How do you know which one to use? Here’s how: The preposition por can mean for, through, in, because, and by. Use por when referring to the cause of or reason for an • action Por eso, ella escribió el artículo. For that reason, she wrote the article. Gracias por el regalo. Thanks for the gift.

• means of communication Copyright © by McDougal Littell, a division of Houghton Mifflin Company.

Te llamo por teléfono. I’ll call you by phone.

• periods of time

Mari fue a Samaná por un mes. Mari went to Samaná for one month. Vengo por la tarde. I’ll come in the afternoon.

• movement through a place

Los turistas pasan por la aduana. The tourists are going through customs. Fui a México por Texas. I went to Mexico through Texas.

The preposition para can mean for, in order to, to, and by. Use para when referring to

• goals to reach or purposes to fulfill

Practicamos para ganar el partido. We practice in order to win the game.

• movement toward a place Salíamos para la escuela a las siete. We used to leave for school at seven.

• the recipient of an action or object

Estas fotos son para Laura. These photos are for Laura.

• an opinion Para mí, es una cuestión de tiempo. To me, it’s a question of time.

• deadlines to meet Escribe el artículo para el viernes. Write the article by Friday.

• employment Sara trabaja para el periódico. Sara works for the newspaper.

Use por to indicate cause rather than purpose. Think of para as moving you toward the word, or destination, that follows.

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REPASO

Comparatives

There are several phrases for making comparisons in Spanish. They compare differences and similarities between people and things. Here’s how:

Use the following phrases with an adjective to compare qualities. Use them with a noun to compare quantities.

más... que more . . . than

Lorena es más generosa que yo. Lorena is more generous than I.

menos... que less . . . than

Tengo menos dinero que Tania. I have less money than Tania.

tan... como as . . . as

Víctor es tan tímido como Sonia. Víctor is as shy as Sonia.

When using tan to compare quantities, it changes to agree with the noun.


tanto(s)... como as . . . as

Tienes tantas opiniones como yo. You have as many opinions as I.

When a comparison does not involve qualities or quantities, use these phrases. más que... more than . . .

Me gusta leer más que escribir. I like to read more than write.

menos que... less than . . .

Francisca juega al fútbol menos que al tenis. Francisca plays soccer less than tennis.

tanto como... as much as . . .

Viajo tanto como tú. I travel as much as you.

The following comparative words are irregular. mayor older

menor younger

Mis hermanos son menores que yo.

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mejor better

peor worse

My brothers are younger than I.


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Superlatives In Spanish, you form superlatives by using más and menos. Here’s how: When you want to say that something has the most or the least of a certain quality, use a definite article with más or menos. You use de after the adjective to say from what group you are comparing. el (la) más... los (las) más...

el (la) menos... los (las) menos...

Estos pájaros son los más bellos de la tienda. These birds are the prettiest in the store.

When the noun is part of the superlative phrase, place it between the article and the superlative word. Eres la persona menos tímida que conozco. Copyright © by McDougal Littell, a division of Houghton Mifflin Company.

You are the least shy person I know.

When you refer to an idea or concept, use the neuter article lo. Lo más importante es estudiar. The most important thing is to study. Use the irregular forms you learned with comparatives when referring to the best, worst, oldest, and youngest. You use them without más and menos.

Adjective bueno malo viejo joven

good bad old (for person) young (for person)

Superlative el el el el

(la) (la) (la) (la)

mejor peor mayor menor

the best the worst the oldest the youngest

Mis botas son buenas, pero tus botas son las mejores. My boots are good, but your boots are the best.

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Other Impersonal Expressions You have learned that the subjunctive is used after some impersonal expressions to show uncertainty. If an impersonal expression deals with certainty, however, the verbs that follow are in the present tense. Here’s how: Impersonal expressions with the words cierto and verdad express certainty in the affirmative and are followed by the present tense. Es cierto que respiramos aire puro. It’s true that we breathe clean air.


Es verdad que trabajan de voluntarios. It’s true that they work as volunteers. When these expressions are made negative, they imply doubt or disbelief. The impersonal expressions No es cierto que and No es verdad que are followed by verbs in the present subjunctive. No es cierto que respiremos aire puro. It’s not true that we breathe clean air. No es verdad que trabajen de voluntarios. It’s not true that they work as volunteers.

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Future Tense of Regular Verbs You have learned one way to talk about future actions in Spanish using ir a + infinitive. Spanish also has a future tense. How do you form it? Here’s how: You attach endings to the infinitive to form the future tense of regular verbs. These endings are the same for -ar, -er, and -ir verbs. Infinitive

Future Tense Endings

trabajar recoger


escribir

+

-é -ás -á

-emos -éis -án

Trabajaré de voluntario para proteger el medio ambiente. I will volunteer to protect the environment. ¿Recogerán la basura en el parque mañana? Will they pick up trash in the park tomorrow? Escribiremos un artículo sobre la deforestación. We will write an article about deforestation. Notice that all future tense endings have accents except nosotros.

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Future Tense of Irregular Verbs Irregular verbs in the future tense use the same endings as regular verbs, but the infinitive stem changes. Here’s how: Some infinitives lose a letter. saber becomes e e

sabr-

saber to know sabré sabremos sabrás sabréis sabrá sabrán

The verbs haber, poder, and querer also follow this pattern. haber poder querer

habrpodrquerr-

¿Qué podrá hacer la doctora? What will the doctor be able to do?


Some infinitives change a letter. poner becomes

poner to put, to place pondré pondremos pondrás pondréis pondrá pondrán

pondr-

The verbs salir, tener, and venir also follow this pattern. salir tener venir

saldrtendrvendr-

Algún día, tendremos más curas. Some day, we will have more cures.

Decir and hacer do not follow either pattern. decir

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dir-

hacer

har-


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R EPASO

Pronouns

In Spanish, reflexive pronouns, indirect object pronouns, and direct object pronouns all function in relation to the action of the verb in a sentence. Here’s how: Reflexive me nos te os se se

Pronouns Indirect Object me nos te os le les

Direct Object me nos te os lo/la los/las

Note that only the usted/él/ella and ustedes/ellos/ellas forms are different.


Reflexive pronouns appear with reflexive verbs. Together, they refer to the same person, place, or thing as the subject. Él se gana la vida como carpintero. Indirect object pronouns answer to whom? or for whom? about the verb. La ingeniera le habla al arquitecto. La ingeniera le habla. Direct objects pronouns answer whom? or what? about the verb. El enfermero hizo los exámenes. El enfermero los hizo. When both object pronouns appear in the same sentence, the indirect object goes first. When both pronouns start with l, change the indirect object to se. Delsi le explica la tarea a Juan. Delsi se la explica. Attach pronouns to affirmative commands. Place them before negative commands. Dímelo más tarde. No me lo digas ahora.

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