Norn Language 5t271p

Velkomen! Welcome to the home of Norn, the mysterious 6th Scandinavian language that was spoken in Shetland, Orkney and part of Scotland until the 18-19th centuries, when it was replaced with Scots English. Like its close cousins, Faroese and Icelandic, Norn descended from Old Norse, the language of Scandinavian settlers who colonised various sparse populated or uninhabited territories in North Atlantic. The colonisers, or vikings, which is what they are usually called nowadays, came mostly from West Norway and it seems logical that they first called at Shetland and Orkney, the closest lands to Norway. The first Scandinavian settlements appeared on these archipelagoes around 800 A.D., which can be considered to be the startpoint of Norn. Little is known about the development of Norn before its fragments started being recorded in the 1718th century and nobody knows for sure when Norn developed into a language different from Old Norse. The latter is the language of the oldest Scandinavian records found in Shetland and Orkney - runic inscriptions from the 10-12th centuries. Primarily ruled by native Norse earls, Orkney and Shetland accepted the authority of the King of Norway in 1231 and the written language used at those times in official correspondance was still Old Norse, which showed very few local features, if any. This is not surprising, bearing in mind that local scribes used to go to Norway seeking training in the language. In 1380 Shetland and Orkney followed Norway into an alliance with Denmark when the Norwegian and Danish crowns united (Kalmar Union) and Danish started replacing Old Norse as the language of clerical records. Danish was used well into the 16th century and even longer - the last document written in Danish dates back to 1607 (Shetland). However, whatever written language was used, it is obvious that the spoken language of the original Norse population of the islands - namely Norn - never made it onto paper. Surviving old documents in Old Norse or Danish are not illustrative about Norn, and, as the scarce existing records show, it was quite different from both. In the 14th century, the islands started experiencing a growing influence from Scotland and a few centuries later Scots English (or Scots, regarded by some as a separate language) started to compete with the local Scandinavian tongue. Orkney faced this

influence to a greater extent, while Shetland, thanks to its relative remoteness, was more conservative and about one hundred years behind in accepting the changes that had already occured in its southern neighbour. The first step of "Scottisation" of the islands was eventually made clear in the 13th century when the line of Norse earls in Orkney ceased and was replaced first by Scottish earls of Angus and then Strathearn lines, apparently Gaelic speaking. Later on they were succeeded by the Sinclair earls, who spoke Scots (but still acted on behalf of the Norwegian king). The Sinclairs had a less formal influence in Shetland as well and in the 16th century, Scottish earls finally came to power in Shetland. The oldest preserved documents in Scots are from 1433 (Orkney) and 1525 (Shetland). The Danish king pawned Orkney (1468) and Shetland (1469) to Scotland, to which they have belonged since, being presently a part of United Kingdom. Scots thus became the official language of the islands, despite the dominance of Norn as the spoken language. This dominance was though quickly threatened by a flood of immigrants from Scotland who had started moving to Orkney around 1400 and later reached Shetland, although to a lesser extent. Scots was slowly but surely displacing the Scandinavian language in the official domain and business, leaving to Norn the lower social niche - the language of poor fishermen and crofters. The fate of Norn was finally decided in 1560, when the Reformation reached Scotland and the islands saw new Scots schools and Scots speaking clergymen. After that, the demise of Norn was just a matter of time: Scholars call the old Norse language of Shetland 'Norn'. In Foula it was known as 'Da Dansk'. Tradition has it that the language died out in two generations. Grandparents refused to teach 'Dat auld dirt' to their grandchildren. A major trigger for this attitude was probably the teaching of the English Bible in a school established in the island in 1740 by the Scottish Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge.' (Quote taken from the Foula Heritage website). But Norn did not give in easily as it is usually believed. Despite the fact that the islands' old Norse legislation was replaced with that of Scotland around 1600, Orcadians and Shetlanders maintained strong economic and family ties with Norway up till the 1718th centuries. Hugh Marwick mentions that in 1613-1650 no less than 78 Orcadians moved to Bergen, Norway, hinting that the number of immigrants from Shetland was even higher. One of the first burgomasters of Bergen was the Orkney-born 'Little John'. Jakob Jakobsen recalls the name "Hjeltefjorden" ('the Shetland fjord') given to the northern entrance of the harbour of Bergen which was a casual mooring place for boats regularly coming from Shetland. However, the ties with Norway were

constantly slackening until, ultimately, this link to one of the most relevant areas for usage of Norn became a matter of the past. According to historical sources, most of Norn speakers of the 17-18th centuries, if not all, were bilingual. Orkney Norn, being in common usage in the 16th century, most likely declined in the 1600's and after 1700 only a very few people retained an ability to speak it. By 1773 Orkney Norn was believed to be practically extinct, although some of the local inhabitants were said to preserve a very limited memory of Norn (apparently just some odd words and phrases) around 1800. See the following testimonies by contemporaries: 1569, Dalrympe translation of Leslye's "History": 'of the Iles of Orchnay, sum ar Inglese, sum of the language of Norway'. 1582, George Buchanan, "History of Scotland": 'the old Gothic tongue (vetus gothica longua) was still used in Orkney' 1605, Sir Thomas Craig : 'in Orkney and Shetland, where in the previous century only Norse was spoken, English was the language used in churches and was well enough understood'. 1670, Mathew Mackaill (MacKaile), "A Short Relation of the Most Considerable Things in Orkney": 'It is very probably that the inhabitants of the Orcades of old did only speak Noords or rude Danish; but there are only three or four parishes (especially upon the Mainland or Pomona) wherein that language is spoken, and that chiefly when they are at their own houses, but all speak the Scots language, as the rest of the commons do'. 1700, Wallace: 'all speak English, after Scots way... some of the common People amongst themselves speak a language they call Norns; which they have derived to them, either from the Pights, or some others, who first planted this Country; for by the following Lord's Prayer in that Language, it has but little of the Danish or Norwegian language, to which I thought it should have had more affinity, considering how long time they were possessors of this Country'. 1701, Revd John Brand, "Description of Orkney, Zetland, etc.": 'They generally speak English, neither do I think they have so much of the Northern Accent, as in many places of the North of Scotland, yet several of the Isles have some Words and Phrases peculiar to themselves. There are also some who speak Norse especially in the Mainland, as in the parish of Hara there are a few yet living, who can speak no other thing, this Language not being quite extinct among them, since the Norwegians whose Language it is, had this Country in possession. And tho Caithness be near to Orkney, yet none in Orkney can speak Irish, tho the greatest part in Caithness can; Nor any in Caithness speak Norse tho some in Orkney yet can do it'. 1703, Martin, "Brief Description of the Isles of Orkney and Shetland": They generally speak the English tongue, and many among them retain the ancient Danish language, especially in the more Northern isles..

1750, Murdoch Mackenzie: 'The Language is English in the Scotch Dialect, with more of the Norwegian than any other Accent; these Islands having formerly been a Province of Norway, of which they still retain some of the Customs, and a little of the Language, which they call Noren, much the same with what is presently spoken in Iceland and the Faro Islands. Thirty or Forty years ago this (Norn) was the language of two parishes in Pomona Island; since which, by the Means of Charity-Schools, it is so much wore out, as to be understood by none by old People; and in thirty years more, it is probably, will not be understood there at all'. 1750, James Mackenzie, speaking of both Orkney and Shetland: 'The customs of the inhabitants, like the rest, were all Norwegian; their language the Norse, or that dialect of Gothic which is spoken in Norway, and disused only within this present age, by means of those English schools erected by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Nor to this very time it is quite disused, being still retained by old people, and in vulgar use amongst them at this day.' 1757, witnesses at the Court of Session: 'Thomas Balfour, merchant in Kirkwall, aged 33, depones that about 20 years ago, when the Deponent came first to the school of Kirkwall, he heard severals of the Country people from the Mainland speak Norn, or Norse, among themselves; but that English ewas the common Language. ... John Erskine, tacksman of Nether Scapa, aged 38, depones that he does not whether or not he heard the Norse language, or the language in Norway, commonly called Norn in Orkney, frequently spoke when the Deponent was a boy at school, but re the Language to have been spoke by some Country People, spontaneously, in the Deponent's company, and they had a pretty long Conversation in the Language; and that this happened within these two years. ... James Smith, writer in Stennes, aged 42, depones that he re the Norn or Norse Language to have been vulgarly spoke by a good many People in the Mainland of Orkney; and that he knows some People, particularly three or four in the parishes of Harray and Firth, who speak that Language pretty fluently, as far as he can judge, at this day. ... William Sinclair, tacksman of Rapness in Westray, aged 53, depones ... that when the Deponent was a Boy at the School of Kirkwall, he frequently heard the Country People speaking the Norn, at least, a Language resembling the Norse, or Language in Norway.' 1773, Revd George Low: 'The Language of these Islands was a dialect of the Norwegian, the same as is used in Iceland to this day. It was called here Norn (contracted I suppose for Norwegian) but is now so much worn out, that I believe there is scarce a single man in the country who can express himself on the most ordinary occasion in the language. Even the Songs... are now (except a few of the most trifling) altogether lost, tho this little more than half a century ago was the prevailing tongue of two parishes in the Mainland. They now altogether speak english, but with a great deal of the Norwegian accent, and even with some words of that language intermixed... and to this day there are many sounds in the English language which the Orkney people cannot master, but pronounce according to their old Norn dialect'.

1805, Revd George Barry, "History of Orkney": 'So late as 1756 or 1757, as a respectable native of this country was travelling from Kirkwall to Birsa, he heard two old men for an hour or more converse together in an unknown language; which, on enquiry, he found was the Norse language. ... For many years past it has been almost entirely forgotten, except in one parish in the heart of the Mainland (of Orkney), where the people are said, till of late, to have retained some acquaintance with it. ... Here it now exists only in a few vulgar and obsolete words, and in the names of men and places.' 1814, Sir Walter Scott, visited Orkney in 1814 (from a note to "The Pirate"): 'Mr. Baikie of Tankerness, a most respectable inhabitant of Kirkwall, and an Orkney proprietor, assured me of the following curious fact:- A clergyman, who was not long deceased, ed well when some remnants of the Norse were still spoken in the island called North Ronaldsha. When Gray's Ode, enditled the "Fatal Sisters", was first published, or at least first reached that remote island, the reverend gentleman had the well-judged curiosity to read it to some of the old persons of the isle, as a poem which regarded the history of their own country. They listened with a great attention to the preliminary stanzas... But when they heard a verse or two more, they interrupted the reader, telling they knew the song well in the Norse language, and had often sung it to him when he asked them for an old song. They called it the Magicians, or the Enchantresses. It would have been singular news to the elegant translator, when executing his version from the text of Bartholine, to have learned that the Norse original was still preserved by tradition in a remote corner of the British dominions.' (The Norse song mentioned by Scott is known as Darraðaljóð and featured in the Saga of Njáll.) Although Norn survived for a little longer on the Shetland Isles, it precisely mirrored the fate of Orkney Norn. Shetland Norn is said to still have been in common use around 1700, yet being widely replaced with Scots. Shetland Norn did most likely not survive into the 19th century except on the remotest islands, Foula in the west and Unst, Yell and Fetlar in the north, albeit spoken by limited number of people and already much worn out. In the 1890's the eldest inhabitants of the islands still could some phrases in Norn: 1605, Sir Thomas Craig: 'In Orkney and Shetland, where in the previous century only Norse spoken, English was the language used in churches and was well enough understood.' 1701, "Revd John Brand, Description of Orkney, Zetland, etc.": 'English is the common language among the inhabitants of Zetland, yet many of the People speak Norse, or corrupt Danish, especially such as live in the more Northern Isles; yea, so common is it in some places, that it is the first language that the children speak. The Norse hath continued ever since the Norwegians had these islands in possession, and in Orkney it is not quite extinct, though there be by far more of it in Zetland, which many do commonly use.' 1703, Martin, "Brief Description of the Isles of Orkney and Shetland": 'They generally speak the English tongue, and many among them

retain the ancient Danish language, especially in the more Northern isles..' 1711, Sir Robert Sibbald: (remark about the parishioners of Cunningsburgh, on south Mainland of Shetland) 'All the inhabitants of the parish can speak the Gothick or Norwegian language, which they call Norn, now much worn out, and seldom speak other among themselves. Yet all of them speak the Scots tongue more promptly and more readily than generally they do in Scotland'. 1750, James Mackenzie, speaking of both Orkney and Shetland: 'their language the Norse, or that dialect of Gothic which is spoken in Norway, and disused only within this present age, by means of those English schools erected by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Nor to this very time it is quite disused, being still retained by old people, and in vulgar use amongst them at this day.' 1774, Revd George Low, about Foula: 'The Norse Language is much worn out here, yet there are some who know a few words of it; it was the language of the last age, but will be entirely lost by the next... The best phrases are all gone, and nothing remains but a few names of things and two or three remnants of songs which one old man can repeat and that but indistinctly'. 1809, Arthur Edmonston (an author from Shetland), "A view of the ancient and resent state of the Zetland Islands": 'The old Norse has long been wearing out, and the change appears to have begun in the southern extremity and to have been gradually extended to the northern parts of the country. The island of Unst was its last abode, and not more than thirty years ago several individuals there could speak it fluently. It was preserved too, for a considerable length of time, in Foula; but at present there is scarcely a single person who can repeat even a few words of it.' 1837, Robert Dunn, "Ornithologist's Guide": 'The English language is commonly spoken... they have introduced into it a great many words from the Norwegian, Danish and Dutch languages, and this medley uttered by a native is exceednigly unpleasant to the ear and very difficult to understand.' 1894, Jakob Jakobsen: 'Even in 1600 the knowledge of English seems to have been very meagre in Shetland; for, according to the "Fasti Ecclesiæ Scotticanæ", Magnus, surnamed "Norsk", minister of Unst (the most northerly of the Islands), made a voyage to Norway to learn the language spoken there, because his congregation did not undersand any other language than Norse. <...> The Shetland Norn was still a living language in the middle of the 18th century <...> even rather late in the 18th century, Norn songs and ballads survived in the mouths of the common people. <...> In several parts of Shetland, especially Foula and the North Isles, the present generation of old people their grandparents speaking a language they could hardly understand, and which was called Norn or Norse. <...> As late as 1894, there were people in Foula who could repeat sentences in Norn, as I myself had the opportunity of hearing. The last man in Unst who is said

to have been able to speak Norn, Walter Sutherland from Skaw, died about 1850. In Foula, on the other hand, men who were living very much later than the middle of the present century are said to have been able to speak Norn'. There are witnesses that the memory of Norn was still not extinct as late as the middle 20th century. Some of today's old Foula residents an old woman from their childhood days who used to teach children various Norn expressions and we can roughly date that to the first half of the 20th century. In 1958 George (Dodie) Isbister in Foula was heard to utter a verse from The Eagle's Song (according to The Foula Heritage website). This is certainly the very latest one has heard of Norn. But even after the complete demise of Norn, its remnants still live in the linguistic memory of Shetlanders and Orcadians. Their native Scots dialect has inherited a good deal of Scandinavian words (including pronouns, prepositions and particles), several grammatical traits and even intonation, which is said to be very reminiscient of Norwegian. Hugh Marwick and Gregor Lamb comment on the Orcadian accent with the following words: The Orkney cadence is quite different from that of any part of the mainland of Scotland, and there is not the slightest possibility of confusing it with that of our nearest neighbour - Caithness. But on the other hand, a Norwegian in Orkney, listening to Orcadians talking among themselves at such a distance that only their tones were audible, might well imagine he was at home in Norway. It is one of the most remarkable things about speech that people of the same stock, living out of touch with each other, may become mutually unintelligible so far as vocabulary is concerned, and yet retain 'the tune they speak to' practically unchanged through centuries. Such has been the case in regard to Orkney and its motherland Norway. (Cited from "The Viking Legacy" (1971) by John Geipel, p. 105) In Norwegian, the sentence 'I hope we can eat at eight o clock' is Jeg håper vi kann spise klokken åtte and it would be sounded with a similar lilt, going up and down just as in the Orkney dialect. ("Whit Like the Day? Understanding Orkney dialect." (2005) by Gregor Lamb, p. 96) Compare it to what today's Shetlanders say about their experience of communicating with Norwegians: I was in a queue to a theme park in Denmark, where I found the accent difficult, when I heard very familiar voices coming up behind me, I turned to address what I thought were Shetlanders, when I realised from their appearance that they were in fact Norwegians! (By "Rasmie") I was in a fishing shop in Bergen with two fellow Shetlanders and while we were discussing what would be the best gear to catch olicks, the young lady assistant came over and asked where we were from, saying we were not speaking Norwegian but we sounded just like Norwegians. (By "Heimdal")

Unfortunately, Norn did not attract the attention of scholars until it was practically out of use. This can be explained by remoteness of Orkney and Shetland from Europe's scientific centres, lack of missionaries who described languages existing outside of the Christian world, but were hardly interested in visiting long baptised areas, and the immaturity of the linguistic science which was only making the first steps when Norn was already at its last gasp. The first written specimen of Norn came to the light of day in the early 18th century when the Lord's Prayer in Orkney Norn (recorded in the 1690's) was published by Wallace (1700). In the 1770's the Scottish clergyman, George Low, recorded in Foula the Shetlandic version of the Lord's Prayer, the "Ballad of Hildina" and a short list of words. The scientific study of Norn began in 1866 when T. Edmonston published "An Etymological Glossary of the Shetland and Orkney Dialect". In the late 19th century the Faroese linguist Jakob Jakobsen gathered in Shetland by far the most extensive collection of Norn material, including texts (short poems, lullabies, riddles and fragments of live conversation) and vocabulary (about 10 000 words of Scandinavian origin surviving in the local dialect of Scots), which were published in his classic "Etymologisk Ordbog over det norrøne Sprog på Shetland" (in Danish, 1908-1921, completed posthumously). Shortly later it was translated into English as "An Etymological Dictionary of the Norn Language in Shetland" (1928-1932). About the same time the Orcadian scholar Hugh Marwick published "Orkney Norn" (1929) which comprised a vocabulary of over 3000 words of Scandinavian origin picked up from Orkney Scots. Most of the surviving specimens of Norn speech show signs of corruptedness and feature various elements coming from Scots. Several scholars of Norn (Jakob Jakobsen, Hugh Marwick) have asserted that the demise of Norn was a gradual process, with Scots words and grammar gradually penetrating Norn and turning it into what we would call 'Norn-Scots creole' which later became a highly Scandinavised variant of Scots that is spoken in Shetland and Orkney nowadays (Insular Scots). Others, including Michael Barnes, refute this hypothesis, pointing at the lack of typological parallels for such a "creolisation" and put forward the idea of Norn having been given up in favour of Scots due to the low social prestige of the former. The latter point is regarded by many as more

convincing. Nevertheless, there is a good deal of texts quoted by Jakobsen where you cannot say for sure whether it is Norn or Scots (the alleged Norn-Scots creole?). Let us also mention the language of Manx, which prior to its decline was gradually losing Goidhelic pecularities becoming more and more corrupted - a typological parallel Barnes overlooked. This evidence makes the theory of Jakobsen and Marwick no less worthy of consideration than that of Barnes,.. so the truth, as often, may hide somewhere inbetween.

General on Norn 1. Introduction 2. Overview 2.1. Shetland (mainland) Norn 2.2. Foula/Westside Norn 2.3. Orkney Norn 3. Norn in Scandinavian classification 3.1. East Scandinavian features in Norn 3.2. West Scandinavian features in Shetland Norn 3.3. West Scandinavian features in Foula/Westside Norn 4. Relations to neighbouring languages 4.1. Orkney Norn vs. South Shetland Norn 4.2. Foula/Westside Norn vs. Faroese 4.3. Foula/Westside Norn vs. Suðuroy, Faroes 4.4. North Shetland Norn vs. Faroese 5. Summary 1. Introduction 1.1. The word 'Norn' originates from the Old Norse word norrønn 'northern, Nordic' and is normally used for the Scandinavian language that existed in Orkney and Shetland until the 17-19th centuries. Occasionally the term 'Norn' is applied to the English [Scots] dialects that are spoken on the archipelagoes nowadays. This usage is certainly wrong, although some respectable authors, incl. Hugh Marwick, itted the term Norn in this incorrect sense (see f.ex. Marwick's "Orkney Norn", 1929, p. XXVIII, where he calls the Sanday author Walter Traill Dennison a "writer of modern Orkney Norn"). So be careful: if you see a text in "Norn" and it has spellings like tae, guid, wrang, laek etc, be sure it is Scots. 1.2. Another stereotype tied with the name of Norn is that it is often understood to be similar both for Orkney and Shetland. This view is misleading too, because there were clear distinctions between the Orkney and Shetland versions of Norn, probably about as noticeable as the differences between Shetland Norn and Faroese when the former was still in full use. More than that, there were serious differences, at least of phonetic nature, in Shetland between the Foula and Westside/Sandness dialect on the one hand (further: Foula/Westside Norn) and the rest of the islands on the other hand, differences at some point larger than between (the rest of) Shetland and Orkney. (We know practically nothing about dialects of Orkney Norn, if they ever existed). To sum it up, the name Norn is rather collective and applies to a group of dialects rather than to any kind of

a common language. However, we reserve the right to use the term Norn as referring to one language when dialectal differences within Norn are to us of no importance. 2. Overview of Shetland and Orkney Norn Further we are going to broadly examine main distinctive features of Norn and its dialects. Bearing in mind our knowledge of grammar is limited, we will mostly concentrate on phonetic features. For a more detailed see respective sections on Orkney and Shetland Norn. 2.1. Shetland (mainland) Norn The main features of Shetland Norn are the following (Norn < Old Norse or Old Norse > Norn unless specified): 2.1.1. monophtongisation: keipr > keb, greiði > gre(d), haugr > hjog, høg, hleypingr > løbin; one of the very few exception: ausa > ous 2.1.2. breaking: baugr > bjog, birtingr > bjartin, fela > fjal, hnefatak > (*njavatak) > njafatag, nevatjog, er ('is') > yaar (Foula), ek > yach, barn > bjadn- (Foula) 2.1.3. "reverse" umlaut: brydda > brodd, *flyðra > fluder, lær > (*lár) > lor, *læringr > (*láringr) > lorin, snælda > (*snálda) > snolda, sæti > sodi 2.1.4. voicing of stops p,t,k > b,d,g: keikr > kεgǝr, djúpr > džub, brot > brod 2.1.5. occasional devoicing of voiced stops: bindari > bjintǝr 2.1.6. occasional preaspiration of tt, pp, kk: ba'kk, klai'p (often absent or, in the case of tt, replaced with palatalisation, see 2.1.8.) 2.1.7. unvoicing of sonorants (r,l,m,n,ļ,ņ,ng) before p,t,k: swi'rt, ba'lker, (kett)hu'ntlin; in the case of t often replaced or followed with palatalisation: klo'ņt/kloi'nt, ho'ņtel; 2.1.8. palatalisation ll,rl > ļļ, nn,rn > ņņ, tt > itt, ţţ, rather irregular: - falla > faļļj, fäļļ, ullar- > oļļa, millum > melan, meļļan, occasionally in the initial (prevocalic) position: fleygja > fļog, lœkr > log,ljog - hann > häņņ, brenna > breņņǝk, andi > äņdi, but banna > bann, occasionally in the initial (prevocalic) position: nykr > njogel, snykr > snjuger - gott > goţţ, goitt, kattaklór > käţţiklur, käitaklur; 2.1.9. ð > d, g, 0 (zero), þ > t: - hlíð > li, lýðr > lø, moeða > mø - boða > bod, gœðing > gødin, spaði > spadi; - afráða > afro, afrod; greiði > gre, gred - Like in Faroese, the old cluster ðr is preserved, but unlike Faroese where it is often pronounced as [gr], in Shetland Norn it appears as [dr]: flaðra > fladrǝk, lúðr > ludǝr-, but hrúðr > rudǝr, rur

- Nevertheless, ð does change to g in Norn in a number of words: kafaburðr > kavaborg, skrið > skrid, skrig, leiðvísari > legvisǝr, aða > jog, øg - þari > tari, þilja > tili, þurkasótt > torkǝsot - Only in South Shetland (Dunrossness) ð occasionally stayed preserved as [ð] or [þ]: eið > eð, mið > mið, kóð > køð,køþ, seiðr > seð,seþ 2.1.10. hv, kv > hw, in North islands (Yell) occasionally to sw: hvalr > hwal, kví > hwi,kwi, hvammr > swam 2.1.11. kj, skj are normally preserved, same as gj, which rarely changes to dž, while tj, þj tend to become š: - kjálki > kjo'lk, skjól >sķul - gjá > gjo, Nor. gjelg, gjølg > džö'lki - tjǫrn > šonn, tjaldr > šaldǝr, but vitja > vitš - þjukkr > šjukk,šok(k)a 2.1.12. The grammar of Shetland Norn, as far as it can be established from the ed texts, shows most of the features of Old Norse: 3 genders (male, female, neuter), 4 cases (Nominative, Accusative, Dative, Genitive), 2 numbers (singular, plural), strong and weak declensions of verbs etc. However, this old system was already in decay. The case system was becoming more and more corrupted, cases started getting mixed, which especially concerns the merging of Nominative and Accusative forms of nouns and pronouns. This process likely owed to the influence of Scots which does not distinguish between both cases. As a result, either the Nominative or Accusative form was chosen. The Accusative is more frequent in the strong masculine declension, where it represents the bare stem: ON Nom. hestr, Acc. hest > Norn hest. The Accusative form is often present in plural, cf. several toponymes: ON Nom. lœknirnir grœnu, Acc. lœkina grœnu > Norn L(j)øgena grøna. In the weak declension both forms are possible. Most of the weak feminine nouns retained the old Nominative ending -a (in whatever sound form) or dropped it at all. However, few feminine forms feature the accusative ending: ilsko < ON Acc. ilsku, Nom. ilska; grœnsku, grinsko < ON grœnsku, grœnska, compare also Norw. dial. viku, vuku, vukku 'week' < ON Acc. viku, Nom. vika 'week'. (See the Sketch of Shetland Norn grammar for the more detailed picture). The pronoun system was not left untouched by the merger of Nominative and Accusative either, as the language of the Hildina ballad shows: Quirto vult doch fiegan vara < ON. Hvort vilt þú feigan vera, where doch 'you' < þig, Acc. þú. 2.2. Foula/Westside Norn The Foula/Westside Norn inherited many of the above-mentioned features of Shetland Norn, but had the following unique features: 2.2.1. ON á > wo: á > wo, tár > twor, fá > fwo 2.2.2. Instead of the palatal utterance of ll, nn, the change ll, nn > dl, dn is present in many cases (where Shetland Norn has ņņ/rn and ļļ/rl): fall > fadl, bolla- > bodli-, kunnr > kodn,kodden, horn > hoden

2.2.3. Likewise, the long -tt- is never palatalised and does not palatalise the preceding vowel. 2.2.4. The initial h- is often omitted: hennar > ednar, henni > ende, hǿsta > osta 2.2.5. hv,kv > kw (hw): hvalr > kwal, kví > kwi, hverjum > kvara, hvar > quar (Hildina), but hvítr > whit-, hvern > whaar (Hildina) 2.2.6. Some pronunciation differences: bjadni < barn(it), cf. Shetland mainland boņņ. 2.3. Orkney Norn Data on Orkney Norn is much more scarce in comparison with Jakobsen's material from Shetland, which can be explained by the fact that Orkney stood in the frontline of "Scottisation" and lost archaic Scandinavian features quicker than Shetland Norn by the time the remains of both were recorded. 2.3.1. Monophtongisation is not complete, some of the old diphtongs are preserved, albeit in a changed sound quality: geiri > g[ai]ro, gneisti > n[ai]st, gleyma > misgl[ai]med, naut > nout 2.3.2. Unlike in Shetland, the voicing of intervocal stops is more consistent: stikill > stiggle, raki > rag, burtu > bordo, kúpa or koppr > kubby 2.3.3. According to H.Marwick, palatalisation affects only ll, nn is never palatilised: helli- > hellyiefer, rulla > rullyo. However, in Marwick's "Orkney Norn" we have found a number of forms that witness about palatalisation of nn and even ng: for eenyie < hver er inni 'who is within?' (p. XXVI), grunyie < grunnr, vinya < vinna; fonyaless < *fǫngulauss, munyo < magn, groyn < grenja. Cf. also Ork. nitter, Cait. nyatter, of obscure origin. 2.3.4. ð stays in several words: niðra > nither, hroði > ruithe, bregða > braithin; 2.3.5. The grammar is more simplified, Dative has merged with Nominative/Accusative: while the Lord's Prayer from Foula has Dative in fro adlu idlu < frá ǫllu illu 'from all (the) bad', the Orkney version of the prayer says fro alt ilt, where the last two words correspond to ON Nom/Acc. allt illt. A specific feature of Orkney Norn is a big number of originally feminine weak words that have preserved the accusative form: ON bytta, Acc. byttu > Norn butto, ON kringla, Acc. kringlu > Norn kringlo. 2.3.6. Lexical distinctions from Shetland Norn: Ork. soind 'to die slowly' Shet. soind 'to show', Ork. skrift 'lean, hard-grown' - Shet. skrift 'crack, fissure', Ork. lerblade 'cormorant' - Shet. lorin 'cormorant'. 3. Place of Norn in the classification of Scandinavian languages

3.1. Traditionally Norn is classified as a West Scandinavian language. Marius Hægstad, Sophus Bugge and Jakob Jakobsen brought forward historical evidence in of that: as they asserted, Shetland and Orkney were populated mostly from several areas in West Norway, namely Ryfylke and Jæderen (Stavanger, Rogaland; all included into the West Scandinavian area). They based this view upon numerous lexical parallels between the dialects of the mentioned Norwegian regions and Norn. Michael Barnes s the West Scandinavian status of Norn by bringing forward a number of phonetic features of the latter, although he mostly quotes material from Foula, the dialect of which was rather specific and the closest to Faroese, an undoubted West Scandinavian language (see below). But as we believe, the overall amount of Norn data does not look to us so unambiguously West Scandinavian and a good deal of East Scandinavian features can also be discovered (most of them we loosely pick up from Elias Wessen's "De nordiska språken"): 3.1.1. almost complete lack of u-umlaut 3.1.2. monophtongisation, incomplete in Orkney, practically total in Shetland (see 2.1.1 and 2.3.1) 3.1.3. ó > ú 3.1.4. breaking, which is very widespread (probably as much, as nowhere else in Scandinavia) and occurs even to short a (see 2.1.2) 3.1.5. breaking in the personal pronoun 1 pers. sg. - ya (Foula) (although it could well have been a later development, cf. Icel. ég [jeγ]) 3.1.6. palatalisation of ll (incl. Orkney) as well as nn and tt (Shetland only), unknown in Iceland, Faroes and West Norway and developped primarily in Trøndelag dialects of Mid-North Norway (see 2.1.8 and 2.3.3) 3.1.7. the assimilation of the Proto Norse (PN) clusters mp, nt, nþ, nk is incomplete: bank/bakk < ON bakki < PN *bankan, kemp/kepp < ON keppa < PN *kampijan, but slokk < ON sløkkva,sløkkja < PN *slankwijan; tann/tant < tǫnn < *tanþu, but munn,monn < ON munnr < PN *munþaz 3.1.8. vague traces of the ending of reflexive verbs -s: pinnis (see also 3.2.4.) 3.1.9. a good deal of words having cognates in Swedish dialects (which did not stay unnoticed by Jakobsen, see his "Etymological Dictionary...", XXXIV) Of course, many of these features (especially 3.1.1-5) might have developed independently of the East Scandinavian influence and be a pure coincidence. Moreover, we are not aware of specifically large migration from Denmark to the islands, let alone from Sweden. So most of the above mentioned East Scandinavian features should be rather

explained as the sum of the internal development of Norn dialects and the external influence that Scots, Low German, Dutch and Danish may have put on it. On the other hand, point 3.1.9. cannot be explained as easily and requires a special investigation. 3.2. Among West Scandinavian features common for Shetland Norn (incl. Foula/Westside) we mention: 3.2.1. preaspiration (sporadically occurs in Swedish dialects; see 2.1.6) 3.2.2. unvoicing of sonorants (r,l,m,n,lj,nj,ng) before p,t,k (see 2.1.7) 3.3. Foula/Westside Norn shows an additional number of traits proper to West Scandinavian dialects: 3.3.1. No palatalization of nn, ll, tt; 3.3.2. rl, ll > dl, rn, nn > dn (see 2.2.2.); 3.3.3. hv > kw (see 2.2.5.); 3.3.4. traces of i-uml. in present indicative: sevǝ < sefr (J.Jakobsen "Etymological dictionary...", CX), tega < tekr, du geve < þú gefr, stiendi < stendr, keimir < kemr, genger < gengr (Hildinakvadet) Material from the other parts of Shetland is too scarce on this subject 3.3.5. the ending of reflexive verbs is -st: sadnast < sannast We should also mention here another form where an older reflexive ending -sk ( > -st) can be reconstructed in the following example: helsk < helsask. This form is ed in Nesting (middle Shetland Mainland) which is geographically adjacent to Westside. At the same time, the Foula/Westside dialect, like the rest of Shetland, has some of the features listed in 3.1, such as monophtongisation and breaking. 4. Relations to neighbouring Scandinavian languages As shown above, the Norn dialects were not isolated from linguistic trends going on in the other Scandinavian languages and dialects. Although this could have been the result of independent development, influences from outside were quite possible as well. Whether certain change comes from inside or outside, is a question where linguistic theory is often helpless and in this respect Norn is probably no exception. In this connection it is especially interesting to have a look at the geography of features that were common within Norn dialects and with their closest outside cognates, namely Faroese. 4.1. Orkney <-> the southernmost part of Shetland (Dunrossness): 4.1.1 sporadic preservation of ð (see 2.1.8. and 2.3.4.) 4.1.2 several lexical parallels: Ork., Du. ru - Shet. rug < hrúga; Ork. (Birsa) tekkal, South. Shet. (Du., Conn.) tahella, tahellek < *þak-hella -

Nor. Shet. ufsahella < ufsahella 'one of the flat stones laid to form the eaves of a house (to prevent rain from penetrating)' 4.2. Foula, Shetland <-> Faroese: 4.2.1. traces of "skerping" (a Faroese term designating consonantal inserts -gv- and -ggj- after several old long vowels): ON búa > Norn buga, Far. búgva, ON sjór > Norn sheug (rest of Shet. sju-), Far. Sjógvur 4.2.2. ý > oi (Far. [ωi], where [ω] designates a sound between [o] and [u]): hýsa > hoissan, Far. hýsa [hωisa], útýðligr > utoitlig, Fær. ótýðiligur [öu-tωji-lijωr] (a similar change ý > ui has also occurred in several West Norwegian dialects, f.ex. that of Setesdalen) 4.2.3. ll, nn > dl, dn (see 2.2.2) 4.3. Foula, Shetland <-> Suðuroy, southernmost Faroese dialect: 4.3.1. Foula yagh 'I' - Suð. [je], Far. eg [e] 4.3.2. Foula mier 'me (dat)' - Suð. [mjer], Fær. mær [mear] 4.3.3. Foula dagloght (Lord Prayer) - Suð. [daglot, daglωt], Fær. dagligt [daglit] 4.4. North Shetland Norn (Yell, Unst) <-> Faroese (except Northern Isles): 4.4.1. Shetland: the long ā develops into [åa]: åali 'lamb' - Far. [ɔa] < á: bátur [bɔa:tωR] (except the northern Faroese dialects, which have [bātǝR]). 4.5. The above examples are certainly fairly scarce, and an exacting reader would suggest that these are sporadic and occasional similarities, so any further discussions on this subject would be a waste of time. According to another possible explanation, at some stage, probably in the 14-15th centuries when the Norn dialects were still not worn out, they constituted together with Faroese a common L-complex (a chain of dialects, where the neighbouring links are linguistically closer to each other than those further away). This would mean that there were regular s between Orkney and Shetland as well as between Shetland and the Faroes that kept their neighbouring dialects linguistically close to each other, despite the large geographical distance in between (approx. 100 km. between Orkney and Shetland and ca. 300 km. between Shetland and the Faroes). But could there really be so tight a linguistic interaction across the sea that would allow us to explain the similarities in question? The seriousness of this question is illustrated by Michael Barnes who discusses case 4.2.3. as an example of a possible influence from Faroese. Barnes mentions historical evidence about real s between Shetlanders and Faroese fishermen who used to cast ashore in Foula and Westside. Nevertheless, the author does not fail to point out the main drawback of this hypothesis: "It is of course highly improbable that the arrival of the odd Faroeman would be sufficient to cause Faroese features to

spread among the speakers even of a small island community using a closely related language" (Michael Barnes "The Norn Language of Orkney and Shetland", 1998, p. 18) We would like to point out another drawback of this hypothesis: the rules for nn > dn (4.2.3.) in Faroese and "Foulese" differ, so it is highly unlikely that West Shetlanders could have borrowed this feature from the "odd Faroeman", but found it a different distribution. In Faroese the change nn > dn occurs only after the old long i-diphtongs (seinni [sa(i)dni], oynni [o(i)dni]) and new ones developed from older long vowels (one of the few examples is kvínni [kvω(i)dni], although it can be explained by analogy). The only exception where the change occurs after an originally short vowel is the obscure word tinna [tidna] 'tin'. On the other hand, on Foula and Westside nn regularly becomes dn after short vowels: kodn < kunn-, edne < enni, fidna < finna, ednar < hennar etc. We have not found examples of this change after the old long vowels, although this does not mean such instances did not existed. (Of course, we should not forget that this process must have been overshadowed by monophtongisation, see 2.1.1.). A development similar to Foula/Westside Norn can be found in several West Norwegian dialects, f.ex. in West Hordaland, where dn occurs only after the old short vowels (in the rest of Hordaland dialects it is ed after the old long vowels: á,ó,í etc. plus diphtongs). Although West Hordaland belongs to the area from where the immigration to Shetland is believed to have started, the fact that Foula is the farthest Shetland point from Norway makes us think this is not a result of direct influence either. One could suppose that this feature could have already developed in the language of the first Norse settlers in Shetland back in the 8th century and for some odd reasons spread out only in the West of the archipelago. This point has several weaknesses. On the one hand, it is highly unlikely that dn could have later developed into nnj in the rest of Shetland. On the other hand, we certainly have no evidences which might allow us to date the change nn > dn, however, its later (=independent) development is typologically not excluded. For instance, in Iceland this process is believed to have happened in the 15-16th century (Björn K. Þórólfsson, "Um íslenskar orðmyndir á 14. og 15. öld" (1925), XXXI), when the country had already been linguistically isolated from West Norway for centuries. At the same time the distribution of nn >dn in Icelandic is similar to that of many Hordaland dialects, occurring after all old long vowels (except when nn belongs to the suffigated article). It proves to us that this phenomenon was not a result of direct linguistic s but rather an independent process in which "pre-conditions" were similar both in Iceland and in West Norway (and in Faroes as well, although we do not know in which century this change occured there apart from the fact that the distribution rules are slightly different in Faroese, see above). These "pre-conditions" can be interpreted as some kind of a seed that grew up 5-7 centuries later generating the change nn > dn. What kind of a seed it could be is to us totally incomprehensible. Why nn changed to nnj in the rest of Shetland mainland (and, possibly in Orkney as well), like in the far away dialects of Trondelag (Norway), is an even bigger mystery.

To sum up, common traits in related languages or dialects can witness either co-influence or parallel development from the same source. This kind of problem arises when dealing with similarities like those mentioned in 4.1-3., and at this stage we can just say that these features are still awaiting their linguistic interpretation, of course unless it will be proved that they are purely accidental. 5. Summary The term Norn refers not to a monolyte language, but rather to a group of dialects, which, as we estimate, were three: Orkney, Shetland and Foula/Westside Shetland (we base this division mostly on their phonetic features). Being of West Scandinavian origin, they in different degree developed several features that can be considered as East Scandinavian, although it does not necessarily mean they occured due to the direct influence from East Scandinavian languages, as it was rather a move towards the simplification of the language. We should not disregard here the external influence from several West Germanic and Scandinavian languages spoken on the shores of the North Sea (mainly Scots, but also Norwegian, Danish, Low German, Dutch) that could also have had some impact, but to what extent this influence could have provoked separate changes is subject to further investigation. A several number of common phonetic features between Orkney and South Shetland, Shetland (esp. Foula) and the Faroes (esp. Suðuroy) is ed. It can be argued whether these similarities are accidental or bear witness to linguistic s and a co-influence.

Linguistic terminology easily explained On this page we offer the interpretation of various phonetic symbols, as well as linguistical and grammatical , which are used on our website but might be incomprehensible to an ordinary reader or concern phenomena lacking in their mother tongue. Our overview is especially aimed towards English speakers, although native speakers of other languages might consider it useful too. Feel free to suggest that are used on this website and you cannot find here and we will add them to this overview. However, bear in mind that we do not cover the simplest notions that everyone would have learnt at school, such as vowel, consonant, substantive, adjective, adverb, number, tense etc. If you feel uncomfortable with these, try Wikipedia as a starting point. Accusative active voice ' (apostrophe) article articulation aspiration * (asterisk) bisyllabic breaking case : (colon)

diphtong feminine gender Genitive imperative indicative ' ' (inverted commas) masculine middle voice monophtong monosyllabic

[] (square brackets) strong declension (subst.) strong declension (adj.) strong conjugation subjinctive transcription umlaut ¯ (upper hyphen) voice vowels: back

consonants: affricate palatal sonorant spirant stop voiced voiceless consonant letters contraction Dative devoicing

mood neuter Nominative ive voice phonetics phonetic signs phonology polysyllabic postvocalic preaspiration preterite-present verbs prevocalic

central front high labialised low mid vowel letters weak declension (subst.) weak declension (adj.) weak conjugation

1. Symbols 1.1. * (asterisk) - is placed in front of a form that has not been ed: *sáti, *kurna. So where did we take it from? It is our own construction - such a form is hypothetical. We need the asterisk to prevent any confusion between the real and our "guessed" forms. But do not regard such words as arbitrary or fabricated, as in most cases they can designate something which is highly likely to have existed and is reconstructed on the basis of a scientific method. Sometimes we discover such reconstructions as real borrowings in third languages, which only confirms that this was not just a mater of superficial guesswork. the periodic law of chemical elements, which anticipated the prediction of previously unknown elements that were indeed discovered afterwards - it is practically the same method as the one which is used in linguistic reconstruction. 1.2. [ ] (square brackets) - are used for phonetical transcription to distinguish it from the orthographical notation. F.ex. Faroese nógv 'much' is pronounced as [negv] and hví 'why' as [kwωj] or [kwuj]. 1.3. ¯ (upper hyphen) or : (colon) - indicate the length of a sound: ā, a: . The symbol "¯" is only used for vowels. Long vowels in Old Norse are normally marked with an acute: á,ó,ú,ý,í,é, also œ. 1.4. ' ' (inverted commas) - are used to mark the meaning of a word: ON drengr 'boy'. 1.5. ' (apostrophe) - when used before a sonorant ('l,'m,'n,'ŋ,'ņ,'ļ) marks the voicelessness of the respective consonant. 2. Phonological 2.1. Common 2.1.1. Phonetics - acoustical and physiological aspects of sounds and their pronunciation. 2.1.2. Phonology - sounds in a more abstract aspect (otherwise called phonemes), regarded as parts of a system they constitute through various relations and ties between each other. 2.1.3. Transcription - transformation of the orthographical notation into phonetic symbols. Transcription is especially needed for languages

where the orthography differs greatly from the actual pronunciation (English is one of them). The golden rule of transcription is one letter for one sound and vice versa. 2.1.4. Articulation - the interaction of speech organs (lips, tongue, jaws, roof of mouth etc) for the making of sounds. 2.2. Orthography issues Old Norse orthography (or its normalised and unified version we are using), was pretty straightforward and each letter had a very definite sound value, so we never transcribe Old Norse. The sound value of Old Norse letters is the following: 2.2.1. Vowels: a - like a in Allah akbar o - like o in English song u - like oo in English spoon i - like i or ee in English bit, steel e - like e in English bed y - like German ü or French u ø - like German ö or French eu ǫ - how exactly it was spelled we do not know, probably it was something between [a] and [o] or [ö] and [o]. In Icelandic and Faroese this sound has merged with ø or o. á,ó,ú,ý,í,é - long a,o,u,y,i,e œ - long ø æ - long, like German ä or a in English bad au - a+u, like ow in English brown ei - e+i, like a in English mate ey - e+y, soon developed into either [ei] or [öy] 2.2.2. Consonants: Except in a few instances, consonants do not differ significantly from their English counterparts. The usage of the following letters must be specified: j - like y in English yes ð - like th in English the, those. This vowel originates from the Old English alphabet, although today it is used with its original meaning only in Icelandic. It is also present in Faroese where it indicates other sounds and has only an etymological value: maður [mεavωr], niðan [nijan]. þ - like th in English thorn (the actual name of this letter!) or thatch. This letter comes from the Runic alphabet. We are using it in our transcription, following the Nordic tradition, although in many books you will find another phonetic sign for this sound: the Greek letter θ, which sounded the same. (This Greek letter is used by Michael Barnes in his article "A Note on Faroese /θ/ > /h/" on the change þ > h we are referring to on the page about the language of the Ballad of Hildina, item 3.2.2.4.) f - in most cases read as [f], except the positions between vowels and/or r,l where it is spelled as [v]: lifa [liva], kalfr [kalvr].

Practically the same system is used for our transcription, except for the fact that we never use f for [v], adhering to the "golden rule". Notice that the transcription rules in other Scandinavian languages, even including Icelandic which looks in writing very much like Old Norse, may considerably differ. 2.2.3. Additional transcription:

phonetic

signs,

occurring

only

in

phonetic

ε,æ,ä - different degrees of sounds between e and a ɔ,â,α - different degrees of sounds between o and a ʌ - like u in English hut ω,ȯ - different degrees of sounds between u and o ė,I - different degrees of sounds between e and i ə - an indefinite sound, like a in English ago or -er in brother ŋ - like ng in English song ş or ʃ - like sh in English show ž - like sur in English measure tʃ - like ch in English chain dž - like j in English joke 2.3. Phonetical and phonological : 2.3.1. Vowels Front vowels - i,e,æ,y,ø/œ Central vowels - a,ə Back vowels - o,ω,u High vowels - i,y,u Mid vowels - e,ə,o Low vowels - (æ,)a,α Labialised vowel - o,u,ø,y - vowels which are formed with an extra-lip rounding during the articulation Monophtong - a,e,i,o,u - a vowel that does not change quality during its pronunciation Diphtong - au,ei,ey,oa etc. - a vowel that changes quality during its pronunciation and can be represented as a sum of two vowels 2.3.2. Consonants Stops - p,t,ķ,k,b,d,ĝ,g Spirants - s,ş,ž,þ,ð Affricates (stop+spirant): tş,dž Sonorants - l,r,m,n,ŋ,ņ,ļ Voiced consonants - b,d,g,ž,ð,l,m,n,r,j Voiceless consonants - p,t,k,s,ş,þ, also 'l,'m,'n,'r,'ņ,'ļ,'ŋ - pronounced as if whispering Palatal consonants - ņ,ļ,ĝ,ķ - formed with additional articulation by which the body of the tongue is raised toward the hard palate (as if j followed). The sound ņ is like Spanish ñ, ļ - like Spanish ll, ĝ and ķ resemble k,g being pronounced before j,i,e, but occurring in front of other vowels ( ĝa , ķu etc.)

Devoicing - loss of sonority: b,d,g > p,t,k, l,m,n > 'l,'m,'n Aspiration - a short h after p,t,k: ph Preaspiration - a short h before p,t,k: ht 2.3.3. Sound alternations 2.3.3.1. Umlaut (mutation). A regular change of a vowel caused by another one. Some of our readers might already know the German "Umlaut" letters ä, ö and ü. The sounds they mark originate from a,o and u respectively, which were influenced by i in the succeeding syllable (which later might have been dropped). As a result, the mentioned "hybrid" vowels appeared, which combined the qualities of a,o,u and i. That is why this kind of mutation is often called i-umlaut, i.e. mutation caused by i. This process was much more extensive in Old Norse. There were 3 kinds of umlauts in the language: a-umlaut, u-umlaut and i-umlaut, which had still occurred in Common Scandinavian: a-umlaut: u > o: *kurna > korn u-umlaut: a > ǫ: *barnu > bǫrn i-umlaut: a > e: *gastiR > gestr (the short o did not exist in Common Scandinavian and was a product of later processes, mostly a-umlaut of u) u > y: *hulijan > hylja á > æ: *lātiR > lætr ó > œ: *dōmijan > dœma ú > ý: *lūtiR > lýtr au > ey: *hlaupiR > hleypr "Reverse umlaut" - this term means that in the given word there should have been umlaut but it did not occur, or perhaps it did but then was restored to the original sound value due to analogy from other words: Scand. *sātija 'seat' > ON sæti > Norn sodi (that would correspond to ON *sáti, while ON sæti would have resulted in Norn *sedi). 2.3.3.2. Breaking (caused by the succeeding a or u): e > ja,jǫ: *fella > fjall, *gebu > gjǫf a > ja (known only in Norn): ON barnit > bjadni 2.3.4. Some other Prevocalic - occuring before a vowel Postvocalic - occuring after a vowel Contraction - contraction of two syllables having no dividing consonant Inbetween: ON gráum > grám, ON rauðu > Norn ru (after the fall of ð) Monosyllabic - consisting of one syllable Bisyllabic - consisting of two syllables Polysyllabic - consisting of several syllables

3. Grammatical 3.1. Nouns 3.1.1. Case - grammatical category indicating the role of a noun or pronoun in a phrase (subject, object, indirect object etc) or having a specific meaning (functioning thus like prepositions). English has two cases, Common and Genitive. Common case is the default one. Genitive indicates ownership and has the ending 's: my father's hat. The same assortment of cases is present in Danish, Swedish, Norwegian and Dutch. Old Norse, as well as Icelandic and German have a four-case system. This includes the two cases featuring in English, where the Common case is named Nominative and is the case of the subject. In addition to that there are two other cases, Accusative and Dative (Faroese has a three-case system, including all the cases as in Old Norse minus Genitive, which is practically lost). The prepositions in such languages require (or, as it is also said, govern) Genitive, Accusative or Dative. Accusative - means 'whom?' (direct object). The sentence 'The boy saw the dog' would sound in Old Norse as Drengrinn sá hundinn. Drengrinn 'the boy' is Nominative and hundinn 'the dog' is Accusative. Dative - means 'to whom?' (indirect object). Drengrinn gaf manninum sverð 'The boy gave the man a sword'. Drengrinn 'boy' is Nominative, manninum 'to the man' is Dative and sverð 'a sword' is Accusative. The existance of cases gives us the scope to change the word order without destroying the general meaning of the sentence. Let us get back to the sentence Drengrinn sá hundinn 'The boy saw the dog'. Now if we try to reverse the word order: Hundinn (Acc.) sá drengrinn (Nom.) it would still mean 'The boy saw the dog', although in English a similar operation would give quite a different sense: 'The dog saw the boy'. In English it is mostly the word order which tells us who saw and who was seen. In Old Norse it is, to the contrary, the cases which do the job, and the word order is secondary to them. Normally, the subject in Nominative takes the first place like in English. But you can move the object to the first place to emphasize its role without destroying the general sense. Consequently, a better translation of the phrase Hundinn sá drengrinn is 'It was the dog that the boy saw'. Let us consider a more sophisticated example by bringing Dative into the example. Drengrinn (1) gaf manninum (2) sverð (3) describes the same situation as Drengrinn gaf sverð manninum (132), Manninum gaf drengrinn sverð (213) and Sverð gaf drengrinn manninum (312) = 'The boy gave the man a sword' (the difference between all these variants is only in emphasis). In English we have only one choice for the alternation of the word order, and this will involve the additional preposition to: 'The boy gave the man a sword' = 'The boy gave a sword to the man'. As in the former case, this example confirms that the cases provide much more flexibility in the of word order, its

interchangeability and emphasizing, keeping the number of words needed to a minimum, than the strict word order rule does. No wonder that multicase systems are very widespread in languages of the world. 3.1.2. Article - a function word that marks definiteness. In English there are two sorts of article: definite (the) and indefinite (a). In Old Norse there is only the definite article which corresponds to English the (the counterpart of the English indefinite article is just zero). In Old Norse the article stands either before the substantive word (usually when there is a modifiying adjective) or, more commonly, afterwards, ing as another ending: inn hundr 'the dog' = hundrinn (Nom.), inn hund = hundinn (Acc.), inum hundi = hundinum (Dat.), ins hunds = hundsins (Gen.). 3.1.3. Gender - a grammatical category which associates words with sex (masculine, feminine) or marks their animacy (masculine, feminine) or inanimacy (neuter). In languages with such a system father, son, brother, grandad are masculine, mother, daughter, sister, granny are feminine, while neuter includes mostly inanimate objects. Of course, this is a simplification, as there are masculine and feminine words for inanimate objects and there can be exceptional cases when animated nouns have neuter (f.ex. 'child' in many old Indo-European languages is neuter, i.e. as something whose anima, or soul, is still undevelopped according to old beliefs). In fact, nowadays, gender should rather be regarded as a purely grammatical ("meaningless", "technical") category. For example, in Icelandic you can have words of all three genders for a woman: fem. kona 'woman (neutral)', masc. kvenmaður 'woman (more official)', neut. kvenndi 'woman (vulgar)'. Apart from Old Norse and Icelandic, three genders have existed in Norn, Faroese and German. In Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Dutch and Frisian masculine and feminine have merged into the so-called "common" gender, as opposed to neuter. In English and Afrikaans, all gender distinctions are lost (except relics in personal pronouns: masc. he, fem. she, neut. it). 3.1.4. Types of declension 3.1.4.1. Strong declension (substantives) - used with substanives that normally have a consonant ending in Nom.sg. (masc. drengr 'boy', fem. ferð 'trip, journey', neut. barn 'child') 3.1.4.2. Weak declension (substantives) - used with substanives that have a vocalic ending in Nom.sg. (masc. gluggi 'window', fem. amma 'granny', neut. auga 'eye') (Sporadically substantives could change their type, mostly from strong to weak) Ironically, in Proto-German the strong declension contained stems ending in a vowel and the weak one in a consonant. But after numerous reduction processes that occured in Common Scandinavian 1000-1500 years ago, this situation changed to the opposite.

3.1.4.3. Strong declension (adjectives) - "default" declension, combines endings from the substantive strong declension and the pronominal declension (svartr hestr 'a black horse', glaðir drengir 'glad boys') 3.1.4.4. Weak declension (adjectives) - same endings as in the weak declension of substantives, is used if the substantive, modified by the adjective, has the definite article or if there is a possessive or definite pronoun (svarti hestrinn 'the black horse', minn svarti hestr 'my black horse', þeir glǫðu drengir 'those glad boys') 3.2. Verbs 3.2.1. Mood - a grammatical category which expresses modality, subjective interpretation of the action, its possibility and necessity. Three main moods should be kept in mind: 3.2.1.1. Indicative - used for factual statement or positive belief: ON ek kem 'I (will) come', ek kom 'I came' 3.2.1.2. Imperative - expresses an order, command, request, exhortation or prohibition: ON kom! 'come!', sof ekki! 'do not sleep!' 3.2.1.3. Subjunctive - expresses possibility, conditionality, wish: ON ek kœmi 'I would come' 3.2.2. Voice - relationship between the action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments (subject, object etc.). In Scandinavian languages there are three main vocies: 3.2.2.1. Active voice - the subject is the agent or actor of the verb: ON Maðrinn drap hestinn 'The man killed the horse'. 3.2.2.2. ive voice - the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action. The verb is normally expressed by its ive participle preceded by the verb 'to be' (English, Icelandic) or 'to become' (German, Danish, Faroese): ON Hestrinn var drepinn af manninum 'The horse was killed by the man'; Dan. hesten blev dræbt af manden, blev 'became'. 3.2.2.3. Middle voice - is in the middle of the active and ive mode, expresses an action directed at the subject or that has a reciprocal meaning. In Old Norse was formed with the suffix -st, which originated from sik 'oneself': ON drepast 'to get killed', Norn sadnast 'to " oneself"', i.e. 'to be verified', roast - 'to "frighten oneself"', i.e. 'to be frightened'. 3.3. Conjugation types 3.3.1. Strong conjugation - verbs which form their past forms through alternating the root vowel: Eng. give - gave, bind - bound, ON gefa gaf (sg.) - gáfu (pl.), binda - batt (sg.) - bundu (pl.). 3.3.2. Weak conjugation - verbs which form their past forms through adding the so called 'dental suffix' -d-, -t- or -(a)ð-: Eng. call - called,

tell - told, ON kalla - kallaði (sg.) - kǫlluðu (pl.), telja - taldi (sg.) - tǫldu (pl.). 3.3.3. Preterite-present verbs - a small group of verbs which form their present like past time of strong verbs and form their past like past time of the weak verbs (i.e. with the dental suffix). Most of these verbs have modal meanings (can, shall, will, must etc.): Eng. shall - should, ON skal (sg.pres) - skulu (pl.pres.) - skuldi (sg. past) - skuldu (pl.past).

Articles "Hildinakvadet, med utgreidung um det norske maal paa Shetland i eldre tid" by Marius Hægstad (coming soon) Examples of phonetic corruption in Norn (coming soon) Similarities between Norn and Faroese (coming soon) Ek-words in Shetland Norn (birtek, geddek, vedek etc.) (coming soon) Infinitives used as imperative in Norn, Icelandic and Faroese (coming soon)

Shetland Norn: - Phonetics - Dialects - Grammar - Hildina - Texts

Phonetics of Shetland Norn Based on "An Etymological Dictionary of the Norn Language in Shetland" by Jakob Jakobsen. Old Norse a

á

Shetland Norn

Examples (Norn < Old Norse)

a, ā

fār < far, hāf < haf, ārm < armr; rāb/rab < hrap-/rabb?

ä,äi (before palat.)

bäļ < ball, fäļ < fall, bäļdin,baldin < baldinn, änd,äŋt < -and, äņəhva'rt < annathvárt, häņ < hann, käņ < kanna

ɔ, o , ō

mogi < magi, ogə, ɔkrə < akr, vɔkər < vakr, de fōgri < hinn fagri; gōrd < garðr, Vōrd < varða,varði

ē, æ (rare)

erg, εrg < arga, ērskäi < *arðskíð, gērbək,gærbək,garbək < *garðbalkr, to bē < baða

ō,å,ȯ

bōl,bɔul < bál, dōma,dūma < dámr, hō < háfr, to lōd < láta, to sō < sá, to spō < spá, vō < vágr, -tåt < þáttr, gōdək,gȯdək < gáta, lōdigrōd < *látugrátr

wō (Foula, Hildina)

wo < á, twor < tár, fwo < fá

ɔ(i),o(i) (before palat.) gɔiț,gȯiț < gátt, ūmɔiț,ūmȯiț < úmáttr ū,u

smut < smátt

e

é

i

í

o

ó

ɔu

tədbɔu(s) < *tíðbrá, bōl,bɔul < bál, blɔustər, blostər < blástr

e,ε,æ,ē

bεk < bekkr, brεna < brenna, bærg < berg, færd,færdək < ferð, mæ'rki < merki, rækstər < rekstr, to slεp,slæp < sleppa ēvalous < efalauss, hēgri < hegri, lēga < lega færdimεt,fērdimεt < *ferðarmatr, lεm, lēm, lemm < hlemmr

ä,ε (before palat.)

at:avε'ļta <*aptrvelta,hεļək < hella, hεļər < hellir, dwäļ < dvelja, skäļ < skell, räņd < renna, väņdi < vent

o,ȯ (before w)

hwȯli < hvelja, hwopət,kwopət < hveppti, past of hveppa

jē (ē), ε, jε

şēla < *hjela < héla, spjēlman < *spélmaðr, sp(j)ēviti < spévætti, jεlins < élingar, rεta-dyke < réttar-

ə, ȯ (after w)

wələ'nt, wȯlə'nt < vélindi

i, ī

bidi < biti, driv < drif, līvən < lifandi

e,ə

bi'rtək,be'rtək,bə'rtək < birta, dəmska < *dimska, həmna < himna, kə'r˙kasuk˙ni < kirkjusókn

ä,ε (before palat.)

ä'ļskət < illskóttr, bä'ņtər,bji'ntər < *bindari, häņd < hinna, pei'ļk,pä'ļk < Nor.,Sw. pilka, şopä'ļti < sjópiltr, stä'ļk < stilkr, BUT stiļərs,steļərs,stäļərs < stillis, tiļi,teļi < þilja

ʌ

sələk,sʌlək < silungr, tə'lfər,tʌ'fər < þilfar

ī,i

grīmi < gríma, hwīld < hvíld, ībit < *íbit, lī < hlíð, rī < hríð; risəl < hrísla, nisək < hnísa, simən < sími

e

tədbɔu(s),tedbɔu(s) < *tíðbrá

ä,ε (before palat.)

läțla,läitla < lítla

i/äi occas. alternate

läitla/litla < litla, hwī,kwī/hwäi,kwäi < kví

o,ɔ,ȯ,ō, jo

brɔd < brot, fɔg,fog,fjog,fjok < fok, kɔli < kola, nog(in) < hnokkr; to tjōg < toga

u (occas.)

krupin < kroppinn, urm-,orm- < ormr,

ȯ(i), ɔ(i) (before palat.)

gȯit < gott, hȯļi < Nor. holleg,hollig, kȯņmæ'rki < *kornmaðkr, skȯit,skɔit < *skott < skoða,

ø (esp. before ð)

mø: < moð, bø: < boð, bø:r < borð; occas. in Eng. words: to møv,mȯv < move

ū

gūən < góðan/góðing; hūb < hóp, klūr < klóra, mūd < mót, slū < slóð, şūr < sjóvar, stūr < stórr

ø: (occas.)

krø: < kró, rø:s < hrósa, mø/mū < *móða

ȯ(i), ɔ(i) (before palat.)

u

ō (except.)

groma < *gróma?, rɔvək < rófa, skogin < skóinn, tovi < þófi

u

bu'lk < Nor. bulk, bulin < bulungr,bolungr, rus < rus

o,ȯ

borəl < burl, rosk < rusk, flȯga < fluga, ȯrdəl < hurðar

ȯļa- < ullar-, rȯ'ļk < Nor. rulk, stȯ'ļka < stulka, mȯņd < ȯ(i), ɔ(i) (before palat.) mund, ȯņdali < undarligr, sȯņd < sund, stȯņd < Nor.standa,stonda,

ú

u,ū

bū < bú, rūg < hrúga, skrū < skrúfa, tūg < þúfa, tūn < tún, kupa < kúpa

o,ȯ,ø (occas.)

grøt < Icel. grútr, kupi,kopi,kobi < kúpa, mul,mol,mäl < múli

ȯ(i), ɔ(i) (before palat.) gȯļdət < *g(a)úldinn

y

i (e)

bIgin (bøgin) < bygging, birək, berək < byrjan,*byrjing, nidərd,nedərd < nytróttr, rIga- < hryggjar, nī (nø:) < nyt?

ə

bər,bȯr < byrr, fərə < fyrir, mə'rk < myrkr

ø,ø:,ȯ

don,dȯn < dynr, dȯs < dys, sȯtşkins < systkin, pøti,pəti < *pytti, tød < þytr

hȯņin,hȯņən < *hyrningr, dȯņa < dynar, mȯļgət < ȯ(i), ɔ(i) (before palat.) myglaðr, sȯțşkins < systkin, ūtȯțləχt,ūtȯitləχt < úþýðiligt; BUT bei'ļk, bäi'ļki < *bylki, rø'ļki < *rylki, ø:ņd,øiņd < hyrni

ý

æ

œ

o,u (after palat.)

ņogəl,njogəl < nykr, sņukər,snokər < snykr

ø,ø:

drø:lin < drýll, flø:d < flýta, gø:r < gýgr, hø: < hý, de ķør(ə)n < kýrnar; mørna < mýrina, bøsni < býsn

ī,i

brī < brýna, tīli < þýðligr, skrīvlin/skrø:vlin < skrýflingr, stīvin/stivən < *stýfingr

ū (after palat.)

ļū < hlýr

ai (Scots infl.?)

läir/lø:r < lýrr, skäil, skø:l,sķø:l < skýla

ē,e

kēr(ə) < kærr, skrēlin < skrælingr, swēl < svæla, vēn < vænn; res < ræsa, dwetəl,dwətəl,twidəl < *þvætl,*þvætla

ε,æ

εrək,ærək < æringr

ä (before palat.)

twä(i)țəld < *þvætlaðr

ȯ (except.)

grȯla < græla

ø:,ø

bø:li < bœli, *fø:r < fœra, kø:d < kœða, -mø: < mœða; bødi < *bœti, lølək < hlœgligr

e (occas.)

beniman < *bœniman

ȯ(i), ɔ(i) (before palat.) grȯņşka < grœnska

ǫ

ō (after palat.)

ļōg < lœkr, BUT Løgəna < Lœkina [Lœkirnir]

ȯ,o(u),ō,ɔ,ə

fjȯra,fjora,fjɔra < fjara,fjǫru, hjog < hǫggva, hogi < hǫgg, hȯm(b)li- < hǫmlu-, jokəl < jǫkull, jɔkəl < ǫxl, stɔŋ < stǫng

ø:,ø

şøn,şȯn < tjǫrn, tøþələp,todələk,tudələk < *tǫðulaupr

ȯ(i), ɔ(i) (before palat.) trȯļ < trǫll, ȯņd,ɔņd < ǫnd

ei

au

ō (after palat.)

ļōg < lǫgr

ε(e),ē

dεk < dǫkk, rεŋ < rǫng, fjēl < fjǫl

ē,ε:,ǣ, e,ε

blēg < bleikr, ēd < eið, ēs < eisa, grē(d) < greiði, hε'nt,h´'nt < heimta, lεra < leira, rεdşkab < reiðskapr

jē,jε (occas.)

vjēdək,vjēdək < veit(a), jεdər,etər < eitr

jō,jɔ

bjōg < baugr, gjōl < gaula, jōga < auga

ō,ȯ,o,ɔ (rare without j)

*jōra, ōrna- < eyra (< *auRa), eyrna; tōm < taumr; gjɔpm,gopm < gaupn

ø,ø:

brø:d < braut, skø:vi < skauf, *grøtşta < grautstaðr, rø,rød < rauðr, rø:n,røni < hraun

u

lup,lop < hlaup, klustər,klostər,kløstər,klȯstər < klaustr; nut,nøt < naut

ɔu (Scottish influence?) ɔus < ausa

ey

ø:

klø:vin < *kleyfingr, lø:bin < *hleypingr, rø:dastab < *reyðarstabbi, stø: < streyja, ø:r < eyrir, sø:da < seyða

ē (rarely)

ēr,ø:r < eyrr

ō (after palat.)

fļōg < fleygja

já,jó,jú ø:,ø ū (after palat.), ljo (in Foula, partially) b

d

ð

drø:g < drjúgr, førə < fjórir, klø: < kljá, lø:(d) < hljóð, rød < hrjóta ļū < hljóð; hlýr; ļū < ljótr, ļūm(i) < ljómi, *ljūs < ljós

b (usually) p

berdus, perdus < *bergdus, bjak,pjak < Nor. pjakke, onplost,o'mplost < andblástr

v

bəl,vəl < Nor. bull, bi'rtək,virda,virdək < birta, bȯ'ņşvam:,vȯ'ņşvam: < *barnsvamm

ml > mbl

gambli,gambla < gamli, hȯm(b)libands,*himblins < hǫmluband, skum(bə)l < skuml

d (usually) t

bji'ntər < bindari; blȯ'nt < blundr

dj > dž (Whalsay: tž)

dža'rf (tşa'rf) < djarfr, džūb (tşūb) < djarfr, džur < djór, tşa'lk, da'lk < Nor. dalka, Far. dálka

nd > ņ, ld > ļ

hȯņən < hundinn, häņaless,hä'ņta(r)less < handa(r)lauss, miļənasto'mp < *myldingarstump

(dropped)

gūə(n) < góða(n), lī < hlíð, lø: < hlýða, rī < hríð, snī,snē < sneiða, *trō < þráðr

d

bōd < boða, frōd < froða, gødin < *gœðing, kø:d < kœða, spadi < spaði, stȯdək < staði,*stœða; afrō,afrōd < afráða, grē,grēd < greiði, lø:,lø:d < hljóð, *rø:,rø:d < rauðr

ðr > dr

flādrək, flȯdərək < *flaðra, lȯdər < lǫðr, lūdərhorn < lúðr-, mȯdəra,-ə < maðr(inn), rudər,rūr < hrúðr

rð > rd

bIrdək < byrðr, bȯrd < burðr, færd < ferð; gōrd < garðr, hardi < harði, hərd < hirða, hȯrdək,hȯrdin < urð, skōrd < skarð, BUT galafər < -ferð (unstressed), stərən < stirðna, vâr < verði

gð > g(d), occ. d, (ə)t

afbreg(d),ōbreg,utbrag(:) < afbrigði, lagət (-əd) < lagðr

t

aitrahōla < aðrahvára, ū:tȯț:ləχt < úþýðiligt, väitikēb < vaðkeipr

ðj > dž

rȯdž < ryðja, BUT widi,widdi < viðja

g

fɔg:bȯr:gər < fokburðr, kāvabȯrg < *kafaburðr

ðk - see þk

f

g

h

f, rf > rf

dža'rf < djarfr, ska'rf < skarfr; dȯfən,dōvən < dofinn, kāfə, kāfa, kāvi,kāva < kafi, klȯfən,klȯvən < klofann, ņâfatag,nevatjɔg < *hnefatak

v (as in ON -fbetween vowels and sonorants)

gåva < gáfa, arvi < arfi, hɔvi,høvi < háfr, krȯv < krof, nev < hnefi, riv < rifa, skāv < skafa, sōv < sofa,sœfa, tø:v < tœfa

v (occasionally in the beginning of a word)

fasgə'rt, vasgə'rt < fastgarðr, fȯdək,vatək < (dafek) < ?Gael. dubhach

dropped after ō,ū

hō < háfr, skrū < skrúfa, stū < stýfa

commonly preserved, incl. between vowels and in the end

bogi < bogi, drâg < drag, drōg < draga, flȯg < fluga, mogi < magi, rūg < hrúga, slāg < slag, smoga < smuga, stigi,stiggi < stigi, trogəl, truggel < trygill

dropped

vō < vágr

k/tž (occas.), esp. in lg,ng

mæ'rki,mergi < mergr, ha'ŋklin,haŋglin < *hanglingr, fļoknər < *flognir, kȯrhərd,gȯrhərd < *garðhirða, tžö'lk,džȯlgər,džölgər < gjalfr, Nor. gjelg,gjølg

g > ĝ (palatalisation before front vowels: i,e,ø)

gebi,ĝebi < Icel. gepill, gεld,ĝεld < gelda, ĝera < gera, ĝil < gil, gø:r,ĝø:r < gýgr

gi,ggi > dži

bεldžiən < belgin, knȯdži < knoggi

gj < dž (gj)

džȯlgər,džölgər < gjalfr, Nor. gjelg,gjølg, gjō < gjá

gl > lg

mȯļgət < myglaðr

retained initially (h)a'l:tagɔŋ:gi < *haltaganga, jigəl(ti),hjigəl,hjogəl < hégeitill, jɔ'nsi, hjɔnsi < hœns, ūrām,horəm < hárhamr, dropped occasionally ūriən,wōrin,jōrin < *háringr, wȯ'lsbane,hwȯ'lsbane < before a vowel, j,w hálsbein, ogg < hugga, ȯrdəltree < *hurðartré; Foula ballad: elde < heldr, e(i)dnar < hennar, yilsa < heilsa, yom < heim inserted before a häņ:vâg < *andvaka, hildin < eldinn, hȯrdək,hȯrdin < vowel in the beginning urð(in), hofsahεļək,ofsahεļək < *upsarhella of words lī < hlíð, røni < hraun, rām,kramək < hrammr, hl > l knεp,knæð < hneppa,kneppa, knɔkins,snap < hnappr, hr > r,occas. hr,kr snig < hneggja, snigin,snigom,negi < *hneggingr, hn > hn,kn, occas. n,sn snjūg(i) < knjúkr,hnjúkr, snȯt(i),snət(i) < hnǫttr,knǫttr hv > hw,kw, sw (rarely) hwāl,kwāl < hvalr, swam(m) < hvammr

k

hj > ş

şarəl < hjarl, şålmət < hjálmóttr, şēla < *hjēla < héla, BUT ja'rta < hjarta

mostly retained

kikən < *kykandi, lik < lík, puki,puka < púki, rēk < reka, rok < rok, şøk < sjúkr, vɔkər < Far. vakur

g (freq., when final or between vowels; occasionally in initial position)

bâgi < bak, blāg < blaka, brogi < Nor. brokkut, klāg < klaka, kragək < kraki, krūg < krókr, ļōg < lœkr, njogəl < nykr, ōg < aka, râg,rēg < reka, stjāgi < stjaki, sø:ga,sø:gi < sýki, -tag,-tjɔg < -tak; blɔka,bloga < *blaðka, fjȯk,fog,fɔg,fjȯg < fok,fjúk-, stuki,stjūgi < stúka,ɔkrə,ogə(r) < akr; gjōla < Nor.kjore, gōgi(s),kōgi(s) < kaga, grȯg,krȯg < *kruk

palatalised before a front vowel

ķēb,kēb < keipr, ķεgər,kεgər < keikr, ķipək,kipək < kippi, ķø'rk < kyrkja, ķø:r(ə)n < kýrnar, sķεga < skeki, sķøl,skøl < skýla, BUT kə'r:kasuk:ni < kirkjusókn

kj > kj,ķ

kjɔ'lk < kjálki, kjōlək,kjørək < Nor. kjore,kjøra, skjō < Nor. skjå, *skjɔldra < *skjaldra; BUT kjōb,ķōb < kaup, sķōl,sķūl

< skjól kk > g(γ) (occasionally)

l

m

n

p

r

baga- (baγa-), bagi- < bakka-, nægistik (næγi-) < *hnakkastykki, bloga (bloγa), bloka < *blakka < *blaðka

mostly retained vl > lv

kεvəl,kεlvək,kεlva < kefli, skalvə < skafl

gl > lg

mȯļgət < myglaðr

lm > ml

skul(ə)m, skum(bə)l < skuml

l>r

fjȯrd < fjøldi, nɔralεg < *nálarleggr, swār,swāl < Nor. sval

l > ļ (before a consonant, occasionally initially); ll,rl > ļ; (palatalization)

pei'ļk, päi'ļk < No. pilk, rȯļk < Nor. rulk, stå'ļk < stilkr, bäļ < ball, fäļ < fall, hεļək < hella, hεļər < hellir, hȯļi < No. holleg,hollig; skäļ < skellr, trȯļ < trǫll, kåļ < karl; BUT bäļdin,baldin < baldinn, melən (meļən) < millum, hōkil(l)in < hákerling; fļōg < fleygja, ļōg < lǫgr;lœkr; ļū < hljóð;hlýr; ļū < ljótr, ļūm(i) < ljómi

ld > ļ

miļənasto'mp < *myldingarstump

usually retained ms > ŋ(k)s

fj'ɔŋs,fjo'ŋsət < Nor. fjoms; ho'ŋ(k)s, ho'ms < Nor. humsken, L.Sc. hum; ro'ŋ(k)s, ro'ms < raumska

lm > ml

skul(ə)m, skum(bə)l < skuml

generally retained fn > mn, m (finally)

stȯmna,stəmna < stofn, hamn- < hafn-, Ham < Hǫfn, stamərən < *stafn-rǫng

n > ņ (before a consonant, occasionally initially); nn,rn > ņ; (palatalization)

äņəhva'rt < annathvárt, häņ < hann, käņ < kanna, breņər,brεņər,bräņər < brennir, mȯņd < mund, ȯņdali < undarligr, väņt(i) < vent (þú), grȯņşka < grœnska, bȯņ,bɔņ < barn; BUT hȯni,həni,hȯņ,hɔņ < horn; mȯn,mȯņ < munnr, span < spann, mana < manna, brna,brεņa < benna, andər,aņdər < anddyri njād,nād < Sw. knat?, njafin,njafək < Sw.dial. naffa, L.Sc. naff,nyaff, njatəri < *gnatra,gnaddra, ņogəl,njogəl < nykr

nd > ņ

hȯņən < hundinn, häņaless,hä'ņta(r)less < handa(r)lauss

nn > ņd

räņd < renna, säņd < sanna; blohȯņdin,blohȯņin < *biloðhyrningr; drȯņd,drȯin < drynja

retained

b (usually when final, or between vowels)

džūb < djúp, flab < flapr, glâb < glap, glȯb < glop, glø:b < *gleypr, hūb < hóp, kjōb < kaup, lø:bin < *hleypingr, rab,rāb < hrap, sȯb < saup, strȯba < stopi, ūb,ø:b < óp, ūb,ø:b < œpa; kupi,kȯbi < kúpa, etərskab,etərskop < eitrskapr, rεdşkab < reiðskapr, spjēskāb < *spéskapr; BUT lândsķεp < landskapr

pp > b (occasionally)

skεbək,skæbək < skeppa, snæbək,snabək,snεp(i),snæp(i) < *hneppi, kibək < kippa

ft > pt (bd)

ap(ta) < aptann [-ft-], skεptin,skεbdək < *skeptingr; Tȯpti-,Tȯptəns (Təptəns), Taft < tópt

retained

s

t

rn > nn (occas.)

banno-corn < barn

rn > rl (occas.)

mallo < marlaukr

tr > rd

slȯrd,slȯdər < slytra

r>l

aitrahōla < aðrahvára, buliŋ,būrək < *buringr, gjōla,kjōlək,kjø:lək,kjø:rək < Nor.kjore,kjøra, kȯrl,korr < kyrr;misfø:ld,misfø:rd < misfór(sk), njogəl,ņogəl < nyk, ȯrdəl- < huðar-?

retained dropped between k and l

bjɔkəl < bœxl, jakəl < jaxl, jɔkəl < ǫxl

usually retained

frεt < freta, hatər < hatra, klut < klútr, mjat < mat, skītək < *skítingr

d (usually when final, or between vowels; occasionally in initial position)

bidi < biti, -brɔd < -brot, flāda < flata, gad < gat, ļūd < ljótr, mādər < matr, mūd,mōd < mót, rø:d < hrjóta, slȯd < slot, sōd < sát, sōdi,sɔdi < sæti,*sáti,v(j)ēdək < veita; jεdər,etər < eitr, fȯdək,vatək < fata, grūd,grøt < grjót, grødək,grø:tək < grýta, nød,not,ut < naut, søda,søt(a) < sœtr,sœta; drȯļ:şlâ:gət,trȯļ:şlâ:gət < trǫllsleginn, da'mp < Dan./L.Germ. tamp

dropped (occasionally (spirvi)gru < -grjót, lag:stø:(t:) < *lagsteyta, *ȯrdətū,*ōrdədȯit < *árdagsdot(t), hwī < hvítt when final)

þ

v

ț,ď (palatalisation)

äțifər, äitifər,atwərs,ȯďbə'rt,äďbə'rt < atferð, gɔiț,gȯiț < gátt, ūtȯțləχt,ūtȯitləχt < úþýðiligt, -hɔiț < -háttr, läțla,läitla < lítla, twä(i)țəld < *þvætlaðr, väțibând,väitaband < *vattaband

tj > ş; tş (when final)

şaldər < tjaldr, şȯn < tjǫrn, uşūna < Nor. utjona; Foula ballad: chaldona < tjaldinu; vitş < vitja

tt > d (occasionally)

minȯd < miðnátt, tȯd,tȯdək < tuttr

tr > rd

slȯrd,slȯdər < slytra

t

tari < þari, tə'lfər,tʌ'lfər < þilfar, tiļi,teļi < þilja, (u)tīli < (ú)þýðligr, togə- < þoku-, to'rkəsȯt < *þukasótt, trō < þráð, trūən < þró(in), twä(i)țəld < *þvætlaðr

d

dōm < þám, dɔd < þot, du,dū < þú, dwa'rs < þvers, dwetəl,dwətəl < *þvætla < þvætta; the Foula ballad: dar < þar, do < þá

þj > ş

şok(k)a < þjukkr

þk > rk (occas.)

kȯņmæ'rki < *kornmaðkr [-þk-], cf. Nor. mark < maðkr

v (in most cases) w (initially)

Watli < Vatnshlíð, wəl < vaðmál, wələ'nt,wȯlə'nt < vélindi, widi < viðja, wæ'lşi < vǫlsi

vl > lv

kεvəl,kεlvək,kεlva < kefli, skalvə < skafl

Dialects of Shetland Norn This overview is based on distinctions ed in Shetland Scots as of the end of the 19th century by Jakob Jakobsen and presented in his "Etymological Dictionary of the Norn Language in Shetland", v.I, p. LIX, with some additions. Most of the features mentioned below are

undoubtedly of Norn origin, although influences from Scots may also be seen in between. (Additions to this list are more than welcome.) 1. Eastside, North Islands, South Shetland 1.1. palatalisation (rather irregular) ll,rl > ļļ, nn,rn > ņņ, tt > itt, ţţ: falla > faļļj, fäļļ, ullar- > oļļa, millum > melan, meļļan, gott &ht; goitt, goţţ, occasionally in the initial (prevocalic) position: fleygja > fļog, lœkr > log,ljog - hann > häņņ, brenna > breņņǝk, andi > äņdi, but banna > bann 1.2. ON hv,kv, Eng. qu-,wh- > w: hvalr > hwāl, hvammr > hwam, kvisa > hwis, Eng. quite,white > White 1.3. In Dunrossness (South Shetland) the original ð is occasionally preserved as [ð] or [þ]: eið > eð, mið > mið, kóð > køð,køþ, seiðr > seð,seþ 1.A. North Islands, especially Unst and Yell 1.A.1. ā > â, a somewhat diphtongized sound approaching the Faroese á [ɔa]: âli 'lamb' = āli, brând = brand, tând = tānd; 1.A.2. de Herra in Yell (as well in several other places all over Shetland): -ingr,-ungr > -iŋ: buliŋ = būrək < *buringr, buliŋ,boliŋ = bulin, drøliŋ = drø:lin < ON drafli + L.Sc. drulie; 1.A.3. In de Herra in Yell sporadically ð > þ: kø:þ = kø:d < kóð, tøþələp = tudelep < *tǫðulaupr 1.A.4. hv, kv > hw, in North islands (Yell) occasionally to sw: hvalr > hwal, kví > hwi,kwi, hvammr > swam 2. Westside (neighbourhood of Sandness), Foula 2.1. ε,æ are occasionally pronounced more open than usual. 2.2. ON á > wo: á > wo, tár > twor, fá > fwo 2.3. [y] is often present where Mainland has [ø]: bryni (brøni) < ON *brýn-; ryni (røni) < ON hraun, tryni (trøni) < ON trýni; 2.4. (also in part of South Shetland, especially Conningsburgh and Quarf) hv,kv, Eng. qu-,wh- > kw: kwolvin < kálf(r)inn, hvalr > kwal, kví > kwi, hverjum > kvara, hvar > quar (Hildina), Eng. quite,white > quite, but hvítr > whit-, hvern > whaar (Hildina) 2.5. Instead of the palatal utterance of ll,nn, the change ll, nn > dl, dn is present in many cases (where Mainland Norn has ņņ/rn and ļļ/rl): fall > fadl, bolla- > bodli-, kunnr > kodn,kodden, horn > hoden. It has to be added that the palatal pronunciation of ll,nn has found its way to this dialect too, cf. !!! 2.6. Likewise, the long -tt- is never palatalised and does not add -i- to the preceding vowel either: gott > gott. 2.7. The initial h- is often omitted: hennar > ednar, henni > ende, hǿsta > osta 2.8. Some pronunciation differences: bjadni < barn(it), cf. Shetland mainland boņņ.

Sketch of the grammar of Shetland Norn based on the material from Jakobsen's "Etymological dictionary of Shetland Norn" (See a separate overview forthe language of the Hildina poem) This overview is mostly based on forms picked up from Jakob Jakobsen's etymological dictionary. Of course, it should be kept in mind that most of those forms represent not directly Norn but rather its remnants in Shetland Scots and may well originate from different dialects and epochs. Nevertheless, we think that this material to a certain degree allows its systematisation and a contour description of

the grammar of Shetland Norn (or, at least, its morphology) can be rendered. See also the chapter on Old Norse for a grammar reference. Short view A. Substantives A.1. Indefinite declension A.1.1. Singular A.1.1.1. Strong declension A.1.1.2. Weak declension A.1.2. Plural A.2. Definite declension A.2.1. Singular A.2.2. Plural B. Adjectives B.1. Strong adjectives B.2. Weak declension B.3. Comparative and superlative degree B.3.1. Comparative degree B.3.2. Superlative degree C. Pronouns C.1. Personal pronouns C.2. Possessive pronouns C.3. Demonstrative pronouns C.4. Indefinite and interrogative pronouns D. Numerals D.1. Cardinal numerals D.2. Ordinal numerals E. Verbs E.1. Indicative E.1.1. Present E.1.2. Past E.2. Imperative E.3. Subjunctive E.4. Invinitive E.5. Present (active) participle E.6. Past (ive) participle E.7. Middle voice A. SUBSTANTIVES A.1. Indefinite declension A.1.1. Singular A.1.1.1. Strong declension A.1.1.1.1. Nominative/accusative The standard Old Norse (ON) masculine ending -r is dropped in most cases (merging thus with accusative), except a few words where it still shows up as -er: (Norn < Old Norse unless specified)

erdros < arðr-áss modera handalos < maðr(inn) handalauss fogborder < fjúkburðr funder, finder < fundr hwisterester (*hwister-hester) < hestr kidnpuster < kinnpústr Most of the feminine and neuter strong substantives in ON had no ending in nominative and the same applies to Shetland Norn (further referred to as Norn). A.1.1.1.2 Genitive a) -s was a common genitive singular ending in masculine and neuter declension in ON. This ending is widely presented in Norn: Hornshul < Hornshóll s(j)usamillabakka (*sjósámillibakka) < á milli sjós ok bakka Maedadalls Woe < Matdalsá Vigadalswo < Víkardalsá Polsgjo < Pollsgjá marta di gons teke di veps < margt til garns, tekit til vepts Vatshwi < Vatnskví De Felsend < fells endi merkis-time < merkis-tíð As -s is the only genitive ending in English, there is no doubt that it had to stay in Norn under any circumstances. In separate cases -s shows up as -is, -sa, -ses: Rønisfell < Hraunsfell, Rønis vo < hrauns-vágr Markamudiswo < markamótsá elis < éls Vatsaros < Vatnsrás Banufseskodda < Boðahnúfskoddi The ending -is could have developed owing to the influence from words ending in -i, which had the genitive ending -is, e.g. ON sæti Gen. sætis. An influence from Scots is also possible. The other examples - Vatsaros, Bahufseskodda - can contain a contamination of various genitive endings. b) Another regular genitive ending - ar/r - was used in the strong feminine and the strong i/u-masculine declensions. In Norn it's normally preserved as -a/e (occasionally a > i), -er, -r: Masc. de Jørnategs < Jǫrundar teigar de Sjurategs < Sigurðar teigar *Sunlasetter < Sǫlmundarsetr Tronaseter (Tronister) < Þrándarsetr; de Fjardepall < fjarðarpallr; ryggagitel < ryggjargeitill Skeldebrøs < Skjaldarbrjóst

Skellavelti < Skjaldarvelta? Ballafell < ballarfell (?); de Bellagø < ballargýgr hatterskum < *hattarskúm Fem. Engamor, Engatus, Engamosdelds; Engermorvatn < engjarde Gørasten, Gøstens < gýgjarsteinn; de Gørhul < gýgjarhóll (W)Ordal < árdalr; de Orems < árheimar; Worgert < árgarðr; Orgil < árgil; (W)Orli < árhlið; Woros - áróss; (W)Orwick, Orruk < árvík olla < ullarGrindavelta < grindarHamnavoe < hafnarvágr Møradelds < mýrardeildir, Mørategs < mýrarteigar de Stranategs < strandarteigar skotnarur < *skotanar-róðr ufsahella < upsarhella Tuptategs < tuptar-; utia < útíð(ar?) Vigagjo < víkargjá lir, lida < hlíðar; Lifell, de Lidadal < hlíðardalr; de Lirend(s) < hlíðarendi; Lirhul (-hol, wol) < hlíðarhóll noralegg < nálar-leggr Maligjo < malargjá Navigjo < nafargjá The above examples show that -r is normally preserved in monosyllabic words (wor < ár, lir < hlíðar, gør < gýgjar), but tends to drop in bisyllabic ones. The reflexes of Old Norse hlíð show both types of this development: hlíðar > lir, lida. The choice obviously depends upon whether -ð- stays (as -d-) or disappears at all, which gives either a mono- or bisyllabic word respectively. A.1.1.1.3. Dative In Old Norse strong masculine and neuter nouns had the ending -i. It seems to be well-preserved in Norn. Feminine nouns had no ending in dative except the word hǫnd - D.sg. hendi: lagi (to be in a lagi [lag] 'to be excited') < lagi, D.sg. of lag Velli < á velli, D.sg.of vǫllr Stakken groiti < stakkrinn í grjóti Vo < í vági andi < í hendi A.1.1.1.4. Accusative Corresponding to most Norwegian, Danish and Swedish dialects, as well as West Germanic languages (German), accusative in Norn strongly inclined to merging with nominative. It is especially evident in the strong masculine declension where nominative has lost its masculine ending -r which made it look the same as the accusative form. In most of the feminine and all the neuter words nominative and accusative were morphologically identical.

A.1.1.1.5. Summary Masc

Fem

Neu

N

(er)

-

-

A

-

-

-

D

i

-

i

a,r,er

s

G s/is/a,er

A.1.1.2. Weak declension A.1.1.2.1. Nominative One of the most prominent pecularities of this group of nouns is fluctuations between the masculine endings -i (oiginally, nominative) and -a (originally, accusative, dative and genitive). Their confusion can witness the blending of the nominative and accusative cases in Norn as we have already discussed above. As a result, other forms with the ending -a swapped it for -i by analogy. In neuter the Old Norse ending -a is mostly preserved or dropped occasionally. a) Masculine bilk, bilki, bulk < Icel. bulki m., bylki n., Nor. bulk m. < ON *bular hog, hogi, hoga < hagi ralli < Nor. Swed. Ralla rømi, remi < rjómi slagi, slaga < slaga, slagi skugga, skugg < skuggi (cf. to be i' skugga < at vera í skugga) b) Feminine floga < fluga flukra,flokra < Far. Flykra solta < solta Smorkelda < smœr-/smjǫrkelda c) Neuter jarta < hjarta joga < auga jora < eyra nir < nyra Many weak nouns have lost their ending, although in a number of forms it is still preserved (partially it owes to the occasional blending of the strong and weak declension still in Old Norse, cf. ON. stubbr vs. stubbi). The omitting of the ending is especially noticeable in female. Masc. stubb nm. stub, stump < stubbr/stubbi rukka, rokk < Nor. Ruka Fem. bor < bora

dagdvelj < dagdvelja di < þýða Greentua/Grøntu < grøn þúfa; Tuan stura < þúfan stóra; Høtu < heyþúfa; Litlatu < litla þúfa; Muklatu < mikla þúfa A.1.1.2.2. Genitive In Old Norse there was the same form for accusative, dative and genitive of singular in the weak declension of nouns. However, we have collected the examples of genitive into a separate group, because most of them are parts of compound words. In feminine the ending -u is often replaced with -a (the same change -u > -a is frequent in the plural of weak adjectives, see B.2.3.): Masc. Mangaseter < Magnasetr, Magni Tirvister (*Turvasetter) < Torfasetr, Torfi; s(j)usamillabakka (*sjósámillibakka) < milli sjós ok bakka Fem. Kellabrun < keldu-brunnr, kelda Kjorkabi < kirkjubœr; Kjorkigert < kirkjugarðr; de Kjorkidelds < kirkjudeildir; K(j)orkhul < kirkjuhóll, de Kjorkalis < kirkjuhlíðir; Korkaseter < kirkjusetr, kirkja pannabrod/panni- < pǫnnubrot, panna gjonge-sop, gjonga-fish/gjonge-fish < gǫngu-sopi, gǫngu-fiskr, ganga A.1.1.2.3. Accusative, dative folgju, fulgju < fulgu, fulga grinsko, alongside grønska < grœnsku, grœnska hurro, horro < Nor. hurru, hurra ilsko, ilsku, alongside ilska < ilsku, ilska fongsnoro < *fang-snarvu, *fang-snarva (Alternatively the final -o can be explained as a result of the influence from -v-, cf. dorg > * dorw > Norn dorro, like sorg > Eng. sorrow) A.1.1.2.4. Summary Masc

Fem

Neu

N

i (a)

a (o)

a,-

A

a

a, *o (u)

*a (-)

D

a

o (u)

*a (-)

G

a

o (u)

*a (-)

A.1.2. Plural A.1.2.1. Nominative Old Norse had various plural nominative endings in masculine and feminine: -ar, -ir, -ur, -r. In neuter there was a zero ending in the strong declension and the ending -u in the weak one. All this is narrowed

down to 3 endings in Norn: -ar, -er and the neuter zero ending. The weak neuter declension has apparently borrowed the ending -er, see below jogers. drengar < drengar (also drengir), sg. Drenar de Kletters < klettar, klettr de Engers < engjar, eng vister < vistir, vist ilsker < ilskur, ilska klør, sg. klø < kljár, sg. Klé ger (*kør, kyr) < kýr, sg. Kú jogers (*joger) < augu, sg. auga; cf. Far. pl. eygu, eygur A.1.2.2. Genitive The main genitive plural ending in ON was -a. It is quite well preserved in Norn, occasionally appearing in a slightly different phonetic form, f.ex. as -e: dea-dumbvidlavoga < dymbildagavika, -daga-, Nom. sg. dagr Hulmawater < hólmavatn; Hulmasjønn < hólmatjǫrn Kollafirt < Kollafjǫrðr; Kollevo < Kollavágr; Kollefell < Kollafell; Kollerøn < Kollahraun, kollr husamilla(n) < millum húsa; milla gorda < millum garða; skottamilliskrua < skotta milli skrúfa; s(j)usamillabakka < milli sjós ok bakka; millen fjella, Mella fjela < millum fella (fjalla); Milla hella < milli hella; Milla stakki (*Milla stakka) < milli stakka; Milla stena < milli steina; Milla vatna < milli vatna; Milja sanda < milli sanda Gott a taka gamla manna ro < gott at taka gamalla manna ráð de Emannasod < *eins-manna-sátr < eins-manns-sátr; cf. de Twegemanso < tveggja-manna-sátr; de Vjedemansso < veiðimanns/asátr. In the last case we face the mixing of the endings for genitive sg. and pl. Logically it should have been *Emannsod, *Twegemann(a)o and *Vjedemann(a)o, but the outcome is opposite due to corruption. According to the rule of vocalic contraction, the genitive plural ending -a is usually dropped when the root ends in a vowel: Sørett < sauðarétt Millenor < millum á(a); (-r is pleonastic) The genitive ending -na, proper to female and neuter of the weak declension shows up in few cases: ornaskap < eyrna-, Nom.sg. eyra A.1.2.3. Dative The ON ending is always -um, which in Norn turned into -en (cf. the Faroese ending -um [ωn]): Hwien < *í kvíum, Nom.sg. kví

Toften < í Toftum, tóft De Nes(j)en < í Nesjum, nes hwiden s(w)iglen < (með) hvítum seglum Hulen < Hólum, hóll (or Hól(l)inn, see A.2.1.1) Tuen < í þúfum, þúfa (or þúfan, see A.2.1.1) A.1.2.4. Accusative In neuter and feminine accusative plural had the same ending as nominative. In masculine it was equal to the nominative ending, but failed the final -r: Nom.pl. hestar, dalir, Acc.pl hesta, dali. Remains of this system are still to be found in Norn: blura < blóra, Nom.pl. blórar dimmodali < dimmu dali, *dimmudali, Nom.pl. -dalir A.1.2.5. Summary Masc

Fem

Neu

N

ar, er

ar, er, r

s. -, w. er

A

a, i

ar, er, r

s. -, w. er

D

en

en

en

G

a

a

s. a, w. na

A.2. Definite declension (with the suffigated article) A.2.1. Singular A.2.1.1. Nominative-accusative. a) Masculine The mixing of nominative and accusative is evident where definite nouns are concerned, especially when a noun is followed by a (weak) adjective in accusative, e.g. pollin djuba which repeats the old accusative form pollinn djúpa, nominative pollrinn djúpi. We quote both accusative and nominative forms of the Old Norse archetypes, either separately (Acc. kollinn, Nom. kollrinn) or within the same word (eld(r)inn). globeren < gláparin de Fors(in) < forsinn Hessen gula < hestinn gula (Acc), hestrinn guli (Nom) slagi, slaga < ON slaga, slagi Boens < boðinn (boði) lavin < hleifinn (Acc), hleifrinn (Nom) Stakken groiti < stakk(r)inn í grjóti, Stakken sjukka < stakkinn þjukka, Nom. stakkrinn þjukki hogin/hogen; de Hogen < haginn de Kollen [Kullen] < kollinn, Nom. Kollrinn de jaderin, jadren (jader) < jaðarinn

dene komene ljus [lusa] < daginn [dǫgun?] er kominn í ljós, Nom. dagrinn ungadrengen < unga drenginn, Nom. ungi drengrinn Klettin rø < klett(r)inn rauði monin, Edm. monen < máninn hildin < eld(r)inn kjosen < kossinn halsin < hálsinn Pollin djuba < pollinn djúpa, Nom. pollrinn djúpi ratsin < rassinn simmen < síminn Stenavellen; Vallernes Hulen, Hulin < hólinn, Nom. hóllinn (otherwise treated as Dat.pl, see A.1.2.3.); Hulen brenda < hólinn brennda, Nom. hóllinn brenndi; Hulen hjoga < hólinn háa, Nom. hóllinn hái (Far. høgi); Hulna hwessa < hólinn hvassa, Nom. hóllinn hvassi (or Nom. plur. hólarnir hvǫssu, see A.2.2.1.); Hulen [hollen] kwida < hólinn hvíta, Nom. hóllinn hvíti; Hulen rundi < hólinn rundi; Hul(en) skarpa < hólinn skarpa, Nom. hóllin skarpi; Hulen (Ulna) stura [sturi] < hólinn stóra, Nom. hóllinn stóri Tuen < þúfan (otherwise í þúfum, see A.1.2.3) In several cases the old masculine ending -inn shows up in the shape of -a or -e. The conditions of this change are unclear, although it echoes a similar development of the feminine article in Norwegian dialects, cf. ON bókin > Nynorsk boka. Nevertheless, in Norn such cases are ed mostly in masculine. Probably this is an example of the ending -a spreading out as a universal ending of Norn, see f.ex. J.Jakobsen, "Etymological Dictionary...", "Fragments of Norn", p. XCIII, "Gryle verse" ("All the old grammatical endings in this verse have been levelled to -a, except in bjadnis <...>"). sagde kolle gambli [kolla gambla] < sagði karlinn gamli spungna ligger i gliggan < spónninn liggr í *glygganum modera handalos < maðr(inn) handalauss b) Feminine In feminine the blending of nominative and accusative is especially obvious. Most examples show strong declension which Old Norse endings were -in (Nom.) and -ina/-na (Acc.). In Norn they show up as en/in and -ena/-na respectively. The weak endings in Old Norse were an and -una, in Norn they appear as -en/in and -ena respectively. mørena grøna < mýrina grœnu, Nom. mýrin grœna; mørna kwida < mýrina hvítu, mýrin hvíta; Blomørna < blámýrrin/-ina Gjona stura < Acc. gjána stóru; Nom. gjáin stóra; Gjona wi' < gjána við Ørna wi < eyrina við Wona svarta < ána svǫrtu, áin svarta Kusena stura < kǫsina stóru, kǫsin stóra dongjin < dyngjan skivin < skífan de Sletten < sléttan jilder hjolskin! < illa heilsa(n) Grunkens < grunnkan pirrena < pirruna (alternative interpretation: pirr-hœna)

Smina wi < smiðjuna við Rivena høgena wi < rifuna hauginn við c) Neuter The Old Norse ending for nominative and accusative was -it. In a few Norn words the final -t is still on, but most often it is dropped. The vowel is presented as -i, rarely -e. tungeflet/-it < tungufallit darget (also darg) < darget valne vatne < fallinn í vatnit firsta fari! < fyrsta farit sommere litla < summarit lítla Røni fogra < hraunit fagra; de Berrarønis < berghraunit; de Fellarønis < fellhraunit; Hjogarønis < haugahraunit; Krogarøni < krák(u)hraunit; Langa-/Longarøni < langa hraunit. seppalama (*-lami) < søta lambit sjønibøsni < sjónar-bysnit A.2.1.2. Genitive a) Masculine, neuter The masculine (and neuter) ending in Old Norse was -ins. Preserved in Norn. Holsinswart < halsins varða [-i] b) feminine In Old Norse The feminine ending was -innar (strong) and -unnar (weak). In Norn the final -r is dropped, the double -nn- is shortened and the initial vocal -i- or -u- reduced, so the outcome is -na: Wonaswartadal < árinnar-svǫrtudalr Murnategs < mýrarinnar-teigar; de Mørnabrods < mýrarinnar-brotar? (or Celt. brod?; also treated as mýranna-brotar, see A.2.2.2.) Nipnafell < gnípunnar-fell (also treated as gnípna-fell, see A.2.2.2.) A.2.1.3. Dative a) The masculine ending in Old Norse was -inum (strong) or -anum (weak). Norn has most often the ending -en or (respectively?) -an, i.e. the same as in accusative (see though the on the language of Hildinakvadet where there still is a different ending). gleggin, gleggan < glygginum, glygganum ølt i riggen < ilt í hrygginum Kletten rø < (á) klettinum [klettinn] rauða b) Feminine The Old Norse strong ending -inni appears as -in in the only example we have found (see also an anological conclusion for the language of Hildinakvadet). No traces of the weak ending -unni have been discovered.

Møren < á/í mýrinni No examples of dative definite in neuter (Old Norse -inu) are found either. A.2.1.4. Accusative sg. masc. weak (strong covered above) -ann Norn -an agglovan < *agga-klofann, A.sg.def. of klofi Tongan swarta < tangann svarta, tanginn svarti Rivena-høgena-wi < rifan/rifuna-hauginn-við - a separate form which shows an influence from the feminine ending -ena. A.2.2. Plural. A.2.2.1. Nominative a) masculine, feminine In Old Norse both genders had the endings -ar/-ir/-ur + -nir (masc.)/-nar (fem.). In Norn all these variants have merged into -erne (-ene) which must be a combination of nominative and accusative forms and is very typical for many continental Scandinavian dialects. A slightly different development is shown by donna < dyrnar, where -rn- follows straight after the root vowel. visterne, visterno < vistirnar Kletterne < klettarnir Vallernes < vellirnir Hulna hwessa < hólarnir hvǫssu (or hólinn hvassa, see A.2.1.1.) oba donna [dønna, dønni]! < opna dyrnar! boochsina < buksurnar (?) b) neuter de Lediens (ledi) < leitin Nom.pl. of leiti de Rønins < hraunin, hraun Ennins < ennin, enni viln (vils) < vilin Nom. pl. of vil de Gilins < gilin grœnu There are few examples of the ending being -ena (-*eni, -*ini) which is the same ending as exists in Faroese and Danish, unlike the ending -in as in Old Norse: Gilena grona (< *gilini) < gilin grœnu, Far. *gilini grønu clovena < Nor. klov + in The following word has formally no neuter plural article, but its final part (-in) does remind it, so that in Faroese and Danish it acquired the final vowel -e/i by analogy from the article. However, this did not happen to Norn: sotskin < systkin, but Far. systkini, Dan. søskende

A.2.2.2. Genitive plural has a common ending for all 3 genders: -anna [-nanna]. In Norn it is normally preserved as -na, rarely -ena. Midla jouna [jongna, jungna] < milli gjánna Hwinarigger < kvíanna-ryggr Hulnarift < hólanna-ript Rivnateng < rifna-tangi de Mørnabrods < mýranna-brotar (or mýrarinnar-brotar? see A.2.1.2.) Nipnafell < gnípna-fell (or gnípunnar-fell? see A.2.1.2.) Tegenavall (Tegnivaldjes) < teiganna-völlr Husenvord (Husavord) < húsanna-varða A.2.2.3. Dative Unfortunately, no definite dative plural forms have been discovered. A.2.2.4. Feminine and neuter names had identical forms for nominative and accusative plural. Accusative masculine in Old Norse had the ending -ana or -ina. In Norn these endings are merged into -ena or -na. L(j)øgena grøna < lœkina grœnu, Nom. lœknirnir grœnu Hulna hwessa < hólana hvǫssu, hólarnir hvǫssu Tegena gronna [gronja] < teigana grinnu [grœnu?], teigarnir grinnu Blettena/blekna grøna < blettina grœnu, blettirnir grœnu Stakkena grona < stakkana grœnu, stakkarnir grœnu Summary. Singular (s. - strong, w. -weak, sw. - both strong and weak) Masc

Fem

Neu

N

sw. en/in, a

sw. en/in

s. i(t), w. ?

A

s. en/in, w. an

sw. ena/na

s. i(t), w. ?

D

s. en, w. an

s. en, w. ?

?

G

s. ins, w. ?

s. na, w. na?

s. ins?, w. ?

Plural Masc

Fem

Neu

N

erne

erne, na

in(i?)

A

(e)na

erne, na

in(i?)

D

?

?

?

G

(e)na

(e)na

(e)na

B. ADJECTIVES B.1. Strong adjectives The repertoire of various grammatical forms presented by strong adjectives is quite scarce. The following forms only have been

ed: Nom.sg.masc/fem/neu, Nom.pl.masc (?), Gen.pl. and Dat.pl.

Acc.sg.masc.,

Dat.sg.masc,

B.1.1. Singular nominative. Like with masculine names, adjectives in Old Norse had the masculine nominative singular ending -r but only few instances of this ending are found in the remnants of Norn: naber [nabel] < knappr uvolter [uvolt, uvilt] < óðvilltr (?) The rest of adjective forms have this ending dropped and thus coincide with the old feminine form. modera handalos < maðr(inn) handalauss Mukkel/Mikkel Rø < mikil Rauðey; Rø stur < Rauðey stór Grøni < grœn ey; Grøntu < grœn tó/þúfa In feminine the ending -a [-e] is sometimes present. Most likely it originates from the Accusative form (góða) or, alternatively, the weak Nominative form (also góða). Sanday Stour [stura] < Sandey stór(a) De vare [vera] gue ti < þat var góð tíð (Nom), Acc. góða tíð B.1.2. Neuter ending in old Norse was -t. It is well preserved in Norn. smutt < smátt, Neu. Smár uvart < óvart, obra utoitleg(t) < óþýðligt, óþýðiligr Sometimes the neuter form includes additional inserts: mjoget < mjótt, *mjó-ótt In a separate case the final -(t)t is eliminated altogether: hwī ligǝrǝ hwī < hvítt liggr í hvítu B.1.3. Singular accusative masc. In Old Norse the ending is -an, in Norn it is preseved as -en in those few examples where it still can be traced: goden dag! < góðan dag! B.1.4. Singular dative. Like with the dative plural of nouns, the old ending -um shows up as -en. hwiden s(w)iglen swerten tro < (með) hvítum seglum, svǫrtum þræði B.1.5. Plural nominative: ungadrengar < contamination of Acc. unga drenga and Nom. ungir drengar (?) Otherwise it might be influenced by an alternative form

ungadrengen < unga drenginn or, more likely, be a reflex of a weak form: ungu drengar (see B.2). B.1.6. The only surviving Genitive plural form is gamla < gamalla (assimilation of the standard Gen.pl. ending -ra, which changes to -la after -l-): Gott a taka gamla manna ro < gott at taka gamalla manna ráð B.1.7. Plural dative. Same as B.1.4. hwiden s(w)iglen swerten tro < (með) hvítum seglum, svǫrtum þræði B.2. Weak declension B.2.1. In a number of cases adjectives are preserved in their old weak form. All occurences of this type show the masculine ending -i: dummi < Fær. dummi,dummur/dumbur, Nor.dumm bolleti < bǫllótti, bǫllóttr huketi < hókótti, hókóttr kruketi < krókótti, krókóttr mirki < myrki, myrkr keremi < kæri minn, Kerr kluki < klóki, klókr Some of these adjectives appear as substantivated nouns: halti < halti, halar hardi < harði, harðr rødi < rauði, rauðr smjongni < (hinn) smeygni, smeyginn B.2.2. Weak adjective with an indefinitive substantive (widespread among toponymes). In the case of feminine nouns, it becomes difficult to distinguish between the old strong Accusative singular form and the weak nominative singular one, which had the same ending -a in Old Norse (see B.1.1.). longafloga < langa fluga de Longegø < langa gýgr Grønablett < grœna blett, grœni blettr; Gronastakk/Gronistakk < grœna stakk, grœni stakkr, Grønitong/Gronateng < grœna tanga, grœni tangi Kwidamørr < hvíta mýrr; Hwidanes, Kwidanes < hvíta nes; Hwitiberg < hvíta berg; Hwita-/Kwitastakk < hvíta stakk, hvíti stakkr Brattikom < bratti kambr; Rongakom < ranga kamb, rangi kambr; Mukla Kom < mikla kamb, mikli kambr; Litla Kom < litla kamb, litli kambr de Longemi < lǫngumið Ruøy stoura < Rauðey stóra Øje gamla < iða gamla de Gamlabuls/Gamlibøls < gǫmlu ból; Gamla hellek < gamla hella Hjoganip < høga gnípa (?) Tjongi longi, Longatonga < tangi(nn) langi, tanga langa

sota [soti] lamb! < sœta lamb! In the original weak forms consonantal inserts occasionally occur: groga < gráa, grár, cf. Anglo-Saxon græg B.2.3. Weak adjective with a definitive substantive. Most of the forms show the ending -a. The masculine Nominative ending -i is rather rare (gambli, rundi), the plural and feminine indirect ending -u is replaced with -a in most examples except dimmodali < dimmu dali (see a similar development in genitive feminine of substantives, A.1.1.2.2.). sagde kolle gambli [kolla gambla] < sagði karlinn gamli Stakken sjukka < stakkinn þjukka, Nom. stakkrinn þjukkr seppalama < sœta lambit (?) sjolin sjota < sálin sœta ungadrengen < unga drenginn, Nom. ungi drengrinn Gjona stura < gjáin stóra; Acc. gjána stóru Blettena/blekna grøna < blettina grœnu; Dalin grøna < dalinn grœna, dalrinn grœni; Fidna grøna < fitina grœnu, fitin grœna; Ljøgena grøna < lœkina grœnu, lœkirnir grœnu; Mørena grøna < mýrina grœnu, mýrin grœna; Stakkena grona < stakkana grœnu,stakkarnir grœnu; Tona grona < tóna grœnu, tóin grœna; Gilena grona < gilin grœnu, Far. gilini grønu Hellena kwida < helluna hvítu, hellan hvíta; Hulen kwida < hólinn hvíta, hóllinn hvíti; Mørna kwida < mýrina hvítu, mýrrin hvíta Gorsten stura < garðstaðinn stóra, garðstaðrinn stóri; Hulen stura < hóllinn stóri; Vadlin/Vallin stura < vaðilinn stóra, vaðillinn stóri; Hessen gula < hestinn gula, hestrinn guli Hulin rundi < hóllinn rundi sommere litla < summarið litla; L(j)øgena grøna < lœkina groenu, lœknirnir grœnu dimmodali < dimmu dali(na) B.2.4. Because of vocalic contraction in Norn a number of adjectives ending in a vowel (or the original -ð-) does not allow us to detect exactly whether it is an old strong or weak form: Klettin rø < klettinn rauða, klettrinn rauði; (undir) klettinum rauða Rø hedler < rauðr [rauði?] hellir (Fo) Hellena gro < helluna grá(u), Nom. hellan grá(a) B.3. Comparative and superlative degree B.3.1. Comparative degree. The older endings -ri and -ra are preserved, apart from the ending -er which must have been borrowed from Scots, despite the Old Norse form betr which also should have given the ending -er. Øtra/Hemra Nip < ytri/*heimari gnípa Sudra Kidn < syðri kinn ettri < eptri,aptari better < betr, L.Sc./Eng. Better

Øver/Neder Sund < øfra/neðra sund de øter/inner Kinnens < ytri/innri kinn de hemer/framer Sedek < *heimara/fremra sæti or *heimari/fremri seta Adverbial paradigm: hema - hemer - hemest < *heima - *heimari - *heimast B.3.2. Superlative degree Hostanup < hæsti gnúpr i mirkastim hura < i myrkastum 'hour' ('in the darkest hour'); see comments by J.Jakobsen on this form in his "Etymological Dictionary...", p. CXVI. C. PRONOUNS C.1. Personal pronouns 1. sg.: Nom. ek < ek, Acc. mog < mig: ek ska(l) skjera < ek skal skera æve rigrive mog < (ek) efa(sk) (at þú) hrygghrífir mik 2. sg.: Nom. du, Acc. dig,dok < þig, Gen. din < þín, Dat. djer. Like in Old Norse, the nominative form can be used in the imperative form of a verb, cf. ON halt þú > haltu: Shetland Scots looks-to! < look + tu (< þú) Shetland Scots haltu dog at djer < haltu (þik) at þér (double recirpocal form) 3. sg.: Nom. hann, haņņa hanna daga < hann dagar 2.pl.: Nom. di < þit/þér?, dor < Fær. tygur; Gen. dor(a) < Goden dag til dor(a)! < góðan dag til yðvar Shetland Scots kwar'r dor gaun? where are you going? C.2. Possessive pronouns 1. sg.: mi,mit lammit < lamb mitt keremi < kæri minn 2. sg.: dit, det C.3. Demonstrative pronouns Shetland Norn der < þat er it(t)a, jada < þetta, masc. þessi, Fær. neu. hetta C.4. Indefinite and interrogative pronouns marg; neu. mart(a) < margr, margt

kwar, sing.neut. kwart < hvert (uppo kwart ura < uppá hvert eyra) or kwat < hvat: kwat a ita? kwat e jada? < hvat er þetta? D. NUMERALS D.1. Cardinal numerals de Emannasod < *eins-manns-sátr; de Twegemanso < *tveggjamanna-sátr fire,føre < fjórir, Far. fýra '4' trettin < þrettan '13' fjomtena, fjumtan < fimmtán '15' seks < sex; cf. sekserin,seksærin < sexæringr tretti < þrjátíu '30' D.2. Ordinal numerals firsta fari! second anari! < fyrsta farið, annað! ('1st', '2nd') trid < þriði '3d' (tiind < tíund 'tithe' in bot(is)tiind) trettind < þrettándi '13th' E. VERBS E.1. Indicative E.1.1. Present. The system of endings in the present seem to be the same as in Faroese: 1.sg -e, 2,3.sg -er,-ar, pl. -a. In many instances the final -r in 2,3.sg is dropped, most probably when the next word begins in a consonant. 1 sg. æve rigrive mog < (ek) efa(sk) 3. sg. ligga, liger < liggr siter < sitr seve < sefr,søfr leka < leikr hanna daga < hann dagar kaller < kallar 3.pl. wakna < vakna gonga, gonge, gongera < ganga honge < hanga Preterito-present verbs: 1,3 sg. skal skal, skall, skar < skal Shetland Scots who æs it? < hver á þat? 2.sg. sal du < skalt þú 1.pl. skola < skulum

(at

þú)

hrygghrífir

mik

E.1.2. Past. In some cases the respective infinitive form is also mentioned after the past form. E.1.2.1. Strong verbs gret, grot < grét, gráta wann, winn < vann, vinna strød/strøded, strø < streyði(?), streyja lep/loped, lop < hljóp, hlaupa gat, get < gat, geta dret, dräit < dreit, dríta strok < strauk, strjúka skrē < skreið, skríða kom < kom E.1.2.2. Weak verbs. Once again, the endings are practically the same as those of Faroese: -e in sg., -u [-e] in pl. sagde kolle/a gambli/a < sagði karlinn gamli, segja sokketu < sóktu/sóttu, sækja vogede < vǫktu rude < *róðu/reru, róa E.2. Imperative Preserving the old imperative, Norn shows a tendency to add a vowel if the imperative did originally not have it, cf. kome < kom, ria < ríð. Either it is the result of a levelling influence from weak verbs or it is just the infinitive used in the imperative meaning. trivi < þríf í! Halt < halt tak < tak kome < kom gera so! < gera svá! klapa < klappa ria < ríð ræn(na) < renn A number of forms have preserved the old Old Norse imperative particle -tu which originates from the personal pronoun 2.sg. þú: høredu < heyr þú, heyrðu Shetland Scots looks-to! < look + tu (< þú) Shetland Scots (or Norn?) haltu dog at djer < haltu (þik) at þér (double recirpocal form) E.3. Subjunctive twit se dee! < tvít sé þér! welawirdi < vel verði þér, Fær. væl verði tær! twiti var dee! < tvítt veri þér! twiti varg dee! < tvít verði þér! (?), Fær. tví vorði [vorti] tær

I ver vi dee! < ek veri með þér! probably mixed with Eng. I wish I were here (?) E.4. Infinitive. Infinitives of the verbs listed in Jakobsen's dictionary normally have a zero ending according to the rules of English/Scots. However, the Scandinavian infinitive ending -a is still preserved in a few obscure forms apart from a number of forms from the Norn texts. ek ska(l) skjera < ek skal skera skottamilliskrua < skotta milli skrúfa tia,tiæ < þegja, Far. tiga E.5. Present (active) participle The original ending is preserved only in a few forms. In the most of cases the Scots ending -in/en is used instead. driljandi < drillandi gemsina < gemsanda, Gen.pl. of gemsandi gløen < glóandi E.6. Past (ive) participle In some cases the respective infinitive form is also mentioned after the participle. E.6.1. Strong verbs groten, grot < grátinn, gráta sukken, sukk < sokkinn, sǫkkva dritten, dräit < dritinn, dríta teke < Tekit halden < haldinn voksen < Bassin smjongni < hinn smeygni fonn < fundinn, but: hjogfinni < haugfundit? nomin < numinn boren < barinn lopen [lupen], lopa < hlaupinn, hlaupa upplopen < upphlaupinn wantriven < *vanþrifinn or rather L.Sc. wanthrivin? dene komene ljus [lusa] < dagar [dǫgun?] kominn í ljós valne vatne (FO fadlin) < fallinn í vatnið vanvordin, vanvurden < vanvorðinn runnin < runninn E.6.2. Weak verbs Hulen brenda < hóllinn brenndi lengdi < lengðir teldar < taldar Fem.pl.

run, rin < hruninn, hrynja uppadoga < uppidagaðr vandet < bañador supet < sópað hoitted, -et < háttaðr E.7. Middle voice helsk < helsask (?) pinnis < pínask (?)

The language of The Ballad of Hildina Detailed view 1. History 2. Import of the ballad 3. Phonology 4. Grammar 5. List of grammatical forms A. Substantives B. Adjectives C. Adverbs D. Pronouns E. Verbs F. Prepositions G. Conjunctions H. Particles 1. History The Ballad of Hildina, the longest text in Norn that has survived until our days, was recorded in 1774 in Foula by a young Scottish clergyman George Low, who, serving at that time in Orkney, made a voyage to Shetland. The ballad was narrated to Low by William Henry, an old farmer from Guttorm in Foula. Low included the poem under the title "The Earl of Orkney and the King of Norway's Daughter: a Ballad" into his book "A Tour through the Islands of Orkney and Schetland", manuscript to which he completed in 1777. The book saw the light of day only a century later, in 1879, when it was published in Kirkwall. Before that, the song had already been in print, featuring in "History of Orkney Islands" by Dr. Barry (1805, London) and in "Samlinger til det norske Folks Sprog og Historie, 6te band 1ste hefte" (1838, Christiania). In 1900 the Norwegian scholar Marius Hægstad, well-known for his researches on Scandinavian dialectology, published the ballad in his "Hildinakvadet med utgreiding um det norske maal paa Shetland i eldre tid". This volume featured a profound analysis of the song and its language. Hægstad presented his own corrected version of George Low's text, attempting to bring the language of the ballad closer to its original (both versions are available at our website). 2. The import of the ballad.

The Ballad of Hildina has its roots in Scandinavian and Germanic folklore and is believed to have been composed in Orkney, as its contents clearly witnesses. However, the alleged Orcadian original of the song is not preserved - its only available version comes from Shetland. The import of the ballad is summarised by George Low himself who commented in detail on this matter (without doubt, retelling the narrator's explanations): The following song is the most entire I could find, but the disorder of some of the stanzas will show that it is not wholly so. The subject is a strife between a King of Norway and an Earl of Orkney, on of the hasty marriage of the Earl with the King's daughter in her father's absence. Here it is worthy to be observed that most of the fragments they have are old historical Ballads and Romances, this kind of poetry being more greedily swallowed and retentively preserved by memory than any others, and most fitted to the genius of the Northerns. In this Ballad I cannot answer for the orthography. I wrote it as an old man pronounced it; nor could he assist me in this particular. This man (William Henry, a farmer in Guttorm, in Foula) has the most knowledge of any I found; he spoke of three kinds of poetry used in Norn, and repeated or sung by the old men; the Ballad (or Romance, I suppose); the Vysie or Vyse, now commonly sung to dancers; and the simple Song. By the he gave of the matter, the first seems to have been valued here chiefly for its subject, and was commonly repeated in winter by the fireside; the second seems to have been used in publick meetings, now only sung to the dance; and the third at both. Let it be remarked that the following ballad may be either written in two long line or four short line stanzas. A literal translation of the above I could not procure, but the substance is this:- "An Earl of Orkney, in some of his rambles on the coast of Norway, saw and fell in love with the King's daughter of the country. As their ion happened to be reciprocal, he carried her off in her father's absence, who was engaged in war with some of his distant neighbours. On his return, he followed the fugitives to Orkney, accompanied by his army, to revenge on the Earl the rape of his daughter. On his arrival there, Hildina (which was her name), first spied him, and advised her now husband to go and attempt to pacify the King. He did so, and by his appearance and promise brought the King so over as to be satisfied with the match. This, however, was of no long standing, for as soon as the Earl's back was turned a courtier, called Hiluge, took great pains to change the King's mind, for it seems Hiluge had formerly hoped to succeed with the daughter himself. His project took, and the matter came to blows; the Earl is killed by Hiluge, who cut off his head and threw it at his lady, which, she says, vexed her even more than his death, that he should add cruelty to revenge. Upon the Earl's death, Hildina is forced to follow her father to Norway, and in a little time Hiluge makes his demand to have her in marriage of

her father; he consents, and takes every method to persuade Hildina, who, with great reluctance, agrees upon condition that she is allowed to fill the wine at her wedding. This is easily permitted, and Hildina infuses a drug which soon throws the company into a dead sleep, and after ordering her father to be removed, set the house on fire. The flame soon rouses Hiluge, who piteously cries for mercy, but the taunts he had bestowed at the death of the Earl of Orkney are now bitterly returned, and he is left to perish in the flames." The start of the ballad and its main characters are believed to be related to the story of Héðinn and Høgni from "The Battle of Heodenings", alternatively "Saga of Hild": Hjaðningavíg (the "battle of the Heodenings"), the legend of Heðinn and Högni or the Saga of Hild is a Scandinavian legend from Norse mythology about a never-ending battle which is documented in Sörla þáttr, Ragnarsdrápa, Gesta Danorum, Skíðaríma and in Skáldskaparmál from Snorri's Edda (Prose Edda). It is also held to appear on the image stone at Stora Hammar on Gotland. Moreover, it is alluded to in the Old English poems Deor and Widsið, and in the Old Norse Háttalykill inn forni (an Old Norse poem, attributed to Rögnvaldr Kali Kolsson, the Earl of Orkney and Hallr Þórarinsson in the Orkneyinga Saga). Like the names Heðinn (O.E. Heoden) and Högni (O.E. Hagena), the legend is believed to have continental Germanic origins. In the Skáldskaparmál and in Ragnarsdrápa, it is related that once when Högni was away, his daughter Hildr was kidnapped by a prince named Heðinn, the son of Hjarrandi (O.E. Heorrenda). When Högni came back, he immediately started to search for her. In the older poem Ragnarsdrápa, Högni finally found her and the island where Heðinn waited with his army. This island is explained as the island of Hoy in the Orkneys by Snorri Sturluson in Skáldskaparmál. Hildr welcomed her father and offered him peace and a necklace on behalf of Heðinn. However, Högni had already unsheathed his sword Dáinsleif, which gave wounds that never healed and like Tyrfing always killed a man once it had been unsheathed. A battle ensued and they fought all day and many died. In the evening Heðinn and Högni returned to their camps, but Hildr stayed on the battle-field. She resurrected them with incantations and the fallen soldiers started to fight anew, and this went on until Ragnarök. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hjaðningavíg) As the narration develops, the similarity to the mentioned legend dissolves giving way to other influences, mainly from the plot of the Elder Edda song "Guðrúnarkviða II": a woman (Guðrún) is being urged to marry a man (Atli) who has killed her lover (Sigurðr). Atli then starts suffering terrifying dreams about Guðrún killing himself. 3. Phonology.

3.1. Orthography issues. The study of the phonetic system of the Ballad of Hildina (further referred to as "Hildina") is hampered by its orthography, which, as Low points out himself, was fairly random, looking like a mix of Scots, Dutch and possibly French writing rules. The randomness of the orthography can be best shown with the following examples: keimir, kimer < kemr kemi, cumi < komi frinde, friendè < frændi dor, ger < þér (ger possibly due to the influence from the preceding consonant: yach ger < ek þér; however, cf. gem < þeim from the Lord's Prayer) for, firre, firin, fare < ferir inga < enga, but angan < engan [j]: jok < eyk, but yath a port < gataport yera < gerir; but gerde < gerði kin, kidn, kedn- < kinn liva,lava < lifa (cf. Shet la'verni < ON líferni with the shift of the stress on the 2nd syllable, also vrildan < verǫldin) mien < menn, mein(i), mjǫðinn. Apart from Low's ignorance of Norn, the inconsistency of the ballad's orthography could well be due to the utterance of its narrator William Henry. At least some of such "inconsistencies" are obviously not arbitrary and could be only done by one knowing Norn (f.ex. whar vs. quar < ON hvar 'where', see below 3.2.2.). The sound quality of various letters or their combinations is not clear, as in a number of cases they noticeably differ from their Old Norse archetypes, sometimes in a rather weird way. Whether these are arbitrary orthographical mistakes by Low, misspellings by Henry or are we dealing with the actual decreptitude of Norn, is still subject to discussion. For example, in "Hildina" we occasionally encounter graphical diphtongs, although in the majority of cases the commonNorn monophtongisation rule is obeyed, cf. lever < hleypir, ru < rauðu, hemi < heima. The old long vowels are normally not diphtongised either: ro < ráð, heve < hæfi, i muthi < í móti etc. Nevertheless, there are cases where such digraphs (combinations of two letters) are used for one original sound. Let us consider as an example ei, as in reithin < rótum. What sound did it stand for? Here it should be said that the direct development of ON ó into [ei] is typologically hardly probable. Either it was a slip of pen or we should take it for granted and try to explain it by the following series of changes: ON ó > [ø] > [e] (delabialisation) > [ei]. However, there is one other occurrence of this digraph, where it is highly probable that it stands for a monophtong: eidnar < hennar. It is highly unlikely that the short vowel could have developped into a diphtong (let alone acquired length) in a closed syllable before dn, which, as we point out in General 4.5, appeared in Norn after short vowels. These examples make us suppose that ei designated a monophtong, either coinciding with [e] or having a sligthly different quality. (Using an analogical approach we can

suppose that ou in the spellings gouga < góða, slouge < slóða stood for the monophtong [u]). Yet another example of a digraph being used for monophtong is eo which most probably designated [ø]: meo < móðr, bleo < blœða (compare the development of ON ó and œ in Phonetics of Shetland Norn). Nevertheless, the language of "Hildina" was not quite free of diphtongs, although their phonological prehistory differed from the cases described above. Let us consider the letter y. Its usage in "Hildina" is very reminiscent of English orthography. In most cases it should obviously read [j]: yath a port, villya. However, in one type of example it is more likely to be spelled as [ai] or [ei], for instance, in the word fy 'father' (do NOT spell it as [fü], like a Scandinavian would tend to do, cf. a contemporary performance of "Hildina" by a Swedish folk singer). The diphtongised spelling must descend directly from the Old Norse archetype faðir, cf. the parallel form feyrin sien < fǫðr sinn. In this case the diphtong [ai/ei] comes from -aði- after the intermediate consonant ð fell out, so originally it consisted of two syllables. And that is still not the end of the story, as there is yet another group of diphtongs in "Hildina". While in the previous paragraphs we were discussing descending diphtongs (where the stress falls onto the former part, like ei), there are also occurrences of rising ones ie,uo,ue (stress on the latter part): mien < menn, mjǫðinn; tworene < tárin(i), wo < á, fwelsko < fǫlska, fuo < fá. Hardly do these occurrences stand for monophtongs. Instead of this we can treat these spellings as instances of breaking, which was very widespread in Norn (cf. Foula bjadni < barn(it), see also General 2.1.2.). The uniqueness of the language of "Hildina" shows in the fact that in addition to the regular j-breaking we also encounter w-breaking (of labialised back vowels), strange to the rest of Norn. Things seem to be much simpler where consonants are concerned, the usage of such letters reveals no surprises except in a few cases. As we pointed out above, Low is not quite consistent in the usage of a sign for [j], and follows either the English/French (y) or Dutch/German/Scandinavian (j) tradition. Another interesting example is the usage of th. In one case it could be presumably treated as [ð]: vath (also vad) < við. If this is true, this will be one of the fewest examples of the occurrence of [ð] in Shetland Norn (see General 2.1.9.). The other cases are more complicated: yath a port < gataport, -buthe < -bœtr, reithin < rótum, grothè < gráti, muthi < móti, thì < -tu, lothir < lætr, lathi < lézt, wath < (þó) at. On the one hand, the spirantisation of the old t into ð in these particular instances is not very probable, cf. cases where this did not happen -fetign < -fætingr, gede < getit. On the other hand, the language of "Hildina" shows a close example of spirantisation, where p,b have transformed into [v,w]: lever < hleypir, uadn < barn. Whether t could analogically turn into [ð] or h in -th- was silent and meaningless, like in English, is still unclear. No other examples of occurrences of the sound [ð] in Foula are known. 3.2. Sound system. The phonetics of the ballad is well in line with what we know about Norn and its Foula/Westside dialect (see General and Phonetics of

Shetland Norn). Below you find an overview of main sound changes from Old Norse to Hildina's Norn (notice that we use there Low's orthographical notation, not phonetic transcription). 3.2.1. Vowels 3.2.1.1. Short vowels. The vowel a stays mostly unchanged, except cases mentioned below in item 1. High vowels i,u tend to descend: u > o, i > e, although changes in the opposite directions occur spontaneously too: 1. -a > -a, -e: gouga < góða, kera < kæra, earna < gjarna; herre < herra, sonè < sona (but sonnales < sonalauss), velburne < velborna (compare the mixing of -a and -i in Shetland Norn: Shetland Grammar, A.1.1.2.1.) -jar > -er (in endings): skeger < skeggjar, sover < syfjar 2. u > u,o,i,e: burt < burt, onde < under, billon < biðlund, godle < gulli, min < mun, spirde < spurði, Konign < konungrinn, Drotnign < drottningrinn, dern < durum -u > -a,e: fasta < fǫstu, sanne < sǫnnu, chaldona < tjaldinu, forlskonna < fárskǫnnu, duka < drykkju (this is probably an analogical change, cf. the mixing of -a and -u in Shetland Norn: Shetland Grammar A.1.1.2.2. and B.2.3.) 3. o > o,u,i: Orknian < Orkneyjum, Drotnign < drottningrinn, Konign < konungrinn, sonnaless < sonalauss, hon < hon, borè < borit, but velburne < velborna, glasburyon < glasborginni, mild < mold, whirdì,quirto < hvort 4. i > i,e: kin, kidn, kedn- < kinn, mege < mikit, gre <, ita < þetta; but linge < lengi, tinka < þenkja, skinka < skenkja; gre < grið -i > -è,e, more seldom i: grothè < gráti, borè < borit, friendè < frændi, frinde < frændi, pluge < plógi, o landi < af/ór landi (see also Hægstad "Hildinakvadet", p. 56-57) -in(n) > in,n: Iarlin < jarlinn, eulinngin < ǫlingrinn, vadlin < vǫllinn, bugin < búkinn, estin < hestinn, fadlin < fallinn, commin < kominn; Drotnign < drottningrinn, Konign, Koningn < konungrinn, feurfetign < fjórfœtinginn (see also Hægstad "Hildinakvadet", p. 56-57) 5. e > e,ei,i,a,o: bera < bera, skeger < skeggjar, ere < herra, yera < gerir, gerde < gerði, gev(e) < gefr, genger < gengr, tega < tekr, lega < leggja, edne(r),eidnar < hennar, keimir > kemr, heindè < hengdr, stiender < stendr, rìdna < rennr, linge,lingè < lengi, tinka < þenkja, skinka < skenkja, vara < vera, gak < gekk, vaar < verð, whaar < hvern, garedin < gerðinni, wordig < verðigr, moga < megi, angan,engin,inga? < engan e > ya (breaking, only in a few unstressed words): yach,yagh < ek, yaar < er 6. ǫ > o,a,u,eu,we,ie,i: londen < lǫndum, forlskona < fárskǫnnu, skam < skǫmm, and < hǫnd, hadlin < hǫllinni, huge < hǫfði, eulinngin < ǫðlingrinn, fwelsko < fǫlska, mien < mjǫðinn, vrildan < verǫldin

7. ø > u(a): dukrar < døkkvar, dahuge < dauðahøggit; askier,askar < øski,øskir/*øskar 'wiches' (obviously influenced by English ask, the meaning of which it has in stanza 26) 8. y > i(e),o: min,mien < *myn < mun, minde,mindè < mundi, myndi, dern < *diren < dyru(nu)m, sover < syfjar, otsta < yzta, *utsta (lack of umlaut? - see also 3.2.1.4.) 3.2.1.2. Long vowels: 1. á > o,wo: mo < má, smo < smár, sot < sátt, grothè < gráti, yo < ljá, fuo,fwo < fá 2. ó > u,ou: fur < fór, ufrien < ófrænda, mandum < manndóm, tuchta < þótti, gloug < glóð but daute < dóttr (dœtr?), meo < móðr jó > ui,eu [ø?]: guida < gjóta, feurfetign < fjórfœtingr 3. ú > u,au,o,i: mugè múga, fruna,fruan,fraun < frúin,frúna, ot < út, bridlevsin < brúðhlaupsins, Maunis < Magnús 4. é > e(o),ie,i: dor,ger < þér, mier, mir < mér, hien < héðan 5. í > i(e,a,u): whitrané < hvítrandi, minu < mínum, sìna < sína, tretti < þrjátíu, i,e,u < í, san &sínum 6. æ > e,i,ie: gever < gæfir, keresta < kærasta, friendè < frændi, frinda < frænda but rost < hræðast, kloyna < klæðin(i) 7. œ > o: gro < grœða, daute < Gen.sg. dóttr (or dœtr by anology from nætr Gen.sg. of nátt,nótt 'night'?). 3.2.1.3. Diphtongs: 1. ei > e (ie), o: yom < heim, hemi < heima, mere, mìre < meiri, yilsa < heilsa, liene < leiðinni, fiegan < feigan 2. au > e: bridlevsin < brúðhlaupsins 3. ey > yo,eu: yoch < eyk, meun < meyna, lever < hleypir 3.2.1.4. Regular vowel alternations (umlauts or mutations). Like elsewhere in Norn, u-umlaut is often lacking: scam < skǫmm; vath fasta bande < með fǫstu bandi, vadlin < vǫllinn, hadlin < hǫllinni, feyrin < fǫðrinn, wa and < á hǫnd. Examples of the surviving ǫ are o in voller < vǫll(r), londen < lǫndum, forlskona < fárskǫnnu, and possibly eu [ø] in eulinngin < ǫðlingrinn (Hægstad "Hildinakvadet", p. 40). I-umlaut is more widespread. As pointed out by Jakob Jakobsen and Hugh Marwick, some words, i-mutated in Old Norse, fail i-umlaut in Norn (whaar < hvern (< *hwaRan), otsta < yzta, osta < *hásta < hæsta, duka < drykkju, sover < syfjar), while several unumlauted words appear mutated (mild < *myld < mold (*muld), whirdi,quirto < hvort, min < mun, spirde < spurði). There are clear traces of i-umlaut in singular present indicative of strong verbs: tega < tekr, kemi, keimir, kimer < kemr (koma), genger < gengr (ganga), stiendi,stien < stendr (standa). It is striking that i-umlaut affects only verbs with -a- (except before -r-) and -o-, otherwise it is inactive: lothir < lætr (láta), slo < slær(ð) (slá), buga < býrð (búa). The vitality of i-umlaut is confirmed by some interesting analogy cases: du geve, di gava < þú gefr, it gefa. The change gefa > gava is obviously caused by analogy from verbs like tekr/taka (cf. also vera > vara, gekk > gak.).

3.2.2. Consonants. Old Norse consonants stay mostly unchanged except the following cases: 1. p,b > v,w (occasionally): uadn < barn, vadne < barni, lever < hleypir, bridlevsin < brúðhlaupsins 2. h > h,0 (zero): han,an,en,in < hann, hans,ans < hans, hon, on, an < hon, honon, ana < honum, ednar,edner < hennar, ere < herra, elde < heldr, and < hǫnd, estin < hestinn, otsta < yzta, osta < *hásta < hasta 3. kt,tt (< *ht) > cht: tuchta < þótti, docht < þótt; tachtè < þakt 4. þ > t,d,y,0(zero): tinka < þenkja, tuchta < þótti, tachtè < þakt, tretti < þrjátíu, da < þat, du < þú, doch,dogh < þig, di,day < þit, din < þín,þinn, yayer < þegar, eso < þesi, ita < þetta, an < þann, wath < þó at (the "zero" cases seem to be analogical to the omission of h-, that þ could well have preliminarily turned into, cf. Far. hetta < þetta, hósdagur < þórsdagur, s. also M.Barnes, "A Note on Faroese /θ/ > /h/", Scripta Islandica, 1985, also in M.Barnes "Faroese language Studies"(2001)) 5. ð > 0(zero), j (before front vowels, like in Faroese), d (after r, like in Faroese): ro < ráð(a,i), stumer < stjúpmóðir, meo < móðr, billon < biðlund, dahuge < dauðahøggit, go < guð, ru < rauðu, gro < grøða, gre < grið, mien < mjǫðin, lian < leiðina, sian < síðan, bian < biðr hann, kast(a) ans < kastaði hans, feyr < faðir, fy < fǫr, kloyna < klæðin(i), spirde < spurði, wordig < verðigr ð > g: gouga < góða, stug < stóð, sluge < slóða, gloug < glóð, huge < hǫfði, buga < *búgr < býr(ð), cf. Far. Búgva 6. sj > sh,ch,s: shall < sjalfr, chelsino < sjálfs síns, swo < sjá 7. -um > -on,-an,-en,-in,-n,-u: honon < honum, Orknian < Orkneyjum, londen < lǫndum, reithin < rótum, dern < dur(un)um, minu < mínum; 8. nn > dn(nn), rn > dn: eidni < henni, kadn < kann, widn < vinn, ridna < rennr,rinnr; kidn,kedn,kinn < kinn; uadn < barn nd > nd,nn: band < band, landi < landi, friendè < frændi, stiendi < stendr, onde < undir, vannaro < vandaráði, billon < biðlund, avon < afandi, whitranè < hvítrandi 9. ll > dl, rl > rl: spidla < spillir, godle < gulli, fadlin < fallinn; iarlin < jarlinn 10. g(j),lj > j/y: buryon < borginni, yath-a-port (< *gjataport) < gataport, earna < gjarna, yera < gerir; but gerde < gerði; yo < ljá 10. -fn > -mn: namn < nafn 11. hv- > wh,qu: whitranè < hvítrandi, whaar < hvern, whar,quar < hvar, whirdì,quirto < hvort The development of ON hv- is worth commenting upon in greater detail. The language of Foula belonged to the Westside dialect (the main underlying feature being the presence of dl,dn < ll,nn). Everywhere in Westside ON hv gave [kw]. Jacobsen, listing phonetical differences between dialects in Shetland, does not mention Foula among places with the kw-pronunciation, although most of the examples from his dictionary do confirm it: kwara < hverjum, hvart < hvert, kwasi < *hvasa, kwekk < *hvekkr, Kwida < hvíta. However, in "Hildina", as just shown above, there are cases, where ON hv is represented with wh, which we can interpret as [hw] (or [w]?). There are also instances which clearly illustrate [kw]: quirto < hvort 'whether' (along with whirdi), quar < ON hvar 'where' (along with whaar). The presence of both [kw] and [hw] can eventually mean that the replacement of the original [hw] with [kw] within the Foula/Westside dialectal area still was not finished in the 18th century, at least in Foula, which was the longest to keep its archaic traits due to its peripherical

status. The disappearance of the older [hw] in favour of [kw], that Jakobsen faced at end of the 19th century, could also be accelerated by an eventual immigration to the island from Westside - as Michael Barnes mentions, Foula was re-populated from other parts of Shetland after plague took away a large part of its original inhabitants in the 18th century ("The Norn Language of Orkney and Shetland, p. 18"). (For more detailed coverage of sound changes in "Hildina"'s phonetics, refer to "Hildinakvadet" by Marius Hægstad, pp. 33-75.) 3.2.3. Word juncture. "Hildina" is one of those Norn specimens, where we can clearly watch in action word juncture phenomena. For example, -r is often omitted if the next word begins at a consonant: tega di < tekr þú, gevè Drotnign < gefr drottningrinn, onde kinn < undir kinn, but kimer in < kemr enn, keimir eullingin < kemr ǫðlingrinn. Analogically, final vowels get occasionally omitted before a word beginning at a vowel: meyn our < meyna ór. 4. Grammar. The grammar of the language of "Hildina" still preserves the main framework of the Old Norse grammar and repeats the traits of the Shetland Norn grammar, as exposed in our overview (to which we refer as the background for all said below). On the other hand, the grammar rules are not always followed by the narrator, which could mean that he already did not have a perfect command of Norn and possibly had a mechanical memory of the ballad. As an example of grammatical (non-arbitrary) mistakes we can mention the mixing of cases: a) Nominative-Accusative. As elsewhere in Shetland the old Nominative masculine ending is lost, which probably makes Norn the only Scandinavian language which preserves the four-case system after the fall of the masculine ending (like in German): eulinngin < ǫðlingrinn, konign, koningn < konungrinn. The only exception is vodler < vǫll, which, ironically, has the accusative meaning. Examples from feminine: fruen,frauna,fruna < Nom. frúin, Acc. frúna, meun < Nom. meyin, Acc. meyna, i lian < Nom. leiðin, Acc. í leiðina. Cf. also the usage of doch < þig (Acc.) instead of du (Nom.) 'you' < þú. b) Accusative-Dative. o Orkneyjar < af Orkneyjum, Acc. Orknejar, dem 'them' < Acc. þá, Dat. þeim. Original dative verbs acquire accusative government: lever velburne mien < hleypir velbornum mǫnnum, Acc. velborna menn, Orkneyar ro < ráða Orkneyjum, Acc. Orkneyjar, spìdla mann < spillir manni, Acc. mann, vilda mien < valda meini, Acc. mein (this process has also advanced in Faroese: spilla mann, volda mein, loypa velbornar menn/velbornum monnum). c) Accusative-Genitive. to Orkneyar < til Orkneyja, fyrin din < fyrir þig (Acc.), Gen. þín.

The ending of Dat.sg.fem. is either -in (hadlin < hǫllini, garedin < gerðinni) or -ene (liene < leiðinni). This confirms our observaton that the ending in discussion reduced its final vowel except in one-syllable vocalic stems (cf. cases like lida vs. lir, Shetland Grammar, A.1.1.1.2.). The respective ending in the adjective declension (which the article generally follows) has experienced a similar reduction: arar (< *aðrari) < annarri (cf. regular Acc.sg.fem ON aðra; Far. annari, colloquial aðrari [εarari]). In the definite declension it is striking that a number of nouns have the article even being defined with possessive pronouns, which are incompatible with the article in Scandinavian languages: sina kloyna < sín klæði(ni), min heran < minn herra(nn), ans bugin < hans búk(inn). A close example, which is a bit more common, is the use of the article after demonstrative pronouns: eso vrildan < þessi verǫld(in). Unlike Danish and Swedish, the double use of the definite article and a demonstrative pronoun is not unknown in Norwegian (det huset < þat hús(it), denne boken < þessi bók(in)), Faroese (hetta barnið < þetta barn(it), teir dreingirnir < þeir drengir(nir)) and, as an exception, also occurs in Icelandic (þessa dagana, þetta skiptið). Verbal endings do not differ much from their Old Norse prototypes, although the mixing of endings due to the corruption of the language is very clear: askier < œski, bian < biðr hann. We suspect that some of present 2 sg. forms descend from plural and if this assumption is true, it probably means that the plural present, like in Faroese, had the same ending -a for all persons: di yera < þú gerir, þit gerit, Far. tit gera, di lava < þú lofar, þit lofit, Far. tit lova (see also Shetland Grammar E.1.1.). The past participles of weak verbs and supines (past partiples used in perfect forms) are encountered only in the weak form, even where the strong form would be expected: heindè < hengdr, tachtè < þakt. 5. List of grammatical forms In this overview we mention all forms ed in the text. They are classified by parts of speech, either standing independently or in a longer phrase (then underlined). For English translations see the vocabulary at the Hildinakvadet website, Vigfússon/Cleasby's Icelandic-English dictionary and Marius Hægstad's "Hildinakvadet" (in Norwegian). A. SUBSTANTIVES A.1. Masculine A.1.1. Undefinite. Nom.sg. - Strong erego < herra guð meo < móðr sìlkìsark ans smo < silkiserkr hans smár

Konign < konungr -Weak erego < herra guð frinde hans < frændi hans friendè min < frændi minn Acc.sg. - Sorong kednpust < kinnpúst jok < eyk in u vodler din < inn í vǫll þinn, Nom. vǫllr man < mann 'man', Nom. maðr fy din < fǫðr þinn fy min < fǫðr minn fysin < fǫðr sinn i otsta yath a port < í yzta gataport -Weak angan ufrien < engan ófrænda mugè < múga sluge < slóða frinda sin < frænda sinn an gouga herè min < þann góða herra minn herre din < herra þinn fwelsko < fǫlska Dat.sg. -Strong burt asta < burt af stað fy minu < fǫðr mínum i pluge < í plógi ov mandum dora < af manndóm ykkar vath stien < með Stein -Weak wo sino chelsino villya < á sínum sjálfs síns vilja Nom.pl. - Weak gever skeger < gæfir skeggjar Acc.pl. - Strong sìna mien < sína menn velburne mien < velborna menn Gen.pl Strong sonè < sona sonnaless < sonalauss A.1.2. Definite

Nom.sg. -Strong Iarlin < jarlinn eulinngin < ðlingrinn Drotnign < drottningrinn Konign, Koningn < konungrinn Acc.sg. - Strong feurfetign < fer-fœtinginn i vadlin < í vǫllinn feyrin sien < fǫðrinn sinn wo Iarlin < á jarlinn fare kera fyrin minn < fyrir kæra fǫðrinn minn mien < mjǫðinn bugin < búkinn estin < hestinn -Weak min heran < minn herrann Dat.sg. -Weak a bardagana < á bardaganum i bardagana < í bardaganum Gen.sg. -Strong Koningnsens < konungsins A.2. Feminine A.2.1. Undefinite Nom.sg. -Strong stu-mer < stjúpmóðir Acc.sg. - Strong onde kin, onde kidn < undir kinn wo and < á hǫnd to strand < til strandar scam < skǫmm billon < biðlund sot < sátt -Weak inga forlskona < enga fárskǫnnu Dat.sg. - Strong wo edner whitranè kidn < á hennar hvítari kinn vath mild < með mold

-Weak u duka < í drykkju Gen.sg. -Strong i daute-buthe < í dóttr-bœtr (dœtr-bœtr?) Nom.pl. Orknear < Orkneyjar i lutustor < í lopthúsdyr Acc.pl. ro Orkneyar < ráða!!! Orkneyjum i daute-buthe < í dóttr-bœtr tretti merkè < þrjátíu merkr Dat.pl. o Orkneyjar < af Orkneyjum reithin < rótum i Orknian, i Orknean < i Orkneyjum u dern san < ór durum sínum (Hægstad: durunum) Gen.pl. to Orkneyar < til Orkneyja A.2.2. Definite Nom.sg. -Strong eso vrildan < þessi verǫldin fruen, frauna, fruna, fraun < frúin Acc.sg. -Strong meun < meyna i lian < í leiðina fruan < frúna Dat.sg. -Strong or glasburyon < ór glasborginni fro liene < frá leiðinni u garedin arar < á gerðinni annarri ur hadlin < ór hǫllinni Gen.sg. -Strong to strandane < til strandarinnar A.3. Neuter A.3.1. Undefinite

Nom.sg. - Strong ro < ráð ans namn < hans nafn -Weak uo < auga (augu?) Acc.sg. -Strong wo osta tre < á hæsta tré band < band gild < gjald ans huge < hans hǫfuð (Dat. hǫfði?) i fong < í fang live < leyvi vin < vín gloug < gol gre < grið u gouga gre < það góða grið i mit fung < í mitt fang mien < mein (Dat. meini?) Dat.sg. -Strong vannaro < vandaráði o landi < ór Landi vath ru godle < við rauðu gulli vath godle o fasta bande < með gulli og fǫstu bandi u grothè < ór gráti vadne < barni Gen.sg. - Strong alty uadn < allt til barns Nom.pl. (ro < ráð) -Weak uo < augu (auga?) Dat.pl. i londen < í lǫndum Gen.pl. to landa < til landa A.3.2. Definite Acc.sg. -Strong (wo osta tre < á hæsta trét) dahuge < dauðahǫggit live < lífit

Dat.sg. Strong wo chaldona < á tjaldinu Gen.sg. -Strong til bridlevsin < til brúðhlaupsins Nom.pl. -Strong tworene < tárin Acc.pl. - Strong sina kloyna < sín klæðin B. ADJECTIVES B.1. Strong declension B.1.1. Masculine Nom.sg. sonnaless < sonalauss wordig < verðigr bal < baldr Acc.sg. fiegan < feigan Nom.pl. gever skegger < gæfir skeggjar Acc.pl. velburne mien < velborna menn B.1.2. Feminine Dat.sg. wo edner whitranè kidn < á hennar hvítari kinn [hvít(a)ri] B.1.3. Neuter Nom.sg. blit < blítt mege < mikit lide < lítit Dat.sg. fir sane < fyrir sǫnnu vath ru godle < með rauðu gulli vadh fasta bande < með fǫstu bandi B.2. Weak declension

B.2.1. Masculine Nom.sg. kere friende min < kæri frændi minn ere min heve < herra min hæfi sante < sankti Acc.sg. an gouga herè min < þann góða herra minn fare kera fyrin min < fyrir kæra fǫðrinn minn B.2.2. Neuter Nom.sg. u gouga gre < þat góða grið B.3. Comparative degree mere, mìre < meiri B.4. Superlative Degree wo osta tre < á hœsta tré i otsta yath a port < í yzta gataport C. ADVERBS burt < Burt yom < heim hemi < heima darfro < þar frá u<æ sian, sien < síðan nir < niðr avon < afandi earna, ear < gjarna i muthi < í móti so, se < svá linge < lezgi nu < nú allde < aldrig fram < Fram idne i fro < inni í frá ov < af mire, mirè < Meira in < enn ot < at fest < Fast do, da < þá in < inn D. PRONOUNS D.1. Personal pronouns Nominative

a,yach,yagh < ek du < þú -thì < -tu doch,dogh < þú (þig) di,day < þú (þit) han,an,en,in < hann hon, on, an < hon Accusative moch < mig doch, dogh < þú (þig) fyrin din < fyrir þig (þín) Dative mier, mir < mér dor, ger < þér honon, ana < bonum hedne < henni dim < þeim Genitive to din < til þín ednar, edner < hennar ans < hans dora < ykkar (yðvar) D.2. Reflexive pronouns Nominative shall < sjalf(r) Genitive chelsino < sjálfs síns D.3. Posessive pronouns Nominative min < minn din < þinn Accusative mit < mitt din < þinn sien, sin < sinn sina < sín sìna mien < sína menn Dative minu < mínum (masc.sg) sino < sínu (neu.sg.) Genitive chelsino < sjálfs síns

D.4. Demonstrative pronouns Nominative da < þat eso < þessi ita < þetta Accusative san < sådan (?) an < þann Genitive dese < þess dar(fro) < þar(frá) hien < héðan D.5. Indefinite pronouns Accusative whaar < hvern Dative arar < *aðari, annarri (fem.sg) D.6. Negative pronouns Accusative angan, engin[engine] < engan (masc.sg.) inga < enga (fem.sg) D.7. Interrogative pronouns whar, qvar < hvar E. VERBS E.1. Indicative E.1.1. Strong verbs E.1.1.1. Present 1.sg. widn < vinn 2.sg. tega < tekr vaar < verðr taga < tekr slo < slær(ð) du buga < þú býrð, cf. Far. búgva < búa du geve, di gava < þú gefr (di gava is probably an original plural form) 3.sg. stiendi < stendr keimir < kemr stien < stendr

an yaar < hann er ridna < rennr bian < biðr hann gevè < gefr kimer < kemr u < er stiender < stendr tegar < tekr genger < gengr gev < gefr liger < liggr lothir < lætr lever < hleypr vexe < vex (óx?) 2.pl. di gava < þit gefit (?), cf. Far. tit geva E.1.1.2. Past 1.sg. fur < fór 2.sg. lathì < lézt þú 3.sg. vara, vaar < var gak < Hjek com < kom stug < stóð swo < sá fac < fekk vaks < óx (Far. vaks) bar < bar sat < sat var < var 3.pl. furu < fóru E.1.2. Weak verbs E.1.2.1. Present 1.sg. yach askier < ek œski (partially influenced by Eng. ask) 2.sg. di yera < þú gerir spidla < spillir di lava < þú lofar heve < hefir 3.sg. klapa < klappar swara < svarar kadnar < kallar/Cañar

lever < hleypir dukrar < døkkvar askar < œskir sover < syfjar heve < herir 2.pl. di yera < þér gerit (?) di lava < þér lofit (?) E.1.2.2. Past 2.sg. dogh casta < þú kastaðir 3.sg. spirde < spurði cast ans < kastaði hans gerde < gerði laghdè < lagði du tuchta (pers.) < þér þótti (impers.) E.1.3. Preterite-present verbs E.1.3.1. Present 1.sg. skall < skal mo < má 2.sg. vult < vilt di skall (plur?) < þú skalt ear di < *eigar þú (átt þú) du ska < þú skalt skall dogh < skalt þú 3.sg. min < mun kan < kann scal < skal mien < mun kadn < kann 3.pl. mo < má E.1.3.2. Past 1.sg. vild-a < vilda ek 3.sg. skildè < skyldi mindè, minde < myndi visti < vissi (Far. visti) E.2. Subjunctive 3.sg.

kemi < komi cumi < komi (pres)/kœmi (past)? comme < komi moga < megi gev < gefi E.3. Imperative far di < far þú geve,gev < gef tinka < þenkja E.4. Infinitive fwo < fá taga < taka vara < vera vilda < valda ro < ráða ria < ríða yilsa < heilsa gave < gefa yo < ljá liva < lifa fare < fara lega < leggja gonga < ganga lava < lifa gro < grœða bera < bera verka < verka dogha < dáa skinka < skenkja guida < gjóta swo < sjá bleo < blœða E.5. Present (active) participle avon < afandi E.6. Past/perfect (ive) participle gede < petit heindè < hengdr han u cummin < hann er kominn velburne < velborna (Acc.pl.masc) fadlin < Tallinn borè < borit var commin < var kominn on heve tachtè < hon hefir þakt E.7. Middle voice

rost < hræðast sadnast < sannast F. PREPOSITIONS o, a, ov < af for, firre, firin, fare < ferir or, our, u, ur < ór til, to < til fro < frá e, i, u, ei < í wo, u, a < á onde < under vath, vad < við, með ot < at G. CONJUNCTIONS u < og un- < en or < eðr (Eng. or?) whirdì,quirto < hvort yamna < jafnan whar < hvar sin, san < sem elde < heldr so < svá wath < at ty < til till do < til þá min < meðan wath < þó at docht < þótt u < eð quar sin < hvar sem H. PARTICLES ho, ou, u < at (inf.) etsa < einnug

Shetland's Lord's Prayer Recorded in the 1770's by George Low. First published in his "A Tour through the Islands of Orkney and Schetland. Kirkwall: William Peace, 1879.". Fy vor or er i Chimeri. / Halaght vara nam dit. La Konungdum din cumma. / La vill din vera guerde i vrildin sindaeri chimeri. / Gav vus dagh u dagloght brau. Forgive sindorwara / sin vi forgiva gem ao sinda gainst wus. Lia wus ik? o vera tempa, / but delivra wus fro adlu idlu. For do i ir Kongungdum, u puri, u glori, Amen

The Ballad of Hildina (Foula) The ballad was recorded by the Scottish clergyman George Low on his voyage to Foula in the early 1770s. Low had no knowledge of Norn whatsoever, so his "by-ear" transcript of the song is hardly phonetically precise. This prompted the Norwegian linguist Marius Hægstad to elaborate on Low's text attempting to reconstruct its Norn original. The outcome was published in Hægstad's brochure "Hildinakvadet, med utgreidung um det norske maal paa Shetland i eldre tid" (1900). Both Low's and Hægstad's versions of the ballad are included below. We also offer our translation of the song into Old Norse (translation of the stanzas 1-4 has in fact been copied with some minor changes from William Burley Lockwood's book "Languages of the British Isles past and present" (1975)). The Old Norse translation follows Hægstad's version and is mostly based on the vocabulary given in his paper with a few corrections and additions of ours. The English translation is borrowed from the Foula Heritage website (stanzas 1-12) and from the Hildinakvadet website (stanzas from 13 onwards and the notes). See also the vocabulary to the song at the latter resource and a separate chapter on the language of the Ballad of Hildina.

№

1

2

3

George Low’s version

Marius Hægstad’s correction

Translation into Old Norse

Translation into English

Da vara Jarlin d'Orkneyar For frinda sǐn spur de ro Whirdi an skildè meun Our glas buryon burtaga.

Da vara Iarlin o Orkneyar for frinda sĭn spirde ro, whirdì an skildè meun or vannaro eidnar fuo – Or glasburyon burtaga.

Þat var jarlinn af [ór] Orkneyjum fyrir frænda sínum spurði ráð(a) hvort hann skyldi meyna ór vandaráði hennar fá ór glasborginni burt taka?

It was the Earl from Orkney, And counsel of his kin sought he, Whether he should the maiden Free from her misery.

Or vanna ro eidnar fuo Tega du meun our glas buryon Kere friendè min yamna men Eso vrildan stiendi gede min vara to din.

“Tega du meun our glasburyon, kere friendè min, yamna meun eso vrildan stiendi, gede min vara to din.”

“Tekr þú meyna ór glasborginni kæri frændi minn jafnan meðan þessi verǫldin stendr getit mun vera til þín.”

"If thou free the maid from her gleaming hall, O kinsman dear of mine, Ever while the world shall last Thy glory still shall shine."

Yom keimir cullingin Fro liene burt Asta Vaar hon fruen Hildina Hemi stu mer stien.

Yom keimir eullingin fro liene; burt asta vaar hon fruen Hildina, hemi stu-mer stien.

Heim kemr ǫðlingrinn frá leiðinni burt af stað var hon frúin Hildina heima stjúpmóðir stendr.

Home came the king, Home from the ship's levy The lady Hildina she was gone, And only her stepmother there found he. Verse(s) missing? The story ‘moves’ from the Earl of Orkney, to the King of Norway

4

Whar an yaar

“Whar an yaar e “Hvar hann er í

"Be he in whatever

5

6

elonden Ita kan sadnast wo An scal vara kundè Wo osta tre sin reithin ridna dar fro

londen ita kan sadnast wo, an scal vara heindè wo osta tre, sin reithin rìdna darfro”.

lǫndum þetta kann sannast á hann skal vera hengdr á hœsta tré(t) sem rótum rennr þar frá.”

land, This will I prove true, He shall be hanged from the highest tree That ever upward grew."

Kemi to Orkneyar Jarlin Vilda mien sante Maunis I Orknian u bian sian I lian far diar.

“Kemi to Orkneyar Iarlin, sante Maunis vilda mien, i Orknian u bian sian, i lian far di an”.

“Komi til Orkneyja jarlinn sankti Magnús valda mun, í Orkneyjum æ biðr hann síðan, í leiðina far þú enn”.

"If the Earl but come to Orkney, Saint Magnus will be his aid, And in Orkney ever he will remain— Haste after him with speed."

An gevè Drotnign kedn puster On de kin firsane furu Tworare wo eder Whitranè kidn.

An gevè Drotnign kednpuster onde kin; fir sane furu tworone wo edner whitranè kidn.

Hann gefr drottningrinn kinnpúst undir kinn; fyrir sǫnnu fóru tárin(i) á hennar hvítrandi [hvít(a)ri] kinn.

The King he stood before his lady, And a box on her ear gave he,— And all adown her lily white cheeks The tears did flow truly. Verse(s) missing? The story ‘jumps’ from Norway to Orkney

7

8

9

In kimerin Jarlin U klae Hildina On de kidn quirto Vult doch, fiegan vara moch or fly din.

In kimer in Iarlin u klapa se Hildina onde kidn; “Quirto vult doch fiegan vara moch or fy din?”

Inn kemr enn jarlinn Ok klappar svá Hildinu undir kinn; “Hvort vilt þú feigan vera mig eðr fǫðr þinn?”

The Earl he stood before Hildina, And a pat on her cheek gave he,— "O which of us two wouldst thou have lie dead, Thy father dear of me?

Elde vilda fiegan vara Fy min u alt sin Ans namnu wo So minyach u ere min heve Orkneyar kingè ro.

“Elde vild-a fiegan vara fy min u alt sin ans namn u wo; so min yach u ere min heve Orkneyar lingè ro.

“Heldr vilda ek feigan vera fǫðr minn ok allt sem hans nafn er á; Svá mun ek ok herra minn hæfi Orkneyjum lengi ráða.

"I would rather see my father doomed, And all his company, If so my own true lord and I May long rule in Orkney.

Nu di skall taga dor yochwo And u ria dor to strandane nir U yilsa fy minu avon Blit an ear ne cumi i dora band.

Nu di skall taga dor yoch wo and u ria dor nir to strandane u yilsa fy minu avon blit; an earni cumi i dora band.

Nú þú skalt taka þér eyk [hest] á hǫnd ok ríða þér niðr til strandarinnar og heilsa fǫðr mínum afandi blítt; hann gjarna kœmi [komi?] í ykkar band.

"Now do thou take in hand thy steed, And ride thou down to the strand; And do thou greet my sire full blithely, And gladly will he clasp thy hand." Verse(s) missing The story ‘jumps’ into the conversation between the Earl and the King.

10 Nu Swaran Konign

No swara an

Nú svarar hann

The King he now

So mege gak honon i muthi Whath ear di ho gane mier I daute buthe.

Konign - so mege gak honon i muthi -: “Whar ear di ho gave mier i daute-buthe?”

konungr - svá mikit gekk honum í móti -: “Hvar gjarna eigar [átt] þú at gefa mér í dóttr-bœtr?”

made answer— So sore displeased was he— "In payment for my daughter What will thou give to me."

Trettì merkè vath ru godle Da skall yach ger yo U all de vara sonna 11 less So linge sin yach liva mo.

“Tretti merkè vath ru godle, da skall yach ger yo u allde vara sonnaless, so linge sin yach liva mo”.

“Þrjátíu merkr við [með] rauðu gulli, Þá skal ek þér ljá ok aldrig vera sonalauss svá lengi sem ek lifa má.

"Thirty marks of the red gold, This to thee will I give, And never shalt thou lack a son As long as I may live."

Nu linge stug an konign U linge wo a swo Wordig vaar dogh mugè sonè 12 Yacha skier fare moga so minde yach angan u frien Rost wath comman mier to landa.

Nu linge stug an Konign, u linge wo an swo: “Wordig vaar dogh mugè sonè; yach askier fare moga so.

Nú lengi stóð konungrinn ok lengi á hann sá: “Verðigr verð þú múga sona ek œski fara megi svá.

Now long stood the King, And long on the Earl gazed he:— "O thou art worth a host of sons; Thy boon is granted thee."

Verse(s)/line(s) missing Now ‘Hiluge’ (the Earls rival) es the conversation. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“so minde yach angan ufrien rost, wath com an mier to landa”.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------“so myndi ek engan ófrænda hræðast at kom hann mér til landa.

(---Now ‘Hiluge’ (the Earls rival) es the conversation.---) so need I not fear any enemy who might come to this land.

Nu swara Hiluge Hera geve honon scam Taga di gild firre 13 Hildina Sin yach skall liga dor fram.

Nu swara Hiluge - hera geve honon scam -: “Taga di gild firre Hildina sin yach skall lega dor fram:

Ni svarar Hiluge - herra gef honum skǫmm -: “Tekr þú gjald fyrir Hildina sem ek skal leggja þér fram:

Now Hiluge answers ‘Sir, thou shouldst inflict injury on him’ Now thee canst accept a fitting dowry for Hildina, that I shall bring forth:

Estin whaar u feur fetign Agonga kadn i sluge 14 Feur fetign sin gonga Kadn i pluge.

Estin whaar u feur-fetign a gonga kadn i sluge, estin whaar u feur-fetign sin gonga kadn i pluge.

Hestinn hvern ok fjórfœtinginn eð ganga kann í slóða, hestinn hvern ok fjórfœtinginn sem ganga kann í plógi.

Every horse and ‘four-footed’ that can follow a path, every horse and ‘four-footed’ that can pull a plough’.

Nu stienderin Jarlin. U linge wo an wo 15 Dese mo eke Orknear

Nu stiender in Iarlin u linge wo an swo:

Nú stendr hann jarlinn ok lengi á hann sá: “Þess má ekki

Now the Earl he stood for a long time, and gazed at him,

12b

So linge san yach lava mo.

“Dese mo eki Orknear, so linge san yach lava mo”.

Orkneyjar, so lengi sem ek lifa má”.

‘This can Orkney not be equal to as long as I may live’. The Earl addressing Lady Hildina

“Nu eke tegar Nu eke tegaran san an san sot, Sot Koningn fyrin din Koningn fyrin U alt yach an din; 16 Hilhugin u alt yach an Widn ugare din Hilhugin arar. u garedin arar widn.” Nu swarar an frauna Hildina U dem san idne i fro 17 Di slo dor a bardagana Dar comme ov sin mo.

Nu swarar an frauna Hildina u dern san idne i fro: “Di slo dor a bardagana, Dar comme ov sin mo!”

“Nú ekki tekr hann sanna [sådan?] sátt konungrinn fyrir þín [þig]; og allt ek hann Hilhugin á gerðinni annarri vinn. Nú svarar hon frúin Hildina ór dur(un)um sínum inni í frá: “Þú slær þér á bardaganum [ana?], Þar komi af sem má!”

‘Now he’s not willing to make a deal with me, the King your father; and instead I think that Hilhugin by another decision will win. Now the Lady Hildina answers from inside the house; ‘Someone will die if you fight, that will happen for sure’. Verse(s) missing? The scene switches to the ‘duelling ground’

Nu Iarlin an genger i vadlin Nu Jarlin an genger fram I vadlin fram u kadnar sìna 18 U kadnar sina mien mien, Geven skeger i gever skeger i Orkneyan. Orkneyan ----------------------------------------------

Nú jarlinn hann gengr í vǫllinn fram ok kallar sína menn, gæfir skeggjar í Orkneyjum ----------------------------------------------

Now the Earl steps forward onto the duelling ground and adresses his men: ‘brave islanders of Orkney ----------------------------------------------

Han u cummin In u vod lerdin 19 Fronde fans lever Vel burne mun.

“Han u cummin in u vodler din; frinde hans lever velburne mien.”

“Hann er kominn inn á vǫll þinn frændi hans hleypir velborna menn [velbornum mǫnnum]

He has come onto the duelling ground; his friend follows the men of royal lineage’.

Nu fruna Hildina On genger i vadlin fram 20 Fy di yera da ov man dum Dora di spidlaikì mire man.

Nu fruna Hildina on genger i vadlin fram: “Fy di yera da ov mandum dora, di spidla ikì mire man”.

Nú frúin Hildina Hon gengr í vǫllinn fram: “Faðir þú gerir þá af manndóm ykkar, þú spillir ekki meira mann[i].

Now the lady Hildina, she steps forward onto the duelling ground, ‘father thou overdost thy manhood don’t let a brave man die’.

Nu sware an Hiluge Crego gevan a scam 21 Gayer an Jarlin frinde Din an u fadlin in.

Nu sware an Hiluge - erego gev ana scam -: “Yayer an Iarlin frinde din an u fadlin in”.

Nú svarar hann Hiluge - herra guð gefr honum skǫmm -: “Þegar hann jarlinn frændi þinn hann er fallinn enn.

But Hiluge he answers: ‘May God inflict injury on him’ ‘then the Earl your friend will surely be dead.

Nu fac an Jarlin 22 dahuge Dar min de an

Nu fac an Iarlin dahuge - dar minde an

Nú fekk hann jarlinn dauðahøggit - þar myndi hann

Now the Earl received a deadly cut,

engine gro An east ans huge ei Fong ednar u vaxhedne more neo.

engin gro -. An cast ans huge ei fong ednar, u vaks hedne mere meo.

engan grœða -. Hann kastaði hans hǫfði í fang hennar, ok óx henni meiri móðr.

no one there could heal him Hilunge threw his head into Hildina's lap; thus added to her grief. Verse(s) missing? The Earl is now dead. Hiluge talks to the King:

Di lava mir gugna Yift bal yagh fur o lande 23 Gipt mir nu fruan Hildina Vath godle u fasta bande.

“Di lava mir yugna, yift bal yagh fur o landi; gipt mir nu fruan Hildina vath godle u fasta bande.”

“Þú lofar mér gagna [eigna, unga?], ef baldr ek fór af [ór] landi; gipt mér nú frúna Hildina við [með] gulli ok fǫstu bandi”.

You promised me marriage if I boldly voyaged from our land Now let me marry Hildina, with golden dowry and solid pact. The King to Hiluge:

Nu bill on heve da yals Guadnè borè u da kadn 24 Sina kloyn a bera do skall Fon fruna Hildina verka wo sino chelsina villya.

“Nu billon heve day alty uadn è borè, u da kadn sina kloyna bera; do skall hon fruna Hildina verka wo sino chelsina villya”.

“Nú biðlund hefir þú alt til barns er borit, ok þá kann sín klæðin(i) bera; þá skal hon frúin Hildina verka á sínu sjalfs síns vilja.

‘Now you will suffer long, until a child is born, and wearing its own clothes; then the Lady Hildina will act upon her own will’. The scene switches to the preparations for Hiluge’s and Hildina’s wedding. Then Hildina gets her revenge.

Hildina liger wo chaldona U o dukrar u grothè 25 Min du buga till bridlevsin Bonlother u duka dogha.

Hildina liger wo chaldona uo dukrar u grothè; min du buga til bridlevsin, hon lothir u duka dogha.

Hildina liggr á tjaldinu auga døkkvar ór gráti; meðan þú býr til brúðhlaupsins, hón lætr í drykkju dáa.

Hildina is lying on the blanket her eyes all wet with tears; while they’re preparing the wedding she pours poison into the drinks.

Nu Hildina on askar feyrin Sien di gava mier 26 livè Ou skinka vin Ou guida vin.

Nu Hildina on askar feyrin sien: “Di gava mier live ou skinka vin, ou guida vin”.

Nú Hildina hon aksar [œskir, Eng. asks] fǫðrinn sinn: “Þú gefr mér leyfi at skenkja vín, at gjóta vín”.

Now Hildina she asks her father: “Wilt thou permit me to pour the wine, and serve it for the guests?

“Du ska skinka vin u guida vin; tinka dogh eke wo Iarlin, an gougha here din.”

“Þú skalt skenkja vín at gjóta vín; þenkja þó ekki á jarlinn, þann góða herra þinn”

‘You may pour the wine and serve the wine; don’t think any more of the Earl, the dear late husband of yours.

“Wath a skilde tinka wo Iarlin an gouga herè min,

“Þó at ek skyldi þenkja á jarlinn þann góða herra minn,

Why should I think of the Earl the dear late husband of mine?

Duska skinka vin, u guida vin Tinka dogh eke wo Jarlin an gougha 27 here din.

Watha skilde tinka Wo Jarlin gouga 28 herè min Hien minde yagh

inga forlskona Bera fare kera fyrin min.

hien mindi yagh inga forlskona bera fare kera fyrin min”.

héðan myndi ek enga fárskǫnnu bera fyrir kæra fǫðrinn minn”.

and sure I will not present any poisoned drink, to serve for my father’.

Da gerde on fruna Hildina 29 On bar se mien ot On soverin fest, Fysin u quarsin sat.

Da gerde on fruna Hildina, on bar se mien ot; on sover in fest fysin, fysin u quar sin sat.

Það gerði hún frúin Hildina, hón bar svá mjǫðinn út; hón syfjar inn fast fǫðr sinn fǫðr sinn eð hvar sem sat.

Then the lady Hildina, she served the drinks for the men; she sent to sleep her father, and all the guests that were present.

Da gerde un fruna Hildina On bard im ur 30 Hadlin burt sien on laghdè Gloug I osta jatha port.

Da gerde un fruna Hildina, on bar dim ur hadlin burt; sien on laghdè gloug i otsta jath a port.

Það gerði hún frúin Hildina, hún bar þeim [þá] ór hǫllinni burt; síðan hún lagði glóð í ýzta gataport.

Then the Lady Hildina, she dragged her father and his friends, out of the hall; then she lit a fire, in the main entrance.

Nú ekki vissi hann Hiluge ekki af til þá eldrinn var kominn í lopthúsdyr eð silkiserkr hans smár.

Now Hiluge he didn’t wake up, not until too late; when the fire had covered the entrance, and his silk shift had caught fire as well.

Nu leveren fram Hiluge du kereda 32 Fraun Hildina du Gevemir live u gre

Nu lever en fram Hiluge -----------------------------------“Du keresta fraun Hildina, du geve mir live u gre”.

Nú hlaupr hann fram Hiluge ---------------------------------------“Þú kærasta frúin Hildina, Þú gefr mér lífit ok grið”.

Then Hiluge he jumped up and cried out to Hildina “My dearest Lady Hildina, please let me live and give me quarter”.

So mege u gouga gre 33 Skall dogh swo Skall lathì min heran I bardagana fwo.

“So mege u gouga gre skall dogh swo, sin shall lathì min heran i bardagana fwo.

“Sá mikit það góða grið skalt þú sjá sem sjalfr lézt þú minn herrann í bardaganum fá.

‘Thus much good life and quarter you shall receive, as you yourself let my late husbond have, on the duelling ground.

Du tuchtada lide undocht yach Swo et sa ans bugin bleo 34 Dogh casta ans huge I mit fung u vexemir mise meo.

Du tuchta da lide undocht yach swo etsa ans bugin bleo; dogh casta ans huge i mit fung, u vexe mir mìre meo”.

Þér þótti það lítit en þótt ek sá einnug hans búkinn blœða; þú kastaðir hans hǫfði í mitt fang, ok vex [óx] mér meiri móðr.”

Nu tachtè on heve fwelsko Ans bo vad mild u 35 stien Dogh skall aidè misè Koningnsens Vadna vilda mien.

Nu tachtè on heve fwelsko ans bo vad mild u stien. “Dogh skall aldè mirè

Nú þakt hún hefir fǫlska hans bæði með mold og steini. “Þú skalt aldrig meira konungsins barni valda mein[i]”.

Nu iki visti an Nu iki visti an Hiluge Hiluge Ike ov till do ike ov till do Eldin var commin i 31 eldin var lut commin i lutustor U stor u silkè sark ans u sìlkìsark ans smo. smo.

You thought little of it, even though I saw also his body bleeding; you threw his head into my lap, and added to my grief’. Now she has covered his falseness both with earth and stone. ‘You will do the King’s children,

Koningnsens vadne vilda mien”.

no harm ever again’.

Texts in Shetland Norn quoted by Edmonston and Jakobsen 1. Fragments of conversation 1.1. Random phrases 1.2. A colloquy from Foula ("Dæfnajora") 1.3. A colloquy from Unst ("Marion") 1.4. A colloquy between a home-owner and his servant ("Kwarna farna") 1.5. An address to a cat from Cunningsburgh ("Gott fere monnja") 2. Nursery rhymes and cradle songs 2.1. The "gryle" (bogey) verse ("Skekla komena") 2.2. A nyrsery rhyme ("Klapa klapa søda") 2.3. Another nursery rhyme ("Bis bis byo") 2.4. A short nursery rhyme ("Sere sere skolma") 2.5. Cradle song ("Vallilu") 2.6. Lullaby ("Sterna") 3. Various verses and rigmaroles 3.1. The Troll's Message ("Høredu høredu ria") 3.2. An unintelligible troll saying ("Sustri") 3.3. The troll-child in the horn ("Hempi horni") 3.4. A Troll legend ("Katta moga") 3.5. The cow-call verse ("Kome kome haste") 3.6. A verse ("Han strok op") 3.7. A folk verse from Cunningsburgh ("Ænge bånge") 3.8. "Valafjel" 3.9. A fable of animals - The crow and the crab ("Krabe krabe kome lände") 3.10. A phrase ("Hwigen swiglen") 4. Riddles 4.1. A riddle from Unst ("Føre honge, føre gonge") 4.2. Another riddle ("Hwi liggere hwi") 4.3. A riddle from North Yell ("Flokera flura") 4.4. A riddle about a man sitting on the roof of a house ("Bonnja sits") 5. Songs and fragments 5.1. A fragment from Foula ("I have malt") 5.2. Another fragment ("Hänja daga") 5.3. A refrain from North Yell ("Skouan ørla") 5.4. The Eagle song ("Anti padua") 5.5. Fisher verse ("I lay and I hanvaget") 5.6. A Sea song from Unst ("Delen stoiten") 5.7. An incantation ("Da stuhl es scarp") 6. Adages and proverbs 6.1. Adage ("Dea lengdi") 6.2. Proverb from Weisdale on Mainland ("Gamla manna ro")

6.3. Proverb from De Herra ("Marta di gåns") 6.4. A proverbial phrase ("Dombvidla voga") 6.5. The Cunningsburgh phrase ("Myrk in e Liora") 7. Religious texts 7.1. A burial formula ("Yurden du art") 7.2. Lord's Prayer (Foula)

1. Fragments of conversation 1.1. Random phrases Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

1

Kwārna fārna? (Fo.)

Hvar (ert þú) farinn?

Where are you going?

2

Spoŋna ligərə (ligənə) glegan (Fo.)

spónninn liggr í glygginu(m)

The spoon is lying in the window

3

Mādər to de bjadni (Fo.)

matr til barnsins > til barnið; Food to the child L.Sc. to, de

4

Ø'lt i rigən (Un.)

ilt í hrygginum

(I feel) a pain in the back

5

Fō me a dək (Uw.)

fá mér (ein) drykk

Give me something to drink

6

Skỏņdi (skỏņd dee), pjâgi (Us.)

Fær. skunda tær, pjak

Be quick, you slowcoach

to lāg de ķør(ə)n (U., Fe.?) laga kýrnar now more commonly to muna 'to move' mỏn de baess

To 'flit' the cows

7 8

Oba døņa! (C.)

opna dyrnar

Open the door!

9

Godən dāg! Dogən dāg! Godən (dogən) dāg til dōrā!

góðan dag! góðan dag til yðvar!

Good-day! Good-day to you! (the return greeting)

1.2. A colloquy between two old men in Foula: Norn

10

- Ja'rta, bodəna kåməna ro'ntəna (rotəna) Kåmba. - Kwatə jāda? - Dæfnajōr(n)a! - Ja'rta, bota koməna ro'mpa [romba] Komba. - Kwata ita? - Stūraskītin!

Old Norse/Nordic - Hjarta, bátrinn er kominn runt um Kambinn. - Hvat er þat [þetta]? - Dauft eyra! (Dauf eyru!) - Hjarta, bátrinn er kominn runt um Kambinn. - Hvat er þat [þetta]? - Stóri skítr!

English - My heart (my dear), the boat (a boat) has come round de Kaim - What do you say?, prop. What is that? - Deaf ear! (Big shit!)

1.3. A colloquy from Unst: Norn

11

- Mårjan, ara du iņe? - Jō! - Sala slāg däin før ķø˙rən? - Jo ģεra so, ģεra so! Another version of the same colloquy: - Morian arra doo enya? - Yo! - Skölaug dine cür füren? - Yo gerasso gerasso! (from B.Edmonston and Jessie M.Saxby's "The Home of a Naturalist")

Old Norse/Nordic - Marion, ert þú inni? - Ja! (Jú!) - Skal ek ... þínar kýr? - Ja (Jú), gera svá, gera svá!

English - Marion, are you in there? - Yes! - Shall I 'flit' your cows? - Yes, do so.

1.4. A colloquy between a home-owner and his servant Norn

12

Old Norse/Nordic

- Kwārna fārna? - Fārna sikəna droka? - Fārna radna sikəna droka?

English

- Hvar ertu farinn? - Farinn ??? at drekka? - Farinn ??? at drekka?

- Where have you been? - I have been to get something to drink (a drink) - Have you been up in the roof to get something to drink?

1.5.Kind of address to a cat Norn

13

Old Norse/Nordic

Up (åp) aboot de ļōra (< *jōra), gỏit fərə mỏŋa

English

Upp um eyrat, gott fyrir munninn.

Up around the ear (with the paw)! (that is) good for the mouth (= that promises us a lucky catch of fish)

2. Nursery rhymes and cradle songs The "Gryle" (bogey) verse Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Skεkla koməna rīna tūna swa'rta hæsta blæita brūna fo'mtəna (fjo'mtan) hāla and fo'mtəna (fjo'mtan) bjadnis a kwāra hāla

Skekill er kominn ríðandi á túnit á svǫrtum hesti með bletti á brúnni fimmtán halar ok fimmtán bǫrn á hverjum hala.

A bug-bear [*skekill] has come riding into the homefield (the tun) on a black horse having a white spot (blæita) on its brow (brūna), and fifteen tails, and with fifteen children on each tail.

Cf. a age from Sturlungasaga: þá er Loptr reið á túnit, kvað hann þetta: Hér ferr grýla í garð ofan ok hefir á sér hala fimmtán JJ: All the old grammatical endings are levelled to -a, except in bjadnis which has got the Eng. plural ending -s. HN: bjadnis < def. barnit + Eng. pl. -s. Most of the old prepositions are dropped. Notice the usage of the English conjunction and. A nursery rhyme Norn Klapa klapa sø:da bokşina sķȯləna bjø:da A version from "The Home of a Naturalist": Clapa clapa süda Boochsina schölina Bjöda Bauta deema kjota schin Swala clovena vjenta in Roompan pöman söda

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Nor. klov n. - (cleft) fork Nor. svola f. - a) a swallow; b) acute-angled notch Another nursery rhyme Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Bis bis byo Bulva reeka tyo Tak laigen Slogan veggin Bulva reeka tyo Variant form: Bøn vil ikkə tīæ tak an læggən slōgan væggən bøn vil ikkə tīæ

JJ: "Bulva reeka" is evidently a corruption of boņ(ə) vil ikə 'the child will not (be quiet)'. Cf. a Faroese rigmarole (Antikvarisk tidsskrift, 1851, p. 322), beginning: "Rura rura barnið" - and containing the lines: "vil ikki barnið tiga, so tak um legg og slá í vegg - so skal barnið tiga" - If the bairn will not be quiet, take it by the leg and hit it against the wall - that will make it be quiet. Watch a live performance of this lullaby ("Rura barnið") by the famous Faroese singer Eivør Pálsdóttir: A short nursery rhyme Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Sērə şērə skôlma Ek skal şēra trēv i nēva an kasta band to

Cradle song Norn Vallilū ěga sô ro a sigg˙˙alin˙ leka tu sa frūa a mōrnin a gib˙˙əlin˙ ə

Old Norse/Nordic ... leikr [JJ:leikar] þú svá frór [frár] um morgunin geiplandi

English ... are you playing so blithe and gay in the morning, waving your arms about? [making vigorous mouthing efforts to take the nipple]

vallilu - L.Sc. balow 'hush-a-bye' suro [sôəro] - Nor. SW su-ru, a word with which children are hushed asleep siggalin - ? *seyglingr or soglingr < súga 'to suck', cf. Nor. sogbarn 'suckling' + -ling from Eng. Suckling gibbelin < Nor. geipla 'to make wild gestures with the arms; to make greatlip movements' Lullaby (from North Roe)

Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Bā wā bȯņa (bɔina) dī manna wakna starna strεtşa līra lɔŋspöņa (-spɔina) (aa) kɔmin hεm an şɔlmu. Variant: Flekka Ferna Strippa Sterna comin' doon? and Langspina

3. Various verses and rigmaroles The Troll's Message A man is riding past a mound, who hears some words shouted to him from the interior: Norn Foula: Hørədu hørədu rīa rīa rīa ræn(na) sina divla døna vivla kɔpəra jadla hɔņdəna bradna. Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Hoyr hoyr þú ríðari, ríð, ríð, renn!

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Variant form (Foula): --------------------sēana divla døəna vivla kɔpərə kētəl hɔņdə bredən. Norn Fetlar version 1 (Scots + Norn): Geng home to Fivla, and tell Divla at de honnins [hȯņins] wis lopen in a "tuilly" [tøli] and brunt de bonnins [bȯņins] Norn Fetlar version 2: Trīra rāra gɔŋga tell du tivla at fivla is fa'en i' de fire and is brunt [burnt] her. Norn Fetlar version 3: Du at rides de rød and rins de grey tell tūna [tuəna] tivla at nūna nivla

is väļna väţna Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Fetlar version 4: Du at rides de red and rins de grey tell Tivla taitta (Taitta) at Vārna vaitta (Vaitta) is fa'en i' de fire and brunt her

A troll saying, unintelligible Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Di rua vatta mega sustri

The troll-child in the horn Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

A troll-wifesat milking her cow in a stall when she heard the following warning cry: Hə'mpi hōrni hɔi minni kŏm karəl mi mŏg Whereupon she cried: O døl and hwæn! dat is my bairn at is fa'en i' de fire and is brunt her Norn

A man found a horn, took it home and hung it on the wall. Then a voice was heard outside saying: mín móðir kallar á mik Himpi hōrni häi or humpi hōrni hɔu whereupon the troll-child in the horn cried: My midder kaller o' me [käļ˙˙ərəmi˙, käļ˙˙ərəmī˙] or Dat is my midder kallin [käļin] on me

A troll legend A man found a fiddle-case out of doors and hung up on the wall of his house. Then a voice was heard calling the following unintelligible words: Norn Katta mŏga de līde lō

Old Norse/Nordic

English

The cow-call verse Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Kɔmə kɔmə hastə kɔmə so saldu ek skam (skäm) fal˙aldəral˙də kjø˙ra nepərt nāni læŋsprāli stil kɔm ɔu(ə)r mi şålma fal˙aldəral˙də kjø˙ra

A verse Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Häņ strỏk åp and häņ strỏk nērə amiļ˙əna gε'msina frūa bət ø˙dəlỏg ə də ø˙ra hwat gød rāmən ljø˙a ā mi keļaka mōlhus mən sø˙da mōlhus fæ mä'ļkfād mä'ļkfād fæ drāv gād drāv gād fæ glø˙ən vī glø˙ən vī fæ k'niknan k'nak an(d) a piknən stak an(d) ā njū an väļdət. Norn Häņ skrē åp and häņ skrē nērə amiļ˙ana gε'msəna frūa maina log (läg) ə də hỏira hand hwat gεts rāmən ljø˙a Norn Häņ skrē åp and häņ skrē nērə miņa loga frūa stak fε'ļta grōa hwat gεts de ramən ljø˙a Norn Häņ skrē åp and häņ skrē nērə miļana gæ'msa frūa stat fεļdin grō fūdən gūa

A corresponding rigmarole (þula) is found in Iceland, beginning: Hann tók upp og hann tók niðr, og svo tók hann áfrúinni. Folk verse Norn Æŋgə båŋgə lỏ˙ra bæl skola rina bæl skola bēti ândru wistras

Old Norse/Nordic

English

güd to bid to bræti gitşə gitşə gåŋgi bitşə bitşə bēti

Valafjel Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Vâlafjel wəz tỏ'rt (trỏt) o brỏţa hagəda wəzo hâla vodədə nỏit (nỏt, nət), segə me das (and) rūdə kriŋədə âla. Norn Vâlafjel wəz tỏ'rt o brota hâfatu wizo hâla fram såkəto (sɔkəto) dafa vogədə nỏit æn rūdə kriŋədə âla. Norn Vālafiel wiz tỏrt u bruta hỏfatu wiz o hâla fræm såkkətu dafa våggədu nöit æn rude kriŋ de jāla.

A fable of animals "The crow and the crab" Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

Fetlar version 1: Krabə krabə kåmə läņdə æ˙və rig rīvə måg skäļəna rīvə dỏk nā trät sø˙. ---------------------------------Krabə jå'nsa tråţalỏs

Norn

English

Krabbi krabbi kom at landi! (Ek) efa(sk), at þú hrygghrífir mik Ek skal eigi hrífa þik "Nei, þrátt!" sagði krabbinn --------------------------------(Hon er)svá trygðalaus. Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Fetlar version 2: Krabə krabə kåmə lānd āvə rig rīvə måg skäļəna rīvə dig nā tråtşə krabə jå'nşa tråtşəlỏs (tråţəlỏs) Norn Unst version: Crab, crab, come ashore! Nāgə trȯita, nāgə trȯita I'm feared, du "rigraivs" me.

A phrase (probably a line of a song)

Norn hwīgən swiglən swə'rtən trō

Old Norse/Nordic hvítum seglum svörtum þræði

English (with) white sails (sewn with) black threads

4. Riddles A riddle from Unst Norn Unst version: Førə hɔŋgə, føre gɔŋgə førə stad əpo skø˙, twa vistrə vegəbi and en comes atə driļandi.

Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Fjórir hanga, fjórir ganga, fjórir standa upp á ský, (tveir) vísa veg í bý (ok) einn kemr aptan drilandi. Old Norse/Nordic

English

Fetlar version: Twa standən opa skø˙, twa vegəbi, four hɔŋga, four gɔŋga, etom ỏita drỏita.

Cf. Gest the Blind's riddle about the cow (in Hervarar Saga): Fjórir hanga, fjórir ganga, tveir veg vísa, tveir hundum verja, einn eptir drallar ok optast óhreinn. Another riddle Norn hwī ligərə hwī

Old Norse/Nordic hvítt liggr í hvítu

English white lies in white

Another riddle Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Flåkəra flūra fedderless, ut kåm mỏdərə hä'ņtaless häņæ beņæ gōraless ------------------------------Norn Flåkera flūa fedderless, sỏţşa bena gōraless ut kåm mỏdərə häņaless and drave awa fl.fl. f. Norn White fool fedderless, ut kåm mỏdərə hä'ņtarless sỏţşa gōa bεndərless and plucked awa wh.f.f.

The original Old Norse form: (Fuglinn flaug) fjaðralauss (hann) settisk á garðinn beinlauss út kom maðr handarlauss A riddle about a man sitting on the roof of a house The farmer sits on the top of a high heap: Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Bỏņa sitə po tap(a) tirl (tirəl) käļina (käili in a) bam˙birl˙ (birəl) luta koşa hε'ltər sķε'ltər ondər a kåŋ˙gəlū. Norn From "The Home of a Naturalist": Bunye sits uppo tappa tirl calye inta bamba birl Ba hilkie toonie; Ladyco hilka tilta, Roonin oondie conggaloo. Ba hilkie toonie. Norn Bonna sat paa tap də tərl kallin aa bam bərəl luta kuşşa hə'ltər skriə'ltər ondər a kåŋgalū. Norn Bỏņņa sit upo tap tirr l kaili in a bambirrəl hei'ltər tei'ltər lēdi kỏşşən ondər kåŋgalū. ə

Norn Bỏņņa sat upo happəna tərl cryin' oot for båmba bərl kom and see häi'lki rinnin æftər skäi'lki raamētəna skūi. Norn Bỏņņi sits ypo tappa tirl kalla inn a bamba birl baa hi'lka tūni lēdi ko hi'lka ti'lka runnin undi kåŋgalū. Norn Bonna (bonja) site po tappatirl

5. Songs and fragments A fragment of a song from Foula Norn I have malt (mālət, mæ'lt) mældra min (mældrən) I have sūpət ūsən (pōpət pōsən) εndə sēvə de sədə lin (or: a'ntə ligə de sødə min or lin) and dēnə (-a) komənə (-a) lūsa (ljūs).

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Ek hef malit meldra mínn (or meldrann) ek hef sópat húsin; ennþá sefr (søfr) (liggr) þat sœta lín (hin sœta mínn) ok dagrinn er kominn í ljós.

Another fragment Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Häņa dâga frīsa frɔ˙ga I wish it may be very gōỏit and verə si mōga.

A refrain from North Yell Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Skåuan ø˙rla grø˙n(a) ---------------------------Hwâr jå'rtən (får ģä'rtən) grū [han] grēn [grø˙n] ōrla (-lək)

The Eagle song Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

A'nti padua sat ən skūa padua sat ən grūa A'ntən gēr skrīkər ōla sætər ōla fēstin pærla mōra hæ'ņşra boga şidəri jāla nεstin. Norn A'nti padua şåt ən grōa sætər ōla fēsa tærla mōra hæ'ņşra boga şidəri āla nēsə. A'nti pakəta såkəta sū ɔpa jɔn skɔtən grō by came de εdnin an şi ta a'nti bō a'nti gavəra (gafəra) skrīkər ōla sætər ōla fesa pærla mūra hæ'nşistər bōgra şadəra jala nesa. Skrikəna hjōla dogəna fjōla

midəra harda a'ntu atə nå'rti jalani. Ä'ļka lāma bit hæ'nsə bokra pærla mōra şadəri jalə neso meni mī mita gāma. Jodnar şud tra i'lka bit an moni meta gāma at şal ā bi edna hōga.

Fisher-verse Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

I lay and I hanvāgət and I rēs and I klābo'ŋkət I looked fort and de seven starns wis come upo Nedərs and de glōm i' de sudwast I kom in and I took de pernisipes and stird i' de fâ˙kum and I hang on my waksipan and when I wis klaa(i)n ut my waksipan I took mi bærəl upo mi back and I güd to Stâ˙ba and when I kom to Stâ˙ba, it was nothing but a ūrū and a mişâ˙ and de could no a boat gæng aff o' a linn.

I lay and I hanvāgət and I rēs and I klābo'ŋkst and I took de pernĭsimỏs and stirred op i' de fâ˙kom and den I kljū i de waksipan and den de āliklø˙vins wis giaan aboot de hūs and de krīəls dey were begun to lōəd I pat my bødi upo my shooder and I güd to Stâ˙ba and when I cam' to Stâ˙ba dan der' wer' nothing but åndərhwǐg and a "misəri".

A Sea-song from Unst Norn Dεlən ståitən ståŋga râra ōba mỏņa hwat sēis dū tə bỏņşka vεļa latna mei bi driŋga sēna pōba vâra

Old Norse/Nordic

English

latna mei bi driŋga sta'rka bỏrna væsta şagdə kåļ, ş.k., sændə båra væsta şagdə kåļa gamla hwεn də wεrna tåpşäg şagdə kåļ, ş.k., hwεn də wεrna tåpşäg şagdə kåļa gamla Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Old Norse/Nordic

English

Another variant: Dâla ståita ståŋga rø˙r (rēla) bỏņşka væļa mỏņa sta'rka bỏrna fiskali (sta'rka vỏrna væstali) şaidə kåļə gambli Lēdra bō bi äņdi. Norn A version from "The Home of a Naturalist": Saina poba wer-a Leetra mavi, letra mavi, Saina poba wer-a Leetra mavi drengie. Daala stuyta stonga rara Oh badeea, oh badeea, Daala stuyta stonga rara, Oh badeea moynie.

Wher der isno topshar, topshag, topshag, Wher der isno topshag, Shakda cole o Gamblie.

An incantation Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

Da stuhl es scarp an fien, Da sacheles emer a snean, Da vird es sicer en pura, A glimer i' mirk-as-dim hura, La stuhl an vird ay gyrda An prof er an skyla, an svirda.

English The steel is sharp, the edge is fine, It's severed many a tough design, The word is sure, the word is pure, A light e'en in the midnight hour, Let steel and word for ever gird And be to ger a shield and sword.

6. Adages and proverbs Adage Norn Dēa lεŋdi, mogi swεŋdi

Old Norse/Nordic dagar lengðir, magar

English

(swεŋgi)

svengðir Nor. dagarne lengjast, magarne svengjast

A proverb from Weisdal on Mainland Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

Gỏit a taka gamla manna rō.

Gott at taka gamalla manna ráð.

English It is wise ti take old men's advice.

A proverb from de Herra Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

Ma'rta di gå'ns tekə di (də) vεps

Margt til garns tekit (?) til vepts.

English Much can be used for woof that is useless for warp.

A proverbial phrase Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

Dεa dombvidla vōga dεa vidla vōga pēsa [ion] vōga

English Easter-Sunday weather will last all the week. More correctly probably: the weather of ionweek will be the weather of Easter week.

The Cunningsburgh phrase Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

Myrk in e Liora, Luce in e Liunga, Tim in e Guest in e geungna

English It's dark in the Chimney, but it's light thro' the Heaven, it's still time for the stranger to be gone.

Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

Variant from Yell: Mə'rka lōra, lestra liŋga, tämra gεstra gɔŋgəra

English

myrkt er í ljóra, ljóst er í lyngi, tími er at gestr(inn) gengr.

7. Religious texts A burial formula (in Danish) Norn

Old Norse/Nordic

Yurden du art fur af yurden du vis skav'd Oktoa yurden nu ven dœd. Op fra yurden skal du Opstaa, naar Herren aar syne bastnan blaa.

Shetland's Lord's Prayer

English

Recorded in the 1770's by George Low. First published in his "A Tour through the Islands of Orkney and Schetland. Kirkwall: William Peace, 1879.". Fy vor or er i Chimeri. / Halaght vara nam dit. La Konungdum din cumma. / La vill din vera guerde i vrildin sindaeri chimeri. / Gav vus dagh u dagloght brau. Forgive sindorwara / sin vi forgiva gem ao sinda gainst wus. Lia wus ik? o vera tempa, / but delivra wus fro adlu idlu. For do i ir Kongungdum, u puri, u glori, Amen

Phonetics of Orkney Norn Based on "Orkney Norn" by Hugh Marwick. Notice that Marwick uses the orthographical notation of Norn words (in "Examples"), not their transcription. Old Norse a

á

e

é

i

Orkney Norn

Examples (Norn < Old Norse)

a

andoo < andœfa, arvo < arfi, chaldro < tjaldr

α

nask < naska, skarf < skarfr, slack < slakki

α

graand < grandi, skaav < skafi, baakie < bal; frequently before an elided or assimilated consonant, as in aval < afvelta, avaless < afllauss, maalo < marlauk

ε

air < ar, backfett < -fattr, lecko < laki, krepp < krapp (umlaut forms?)

į (rare)

hinsho < handsko, skint < skant

ʌ (rare)

muggy < magi

ɔ

chold < tjalda, gonfert < gandferð

o: (usually)

bore < bára, geo < gjá, ho < hár, ogang < ágangr, skyo < skjá, skory < skári

a: (occasionally)

aak < álka, flaa < flá, -maa < már

u: (rarely)

mardroo < marþráðr

ø: (rarely)

skrue < skrá, shuimet < *hjálmóttr, huivy < háfr

ɔu (rarely)

blouster < blástr

ε

aint < enta, erkny < erkn, skegg < skegg, berry < berg, klett< klettr, elt < elta

ε

hail < hella

e: (rare)

kaivy < kefja, save - cf. Nor. sev

α (rare)

arkamy < erkn, kwark < kverka

I

brinno < brenna, rin, rinnick < renna

į (rare)

kyirk < kyrkja

ε

settin < séttingr

e:

shaygray < *hjela

į

kipp < kippa, bit < biti, kikk < kikk

i

geel < gil, kleester < klistra, week < vik

í

o

ó

u

ú

y

i:

leero < líri, meethe < mið

ʌ (rare)

tulfer < þilfar

alternations

leero/lyrie, meethe/maithe

į (occas.)

snippo < snípa, spick < spík

i

wheel < hvíla, kwee < kví

i:

reen < hrína, Lee < hlíð, teebro < tíðbrá

ai (Scots infl.?)

grice < gríss, kline < klína, skive < skífa

i/ai occas. alternate

kwee/kwy

a (rarely)

darro < dorg, garr/gurr < gor

α: (rarely)

skraal < skroll, baa < boði

ʌ

lurt < lortr, murr - Icel. mor, rud - Nor. rodda, gurr < gor

u (occas.)

kroopan < kroppinn, roodgoose < hroð-

u: (occas.)

loo < lo, floo < flo

ǫ: (rarely)

bawkie < bokki

ø: (I-umlaut?)

huiv < hov, ruithe < hroði, sluiter < sloðra

o: ?

dome < dómr

ø

bøl < ból, uiss < óss, stuil < stóll

ø:

kuithe < kóð, ruise < hrósa

u

buo < bóla, Loomachun < lómatjǫrn, sooken < sókn

u:

sloo < sló, kloor < klóra, stoor < stórr, moorit < mórauðr

u

bool < bulla, doose < dusa, kooker < kurka

u:

moors < mura

ʌ

gump < gumpr, hurr < hurra, krummo < krumma, kunn < kunna, mulder < muldra, rugg < rugg, studdle < stuðull

ø

kuil < kul, uiko < ulk, styuilk < stulk

į (occas.)

birt < burðr, klimse < klumsa

u

book < úkr, brook < brúk, doon < dúnn, skoot < skút, soog < súgr, toon < tún

u:

skroo < skrúfr, sooro < súra, stoo < *stúfa

ø:

uimater < úmáttr?, huin < húnn, kuivy < kúfr

i

bizzy < bys, minn < mynd, linyo < lygna, nizz < knysja, sirry < syrja, stinn < stynja

į

gilt < gylta, ritto < rytr, tinsal < þyngsl, tirl < þyrla, trist < þrysta

ø

huirn < hyrna

I

ý

æ

/ʌ

stinn, stunn < stynja

i

meeo < mý, sneet < snýta, speet < spýta

ø

nue < gnýja

ai (Scots infl.?)

geyro < gýgr, skila < skýla, sly < slý

e:

aisins < æsing, braithe < bræða, saithe < sæði,

saxhering < sexæringr ε:

brail < bræla, lerblade < lær-

į

simmy < sæma, kniff < knæfr

ε:

aikel < œxl, geskafoo < gœzku-fullr

e:

haze < œsa

ø

buil < bœla

o

bonie words < bœnar-orð?

ǫ:

oro < œrr

i:

meen < mœnir

ɔ

golt < gǫltr, rost < rǫst, slokk < slǫkkva

e/ε

dekk < dǫkkr, kegel < kǫggull, kes < kǫs, kjest < kǫstr

ʌ

skurrock < skǫr, spurrey < spjǫrr

į

birk < bǫrkr

e:

aize < eisa, maise < meiss, raiso < reisa, saithe < seiðr, skrae < skreið

ai

bysk < beiskr, geyro < geiri, neist < gneisti, skry < skreið, sny < sneið, snyse < sneis, tie < teigr, tyno < teinn

ε(:)

dello? < deili, skaively < skeifligr

ɔu

gowl < gaula, howe < haugr, nowt < naut, nout < knauta, owse < ausa, tout < tauta, tow < taugr

ʌ

duff < daufr, rumse < raumska

ɔ

gokk < gaukr, stot < stauta

o:

tome < taumr

u(:)

nust/nɔust < naust, hogboon < haugbúandi

ai

snype < sneypa, misglimed < -gleyma,

e:

blaithin < *bleyðingr, daive < deyfa

e

glaip < gleypa, Sanday < Sandey

ε:

ersland < eyrisland, aire < eyrr

ø (in old records)

urisland, uirsland < eyrisland, gøma < geyma, løpir, lønlighe

ja

ja

yackle < jaxl

já

i(?)

glee < gljá

jó

o

grono < grjón

u

lood < hljóð, loodan < hljóðan, NB. biwr < bjórr ???

ø

ruithe < hrjóða, skyued < skjóttr

į

brisk < brjósk

œ

ǫ

ei

au

ey

? nita < ?njóta b

b (usually) p

pangse < bangsa, pivver < bivra, polt < boltr, pook < buka, puink < bunka

d

ð

f

d (usually) t

trimso < dramsa

occasionally dropped in -nd

øn < ǫnd

dj > tʃ

charve < djarfr, forcharved < fordjarfað?

preserved

nither < niðra, ruithe < hroði, kuithe < kóð, meethe < mið?, owmuth? < umboð, braithin < bregða

þ (occas.)

with < við, footho < fuð, lithy < liðr

(dropped)

heemfare < heimferð, ee < iða, Lee < hlíð, mardroo < marþráðr, skrae < skreið, -gar < -garðr, sny < sneið, swee < sviða, teebro < tíðbrá, kleppi-spur < -sporðr, gee < geð

d (sometimes)

bod < boði, glad
t (occas.)

daawurt < dagverð

ðj > dž

brudge < bryðja, rudge < ryðja

f v (as in ON between vowels and sonorants)

arvo < arfi, charve < djarfr, hivvle < hefill, klov < klauf, krove < krof, rivling < hriflingr, skav < skafa, sweevle < sveifla

dropped & assimilated:

g

before l

matlo < maðfló??, Less/Lesh/Lashy < fles

before b

aaber < afberja, klibber < klyfberi

before v

aval < afvelta

before d

odder < ofdyri

before n

stein < stefna, Ham < hǫfn

between vowels

andoo < andœfa, tuo < þúfa

finally

skroo < skrúfr, BUT guff < gufa, skarf < skarfr, riff < rif

retained for the most part forskin < forskyggni, geyro < gýgr, neester < gnistra, nyst, neest < gneisti, nile < negla, nit < gnit, roo < dropped (when spirant) hrúga, sameyn < sameign, sile < sigl, smyoo < smjúga, tie < teigr, braithe < bregða, Voy < vági

h

k (occas.)

durk < dorg, knoop< gnúpr, krane < gren, kyirked < kergja, sook < súgr, swilkie < svelgr

gn > nj, gl > lj

nyaffle < gnafla, nyaggle < gnagla, rullyie < rugl

freq. palatalized

-gyar [gjǝr] < -garðr, dyelro < gildra, dyoard [djord] < gjorde, gjɔŋ < ganga

retained initially disappears before l,n,r

nave < hnefi, reen < hrína, roo < hrúga, lood < hljóð

hv > w, ʍ

w: wee < hvía; ʍ: whess < hvessa

hj > ʃ

shuimet < hjálmóttr, shaygrey < *hjela-, sholtie < hjalti

ʍ (occas.)

Whup < hóp, Whupland < Hópland

ch [x] (occas.)

Chimeri < himli

k

l

mostly retained g (freq.)

fig < fika, huiggle < hukla, yaggle < jakla, rag < raki, srpaagle < sprǫkla, stugg < stokka, stiggle < stikill

t (occas.)

ill-treested < treisk, ill-twartened < tverkandi, roost < rusk, sturten < storkna, strood < skrúð

kn > sn (occas.)

snoddy < knoða?

palatalised before a front vowel

kji?st < kist-

mostly retained disappears:

m

before k

aak < álka, uiko < ulk, uivigar < *yvelker???

between vowels

buo < bóla, heyamet < heilagr

before s

hass < hals (Scots influence?)

before m

hom < hólmr. ium < ólmr

finally

faa < fall (Scots influence?)

ll palatalized

hellyiefer < helli-, rullyo < rulla

lm > ml (sometimes)

hemlins < hjelm??, hemlin < helmingr

usually retained fn > mn > m

n

p

Ham < Hǫfn, Ramnigeo < Hrafnagjá, yamalt < jafnaldri

generally retained fn > mn > m

Ham < Hǫfn, Ramnigeo < Hrafnagjá, yamalt < jafnaldri

m when followed by labial consonant

gamfer < *gegnferð, gomfer < gandferð, toomal < túnvǫllr

ny > in (metathesis)

feenk < fnykr

retained b (frequently)

hiblin < hiplingr, horngibly < gepill?, kubby < koppr or kúpa, skraable < skrapla, tribble < tripla BUT: kuppo < koppr, gapis < gapuzi, luipy < laupr

r

s

retained rn > nn (occas.)

banno-corn < barn

rn > rl (occas.)

mallo < marlaukr

retained ʃ (occas.)

sharg < sarga

ž

runge < runsa, range < hreinsa

sk > ʃ (occas.)

hansho < handskór (?), shore < skári

sk > ks (occas.)

fyaksy < fjask

dropped

t

between r and l

smirlin < smyrslingr

between k and l

yackle < jaxl, aikel < øxl

between t and l

wattle < veizla, mittle < meizla

usually retained

þ

v

d (often)

blade < blettr, skyued < skjóttr, sloond < slunt, smud < smutt?

tj > tʃ

chaldro < tjaldr, chold < tjalda, -chun < tjǫrn

t (usually)

tulfar < þilfar, tuo < þúfa, tirl < þyrla, tang < þang

d (occas.)

droo < þráðr, mardroo < marþráðr, du < þu

h

Hurteso < Thurstainshow, Hurstane < Thurstath, Horraldshay < Thorwaldishow

w

daawurt < dagverð??, waddy < vað, waffle < vafla, wassy < vasi, week < vik

v (in placenames)

Vinquoy, Vinbreck, Voldibrae, Verpinno

Sketch of the grammar of Orkney Norn based on the material from H. Marwick's "Orkney Norn") 1. While the remnants of Norn in Shetland are fairly scarce and worn out (although we still have some 10 000 words and a number of texts), this is even more true in respect of Orkney Norn. The only surviving text in the language is the Lord's Prayer, which is around just 60 words long. There are reports about another Orkney Norn text, the Norse ballad Darraðaljóð, re-worked by the English poet Thomas Gray in the 18th century as "The Fatal Sisters: an Ode" (the Norse original of the song is featured in the famous Icelandic Saga of Njáll). The knowledge of this poem still existed in North Ronaldsay, Orkney as late as around 1800 (this remote island seems to have kept Norse archaisms longer than most of the archipelago). The famous English writer Walter Scott, who visited Orkney in 1814 collecting material for his novel "The Pirate", makes the following comment about the song: 'Mr. Baikie of Tankerness, a most respectable inhabitant of Kirkwall, and an Orkney proprietor, assured me of the following curious fact:- A clergyman, who was not long deceased, ed well when some remnants of the Norse were still spoken in the island called North Ronaldshaw. When Gray's Ode, enditled the "Fatal Sisters", was first published, or at least first reached that remote island, the reverend gentleman had the well-judged curiosity to read it to some of the old persons of the isle, as a poem which regarded the history of their own country. They listened with a great attention to the preliminary stanzas... But when they heard a verse or two more, they interrupted the reader, telling they knew the song well in the Norse language, and had often sung it to him when he asked them for an old song. They called it the Magicians, or the Enchantresses. It would have been singular news to the elegant translator, when executing his version from the text of Bartholine, to have learned that the Norse original was still preserved by tradition in a remote corner of the British dominions.' (from a note to "The Pirate") To our great regret this piece of Orkney Norn was lost before somebody cared to write it down - it escaped even the attention of George Low, who left some of the most valuable records of Shetland

Norn, although he served in fact in Orkney. Had Darraðaljóð been recorded, it could probably have become equally important to the study of Norse relics in Orkney as the ballad of Hildina is for those of Shetland. Apart from The Lord's Prayer, we have at our disposal "The Dictionary of Orkney Norn" (or just "Orkney Norn") by Hugh Marwick, which is the Orcadian counterpart to Jakob Jakobsen's "Etymological Dictionary of the Norn language in Shetland". Marwick's work features 3000 words, contrary to 10 000 entries in Jakobsen's dictionary. The Orcadian material seems to be much more worn out and scotticized than that from Shetland. The proportion of words that are not traced back to Old Norse in "Orkney Norn" is noticeably higher than in the "Etymological Dictionary of the Norn language in Shetland" (perhaps, if the latter had been written a few decades later than it actually was, it would have looked likewise). This being said, both dictionaries contain a good number of words which have parallels in Norwegian, Danish and Swedish dialects instead of Old Norse. Marwick's book features a lot of Scots words and even some of Gaelic origin, referring more to the Orcadian dialect of Scots than to Orkney Norn itself, although, like in Shetland, we can not clearly demarcate the two. Speaking of Jakobsen's own contribution to the study of Orkney Norn (he went on an expedition to the islands in 1909, 1910 and 1912) we should first quote his sister Anna Horsbøl (Jakobsen), who in the preface to the English edition of the Shetlandic dictionary reveals her brother's intention to work out "a considerable collection of Orkney Norn". Unfortunately, the Faroese researcher ed away in 1919 before he could bring this plan about, having though succeeded in publishing several important articles about Orcadian relics of the Norse language. Once in a while Marwick inclines in his book that he uses Jakobsen's vaults, although to what extent he does it, whether all of Jakobsen's data has found its place in "Orkney Norn" or only a part of it, remains unclear. In any case, it seems very likely that Jakobsen's research in Orkney provided nowhere near as much material as his fieldwork in Shetland. 2. The grammar of Orkney Norn, or, more correctly, Old Norse grammatical archaisms in Orcadian Scots are very scarce and are summarized in the following lines. 2.1. Substantives 2.1.1. Singular 2.1.1.1. Nominative/Accusative As mentioned in General, no distinction between Nominative and Accusative was to be found in Orkney Norn. The most obvious examples of such a mixing are certainly the loss of the strong masculine -r (except in very few cases) and replacement of the weak feminine nominative ending -a with the respective accusative one -o (ON -u). A process similar to the latter must have occured to the weak masculine declension, where the nominative ending -i must have

tended to be replaced by the accusative one -a. However, the mixing of -a and -o in the feminine, contributing to the overall confusion of endings, must have overshadowed it, producing weak masculine nouns ending in -o as a result. Another group of weak substantives lost their vocal endings to become undistinguished from strong nouns. The appearance of -o in the strong declension was certainly the reverse effect of this change. To sum up, almost all variants of the endings mixing became possible: 2.1.1.1.1. Masculine words retaining -er < ON -r: amiter < úmáttr, blooter (blout) < blautr, brander < brandr, merkister < merkjarstaðr, yaager < jálkr 2.1.1.1.2. o < a kringlo,kringl < kringla, krummo,kromak < krumma, mullyo < Sw. Mulla By the anology from the substantives words in other classes of speech change -a to -o too: adverbs: reevligo < rífliga verbs: fordo < forða 2.1.1.1.3. 0(zero) < i aithken < auðkenni, ang < angi, ayrskifft < arfskifti, bilge-kod < koddi, biter < *bítari, rag < raki, raim < rjómi, skift < skifti, tong < tangi, wind < yndi 2.1.1.1.4. i < i ogude < ágói, ruithe < hróði, saithe < sæði, wazzi < vasi 2.1.1.1.5. o < i arvo < arfi, klavo < klafi, lacky,lecko < Laki 2.1.1.1.6. o < a bikko < bikkja, bitch, brinno < brenna, herto < hjarta 2.1.1.1.7. 0(zero) < a amis < ǫlmusa, almusa (Orkney Norse), bore [bo:r,bo:ǝr] < bóra, bram(mo) < Dan. bærme, Nor. berm, brecks < brekka 2.1.1.1.8. o < 0: grono < grjón (pl.), kid,kiddo,kiddy < kið, kleppo < kleppr, kuppo < koppr, skjeldro < tjaldr 2.1.1.1.09. o < ingr klino < klíningr, sillo, sillock < *sýlingr, sýr 2.1.1.1.10. o vs. Ek blatho < Gael. blaathach, Far. Blak 2.1.1.2. Dative. A few set expressions and forms preserve the Old Norse masculine/neuter sg. ending -i: agairy < af garði asee < (yfir, undir) Ási Brya-grunyie < Breiða-grunni

Hoosavelji < í Húsavelli; according to Marwick, this form is ed in "Ry." (Rousay? North/South Ronaldsay?), the rest of Orkney has Hoosavel Also a feminine dative form: leggin < í lǫgginni (in) laaginy < Nor. lag(n)ing + -inni (??) The following word descends from a dative expression, but the ending is lost: forrowhand < fyrir hǫndum 2.1.1.3. Genitive Genitive endings can be found in compound words. The old genitive ending -s is mostly preserved, sometimes presented as -is. The other endings are mostly reduced to -i or -e. In two cases the old masculine/feminine ending -(a)r still can be seen: domismen < dómsmenn banno-disty < barna-dust bonie-words < bœnar-orð geivaless < gæfulauss geyar-, gyre- < gýgjarhandigrip < handa(r)grip hummleband < hǫmluband katabelly < kattarbelgr merkister < merkjarstaðr messigate < messugata ombisman, umboathman < umboðsmaðr urislands < eyrislǫnd voldro < vallar-mús? vole-grun < vallar-gróinn yarromang,manna,myungy < jarðarmegin (-munr?) Genitive expression with eliminated ending: emby < innan bœjar fainfu < fagnaðarfullr forcop < fararkaup 2.1.2. Plural 2.1.2.1. Nominative blooro < blórar katrisper < kattar-rispur vandar (vanda) < vandi, pl. vandar (??) 2.1.2.2. Accusative riggaforaaser < *hrygg(ir)-yfir-ása. Marwick believed that the final -r has appeared due to "a false association with English razor". We think instead that the ending could have simply acquired the final -r in Norn, like it did in Faroese: Far. hestar, vinir < ON hesta, vini. 2.1.5. Definite forms 2.1.5.1. Masculine

geyarkarlin < gýgjarkarlinn tramins < á þrǫminn (??) kroopan < kroppinn (??) 2.1.5.2. Feminine keelin < keilan hoolan < ýla (Far. ýlan?) grullyan < grýlan wanboona < *vanbónin?? yern < jǫrðin leggin < i lǫgginni Examples from North Ronaldsay: Burrian < Borgin Lashan < Flesin Leean < Hlíðin Geo na gui < Gjáin góða (Acc. Gjána góðu) Støǝn < Stǫðin 2.1.5.3. Neuter witheron < viðrin(i)?? 2.2. Adjectives 2.2.1. Strong adjectives long reed < lǫng hríð Nue[nø]-biggin < ný bygging taragott < þat er gott 2.2.2. Weak adjectives groy < grái Brya-grunyie < (á) Breiða-grunni Tongabrey < Tangi breiði Geo na gui < Gjáin góða (Acc. Gjána góðu) Neeoquoy < Nýa kví Langaber < Langa berg 2.2.3. Comparative negree uiter-ald < ytri 'old' innerli < innarliga 2.3. Adverbs reevligo < rífliga 2.4. Pronouns suistoo < Eng. seest thou!, Eng. dial. seesta, also cf. ON sérðu (sér þú) 'see you', sástu (sást þú) 'saw you [did you see]' taragott < þat er gott me-nain [minε:n] < minn Eigen yin < hinn (+ Sc. yon?) 2.5. Numerals (or substantives derivated from numerals) ferd < fjórði setten, settin(g) < séttungr ' a 6th part'

schone, schound < sjaund 'the 7th day' teind < tíund bow-teind < bú-tíund 2.6. Verbs 2.6.1. Presens the're, de'r < +er 'is' taragott < þat er gott suistoo < Eng. seest thou!, Eng. dial. seesta, also cf. ON sérðu (sér þú) 'see you', sástu (sást þú) 'saw you [did you see]' 2.6.2. Past dyoard < gerði, Nor. Gjorde handselde (Orkney Norse??) < handseldi 2.6.3. Imperative fordo < forða 2.6.4. Present (active) participle greyin < grýjandi 2.6.5. Past (ive) participle forlegen < *fyrirlaginn hoved < hafinn, hefja domlad < dómlagðr? 2.7. Prepositions in under < inn under ON? forgen < *fyrir-gegen forrowhand < fyrir hǫndum riggaforaaser < *hrygg(ir)-yfir-ása

Orkney's Lord's Prayer The only known text in Orkney Norn is The Lord's Prayer recorded in the late 1690's by James Wallace. First published in his "An of the Islands of Orkney. London: Jacob Tonson, 1700.": Favor i ir i chimrie, Helleur ir i nam thite, gilla cosdum thite cumma, veya thine mota vara gort o yurn sinna gort i chimrie, ga vus da on da dalight brow vora Firgive vus sinna vora sin vee Firgive sindara mutha vus, lyv vus ye i tumtation, min delivera vus fro olt ilt, Amen. or On sa meteth vera.

Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name, your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as in heaven. Give us today our daily bread. Forgive us our sins as we forgive those who sin against us. Save us from the time of trial and deliver us from evil. Amen. or And so may it be.

The following overview of the prayer is based on Hugh Marwick's analysis with some minor corrections: 1. By-word translation

Favor: fa 'father' < faðir, Shet. (Hildina) fy vor 'our' < várr, cf. mod. Ork. war (Marwick) i 'who, which' < eð ir 'is' < er i 'in' < í chimeri 'heaven, "heavenly kingdom"' < himinríki, himnaríki Helleur ir i: should be *Helleut viri: *helleut < heilagt viri 'may it be' < verði nam 'name' < nafn thite 'thine, your', neu. < þitt gilla - ??. Hægstad takes this as gud lat 'God let' < guð lát cosdum 'kingdom' < konungsdómr (masc.), *konungsdœmi (neut.). (The possessive pronoun thite is witness to the neuter gender of this word.) cumma 'come' < koma veya 'will' < vilji, Acc. Vilja thine 'thine, your' masc. < þinn mota 'may' < mátti 'might' vara 'to be' < vera gort 'done' < gǫrðr, pp. of gera, gøra o 'on' < á yurn 'the earth', Dat. < jǫrðinni sinna 'as it is': probably < sem hann er 'as he is, as it is' ga[v] vus 'give us' < gef oss da on da 'day by day' < dag um dag? dalight 'daily' < dagligt brow 'bread' < brauð vora 'our' < várr (influenced by vora below? Grammatically *vort should have been expected). firgive 'forgive' < fyrirgef sinna 'sins' < syndir vora 'our', pl. < várar, fem. sin 'as' < sem vee 'we' < vér sindara mutha vus: 1. 'sinners against us' < syndarar móti oss 2. 'sins against us' < syndar á móti oss lyv vus 'lead us' < leið oss ye 'not' < eigi tumtation 'temptation' < Scots/English temptation min 'but' < Dan. Nor. men < meðan 'while, in the meantime' delivra 'deliver' < Scots + the Norn ending –a fro 'from' < frá olt 'all' < ǫllu Dat.sg.neut. of allr, Nom/Acc.sg. neut. Allt ilt 'ill, evil' < illu Dat.sg.neut. of illr, Nom/Acc.sg. neut. Illt on 'and' < Scots/English and

sa 'so' < svá meteth 'may it' < mætti þat vera 'be' < vera 2. Grammar The grammar of Orkney Norn as in the Lord's Prayer is much simplified in comparison to Old Norse. There is confusion between genders, especially masculine and neuter. No distinction between masculine and feminine can be traced, although the material is too scanty to make definite conclusions. Dative is replaced with Nominative/Accusative (common case): olt ilt < ǫllu illu, jurn < jǫrðinni. One plural ending can be found: -a(r) < ir,ar: vora, sinna, sindara (?). The superfluous ending -e in thite, thine might be a reflex of an older flexion from other cases. The relations between cases and genders can mark the development of the same system in Orkney Norn as in contemporary Norwegian, Danish and Swedish, where only 2 genders (common and neuter) and 2 cases (common and genitive) exist. In adjectives the neuter ending -t is ed: dalight, olt, ilt The morphology of the verb is represented with the following endings: -e - 1. pl. we firgive -a - inf. cumma, vera/vara -a,e - imper. delivra, firgive -i - pres. subj. Viri -e (+ i-umlaut) - past. subj.: mete < mætti (Notice that these are "orthographical" spellings and their phonetic nature may differ.) 2.1. Substantives 2.1.1. Masculine cosdum < konungsdómr (neut. *konungsdœmi?) da < dag, Nom. dagr fa < faðir veya < vilji, Acc. Vilja sindara? < syndarar 2.1.2. Feminine yurn < jǫrðinni sinna(r) < syndir 2.1.3. Neuter chimrie < himnaríki/himinríki cosdum < *konungsdœmi (masc. konungsdómr?) nam < nafn brow < brauð (tumtation) 2.2. Adjectives All in neuter: *helleut < heilagt dalight < dagligt ilt < illt, Llull

2.3. Pronouns 2.3.1. Personal pronouns -n- in sinna < hann in sem hann er -th < þat vee < vit vus < oss 2.3.2. Possessive pronouns thine < þinn thite < þitt vor < várr vora < neut. várt, pl.fem. várar 2.3.3. Other pronouns olt < alt, ǫllu 2.4. Verbs 2.4.1. Indicative 2.4.1.1. Present ir, -a < er firgive < fyrirgefum 2.4.1.2. Past mota < mátti 2.4.2. Subjunctive 2.4.2.1. Present *viri < verði 2.4.2.2. Past mete < mætti 2.4.3. Imperative ga[v] (vus) < gef (oss) firgive < fyrirgef, forgive delivera < *delivra gilla < guð lát? lyv [*lið?] (vus) < leið oss 2.4.4. Infinitive vara,vera < vera, verða? cumma < koma 2.4.5. Past (ive) participle gort < gjǫrður (gjǫrr), neut. Gjǫrt 2.5. Prepositions fro < frá i<í mutha < móti o<á on < um

2.6. Conjunctions min < men i < eð ond < Sc. And 2.7. Particles sin [-na] < sem [hann er] sa < svá ye < eigi

Caithness Norn The scope of the Norse language in the British Isles was at times much wider than the Orkney-Shetland area. Vikings coming from Norway and other Nordic countries founded settlements in many corners of Britain and Ireland. Old Norse had a major influence on the other local tongues, including English, Scots and Gaelic. However, by the end of the Middle Ages Norse (or its later versions which we can call Norn) was superceded by other languages practically everywhere, except in such remote corners as Orkney and Shetland. Besides these, the last strongholds of Norn in Scotland seem to have been the Hebrides and Caithness (ON Katanes, North-East Scotland). In the Hebrides, Norn is believed to have died out in the 1500-1600's at the latest, replaced by Gaelic, but having left a big number of toponymes and borrowings in the Celtic language. At approximately the same time, Norn was devoured by Gaelic and Low Scottish in Caithness. Per Thorsen mentions three possible datings of its decay in his paper "The Third Norn Dialect - That of Caithness" (The Viking Congress, Lerwick, 1950), which is probably the most substantive on Caithness Norn so far: 15th century (by William Grant, "Scottish National Dictionary", Introduction, § 156), 17th century (by Adolf Noreen, "Altisländische und altnorwegische Grammatik", 4th ed., 20, "Geschichte der nordischen Sprachen", 3rd ed., 2) and 16th century, asserted by Thorsen himself, who cites the following testimony from 1662, which witnesses that the local inhabitants had by that time turned to Gaelic: The common speech of humble people nowadays is mostly Scottish-Irish, a mixture of the two languages, not markedly one or the other. (Sir John Scott's text to the "Atlas Major" by J. Blaeu, Vol. VI) One of the main factors which ed the existence of Caithness Norn during was the constant communication of the locals with Orkney, where its own dialect of Norn was well entrenched until the 1617th centuries. However, it did not save Caithness Norn from decay which was destined to happen, like elsewhere on the mainland. No written records in Caithness Norn are known to exist. All that we have to rely upon is the list for Norse words in the Low Scots dialect of Caithness (about 100 instances) collated by Thorsen and published in his article mentioned above. Thorsen mostly resorted to the "English Dialect Dictionary" by Joseph Wright, who, in his turn, borrowed

Caithness words from the manuscript collection of David B. Nicholson, a native of Wick in Caithness. In several cases Thorsen adds words belonging generally to Northern Scotland (marked as "N.Sc."), assuming that they also occurred in Caithness. Unlike Shetlandic and Orcadian material, no grammar features can be worked out from these forms, and their phonetics fully accord with the main sound pecularities of Norn, especially its Orkney version. The total of Norse words in the local Caithness dialect, including common to Scots in general, is estimated by Thorsen to be "a couple of hundreds". The wordlist by Thorsen is fully reproduced here below: 1. for natural formations: clet 'rock or cliff in the sea' < klettr geo 'narrow inlet, creek' < gjá skerry 'isolated rock in the sea above water' < sker wick 'creek, small bay' < vík leen 'grassy place in a moor, low-lying piece of grass on a farm' < Far. Nor. Lón tuag 'small hillock' < þúfa + Sc./Gael. –ock lith 'gate, gap in a fence' < hlíð quoy 'piece of ground taken in from a common and enclosed' < kví 'cattle-fold' rae 'enclosure for cattle' < ró, rá roo 'heap, esp. small heap of peats set on end to dry' < hrúga scroo 'small stack of corn, hay or straw' < skrúf 2. connected with domestic life and husbandry: squaar 'swath in mowing' < Icel. skári, Norw. skaare steith, steethe 'bottom or foundation' < stœði, *stœða toft 'homestead' < toft wait, wate 'mill-race, the water-course from a mill' < veit, veita boo-man (obs.) 'the man in charge of the cattle on a large farm' < bú 'farm', cf. búmaðr 'farmer' 3. for implements, etc., and referring to house-building: (a) ammel (obs.) 'the swingle-tree of a plough' < *hǫmull cassie 'basket made of twisted straw' < kass, kassi clubber 'wooden saddle, pack-saddle' < klyfberi flet, flate 'straw mat put under a horse's saddle to prevent the back from being chafed' < flétta 'plait' keyse, keis 'large straw basket' < Norw. kjessa lay 'slip of wood coated with sand or emery, used for sharpening a scythe' < lé 'scythe' simman 'rope made of heather, rush, or straw' < sími 'rope' tuskar 'spade used for cutting peat' < torf-skeri (b)

benlin 'long light stone, slung in the loops of the "simmans" of a thatched roof < * bendlingr birk 'piece of round timber laid horizontally', in roof-making < bjǫrk rain-tree (obs.) 'bar or beam across the chimney from which pots are hung' < *randtré, Norw. randatre wyg, in the phrase rae wyg to waw 'backwards and forwards' < veggr 'wall' 4. referring to cattle, sheep, horses, etc.: cushie, a milk-maid's call to a cow < kussi 'calf' droonyie 'moan or complain in a murmuring way' < Norw. drynja 'low softly' ingy 'bring forth lambs' < yngja 'bring forth young' mull 'the mouth, esp. of a horse or cow' < múli onmark 'troublesome or refractory person or animal' < andmarki 'adversity, vice', the word signifying properly 'something marked'), Norw. andmarke 'cattle' queyag 'heifer' < kvíga + suffix -ock); skeel, a mouth-disease in horses (Norw. skjøl, skjol); skite (N.Sc.) 'the dung of fowls' < skítr 'dung' snuy 'turn suddenly as if displeased or annoyed', used of cattle < snúðga 'win, accomplish', properly 'wind, turn' 5. Sea (in a wide sense) (a) for motions of the sea, etc.: bowd 'breaker, billow' < boði burth 'current in the sea caused by a furious tide, but taking a different course from it' < burdr 'carrying', Faer. burdur av streymi 'current' insook 'inrush', used of the tide < *innsog outrook 'the backward wash or undercurrent of a wave after breaking' < *útrák rost 'strong tide or current' < rǫst brook, in the phrase war brook, brook o' war 'a quantity of seaweed driven on shore by stormy weather' < brúk, þarabrúk (b) connected with boats: lin(n) 'piece of wood put under the keel of a boat to facilitate its being drawn over a loose or sandy beach' < hlunnr nile 'plug in the water-hole of a boat' < Norw. Nygla noast 'landing-place for boats' < naust 'boat-shed' anno 'row against the wind to keep the boat from drifting' < andœfa ouse, in the phrase ouse o'er 'swish over' < ausa 'bale out' (c) connected with fishing: aav(e) 'spoon-net, the pock-net by which boys pick up herrings' < háfr; an identical Caithness word is haev 'small hand-basket used by fishermen to carry bait'; clev 'make up a fishing handline after use' < klyf 'cleft, forked implement' ile 'the fishing-ground inside the main current' < íli 'sink-stone for holding a boat'); braad 'sharp pull to hook a fish' < bragd 'sudden movement'

(d) for fish and parts of fish: ly 'the pollack' < lýrr peltag 'young coal-fish in its second year' < piltr 'boy' + suffix –ock sellag 'the coal-fish in its first year' < síl, a kind of small fish, 'ammodytes tobianus' + suffix -ock tusk 'the torsk, brosmius brosme' < þorskr gip 'the point of the jaws of a fish' < Norw. Gip ug 'the pectoral fin of a fish' < Icel. uggi, Norw. Ugge maak 'the milt of a fish' < mjǫlkvi (e) for sea-birds: scarf 'the cormorant' < skarfr scorie 'young gull' < skári tyst(e) 'the black guillemot' < þeisti 6. Atmospheric phenomena: aem 'blast of hot air from a fire or furnace' < eimr 'steam, warm vapour' flag 'flake, esp. of snow' < -flaga flam, flan(n) 'sudden gust of wind', as a verb: 'blow in gusts' < flana 'rush' gray 'slight breeze of wind' < gráði theef, feff 'stench, bad smell' < þefr up-light 'the brightening at the end of a shower' < létta 'brighten' ime 'soot, thin scum or coating' < ím 'dust', in Norw. and Faer. 'soot'). 7. Of the verbs, two categories stand out, viz.: (a) for odd or extravagant behaviour: scravvle 'scramble, crawl, grope with the hands' < Norw. skravla 'scrape or beg together' skavle, skaivle 'walk with a tottering gait' < Norw. skeivla 'walk clumsily' pepper 'tremble, quake, vibrate' < pipra scum 'glance, look at hurriedly' < *skúma, cf. Norw. skyma 'look secretly' clype 'scratch with the nails' < klýpa 'pinch' glaep 'gulp, swallow, seize' < gleypa 'swallow' glup 'beguile, wheedle, catch' < Norw. glupa 'catch, swallow' (b) for 'useful' or 'productive' actions: brath (N.Sc.) 'plait straw ropes round a stack, crossing them at intervals' < bregða 'plait' skyle 'shelter, shade, put up a screen in the chimney to prevent the smoke blowing down' < skýla 'protect, screen', Icel. skýla hjá 'put up a kind of chimney-cap on the opening of the kitchen roof elt 'knead dough' < elta); scair 'fasten two pieces of wood together' < Norw. skara 'mortise boards or planks' 8. Various : aikle 'molar tooth' < jaxl birsk 'cartilage or gristle' < brjósk brither-bairn 'cousin', brither-dochter 'niece', brither-sin 'nephew' < brœðraborn [pl.], bróðurdóttir, -sonr

knip 'small bundle of things strung together on a string' < Icel, knippi, Norw. Knippe slitter 'breach in cloth where the woof has given way, leaving only the warp' < slitri 'rag' ta(a) 'fibre, fibrous root' < tág yarfal 'peat mixed with clay and sand' < jǫrfi wan, waan 'hope' < van ever 'upper, higher', used of places < øfri, efri

Philosophy of Nynorn "O death, where is thy sting?" (1 Kor. 15:55) This section of our website is devoted to the reconstruction and revival of Norn. We have chosen to give this project another name in order to distinguish it from the real Norn and, of course, the apt title 'Nynorn' [nee-norn] which means "new Norn" (cf. Nynorsk = "New Norwegian") came straight to mind. Our goal is to re-create Norn as a usable (=living) language in order to see what it could be like had it stayed alive until our days. It is not to be denied that very few Norn texts has survived until today which is usually considered to be the main obstacle for such a revival. But the situation is not as hopeless as it seems at first sight. Several thousand Norn words and expressions, that include not only crofters and fishermen's slang, as usually believed, but also more sophisticated and absract (ober 'responsibility', afgeng 'accomplishment, conclusion', skatt 'tax', soind 'legal investigation', upphald ', maintenance', vokster 'enterprise, energy', drag op 'to educate, stand till 'to depend; be entitled to', jenk 'to dedicate' etc. etc.), are known. The Ballad of Hildina and the Lord's Prayer give us a good of the late Norn's grammar, far from complete yet fairly illustrative. By this we mean that most of the discovered features of Norn reflect its rich predecessor, Old Norse, which is quite well known and researched. We also have at our disposal a complete list of phonetic changes from Old Norse to Norn which have been documented by Jakobsen and Marwick. Finally, the other descendants from Old Norse, such as (New)Norwegian, Faroese and Icelandic have survived until our days and look to us encouraging. Of course, altogether it makes Nynorn a fairly hypothetical language and this project should be considered as an intellectual game rather than anything else. But, as it often happens with intellectual games, there can be a certain theoretical value to them. Usually when a language is under reconstruction, an overview of its grammar and a short vocabulary are presented as the outcome. But in some cases linguists go further and try to reconstruct the speech, which is the next and more sophisticated level of reconstruction. Schleicher wrote fables in Proto-Indo-European (3000 - 4000 B.C.) and Illich-Svitych, who pioneered the Nostratic reconstruction (13 000 - 12 000 B.C.), supplied his dictionary with a short verse in Proto-Nostratic as an epigraph. There are more examples of extinct languages being spoken or revived. Classic Latin is widely used 1500 years after its dissolution into the numerous Roman languages. Enthusiasts have revived Cornish (existed

until the late 18th century), Hebrew was ressurrected in the 1800's 2000 years after it had been abandoned, and guess what language the specialists in Old Chinese (200 B.C. - 900 A.D.) are speaking in their leisure time when they meet at conferences? No language can be completely dead (= unused) - this point is all the clearer in these days of the Internet where people set up webpages in Anglo-Saxon, Old Church Slavonic, Sanskrit and even Proto-Indo-European. Or look at this online tutorial of Crimean-Gothic (existed until the 17-18th centuries). This list is certainly far from being complete. The fact that Nynorn is an artificial language should not confuse anyone. You might not realise it, but there are many words in your language that have not developed in the 'natural' way but were consciously and artificially constructed instead. Human intervention into the development of a language has not been an unknown phenomenon, especially in the Nordic countries. Icelandic has hundreds and thousands of neologisms created by a special commission which invents new words instead of borrowing them from outside - this policy is known as lingustic purism which set off as early as the 17-18th centuries when Icelanders started cleaning their language of Danish and Low German words replacing them with neologisms made out of Icelandic words. More than that, even several declension types were corrected through restoring their original endings in the 19th century (see Stefán Karlsson, "Tunga", 1989). A more advanced example, when it is a whole language that has been constructed, is shown by nynorsk ('new Norwegian'), originally known as landsmål ('language of country'). The father of this language Ivar Aasen conceived it the 19th century trying to develop a purely Norwegian written language based upon Norwegian dialects in addition to the existing riksmål ('state language'), otherwise bokmål ('book language'), which had its roots in Danish. So far nynorsk has not become Norway's main written language, but, as bokmål, it has official status and is widely used in several domains. Yet another example of human interference into the language is Hebrew. You might probably not be aware that we do not know for sure what the vowels of many original Old Hebrew words were, because in the writing they were not marked (f.ex., the name of God in the Old Testament can be read either as Yahweh or Yehowah). The vocalisation of the contemporary Hebrew (the revived one) originates from different medieval traditions of reading Old Hebrew textes and uses their combination. This is a living example of a theoretical reconstruction that has been brought to life and continues existing as a real linguistic phenomenon. The future will show whether Nynorn has any chances in the real world, but the first step has been taken, to start this project in the virtual space. In the following chapters you will find a more detailed description of our methodology as well as the grammar of Nynorn, vocabulary, tutorial and a few short texts.

Introduction into Nynorn 1. This section of the website is dedicated to our experimental project which aims at reconstruction of Norn as a usable language. See the

Nynorn philosophy page for more detailed explanations of the objectives. Our reconstruction is mostly based upon the Shetland dialect. The most distinctive feature of Nynorn in phonetics is the palatalised pronounciation [lj,nj] of ll,nn like in the most of Shetland. (Of course, if you prefer the Foula/Westside pronunciation [dl,dn], you may carry on with it; see a more detailed coverage of this matter in Dialects). In the grammar, it has been decided to use the four-case system, as preserved in the Ballad of Hildina and The Lord's Prayer. But, once again, variations can be possible. In general, it should be mentioned that the presented version of Nynorn is, so to say, at the "beta" stage and subject to further corrections. There will likely be a major update (further referred to as "Great Revision") when all found mistakes will be indentified and improvements brought in. Feel free to use our forum to suggest things that could and should be improved. 2. The most common guidelines for Nynorn are as follows. (This is a rough overview and certain things may be added later on. See also the chapter on the Nynorn grammar for more details.) 2.1. The material remaining from Norn is to be used to the greatest extent and has priority over Old Norse or Scandinavian stuff. Our task is only to get rid of some superficial influences that Norn experienced from Scots: 2.1.1. [äi] is restored back to the original [i] (occasionally [e]) 2.1.2. the definite article de, coming from Scots is removed; 2.1.3. the preposition to is replaced with its Scandinavian equivalent til (also widely present in the surviving texts); 2.1.4. infinitives are assigned the ending -a, they have lost in most cases; 2.1.5. -in > -ing in masculine names; 2.1.6. -in > -andi in present participles. 2.2. At the same time, a few things connected to Scots have been left untouched, due to our desire to stay as close to the Norn material as possible: 2.2.1. Nouns ending at -ek which is a merging of the Scandinavian -ingand Scots -ack, -ock ( < Gaelic -ach) are preserved; they conjugate like the -ing names, with which they have mixed a lot (words like hutrikin < *hudrek, mulikin, muttikin make us believe such words at least could take the definite article or what was left of it); 2.2.2. the ending of the names of agent -er (< ON -ari) is left unchanged, despite sporadic examples of ON -ari. This decision can

be explained by the fact that -er in the given context descends both from -ari and -ir, another Old Norse suffix for agent. (The same process has f.ex. also happened in Danish.) 2.2.3. female abstract names in -in (ON -an, -ing) are left unchanged; 2.2.4. several expressions quoted by Jakobsen as being of Scandinavian origin were translated into Nynorn and are given in bold in the dictionary. 2.3. Bearing in mind we will not find many useful among the ed Shetland/Orkney words, why not to borrow some from Old Norse or contemporary Scandinavian languages? In this particular case a systematic approach is followed. We can reconstruct the needed words according to phonological correspondance between Norn and Old Norse or another language. For example, we need a word for 'ghost', but the ON term for it draugr is not ed in Norn records. However, we have Shetland Norn/Scots words like hjog < ON haugr, bjog < ON baugr, joga < ON auga. So by analogy we could postulate that ON draugr would give *drjog in Norn (the asterisk is used for a reconstructed form, never met in life). But there are no Norn words that begin with drj-! All of them drop the -j-: drøg < ON drjúgr, drøl- < ON *drjól-/drýl-. So our final answer is *drog < ON draugr. To be quite fair, we must it that we lied in the beginning, there really is a Shetland word which originates from ON draugr, namely drow. However, this is rather a contamination of the respective Old Norse word and the Low Scots trow and is not a direct descendant from draugr. But whatever the truth is, the above-mentioned reconstruction of the form *drog is just a good example of our method. However, had there been no L.Sc. word trow, draugr would have most likely appeared in Norn as *drog! 3. Nynorn orthography. 3.1. The Nynorn alphabet consists of 24 letters: Aa Bb Dd (Ð)ð Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Yy Øø Åå The letter ð does not occur in the beginning of the word, its capital counterpart Ð is mentioned only for completeness sake. 3.2. We have introduced several letters which have an etymological value only: 3.2.1. ð - for ON ð. This letter reads as zero sound (like in Faroese), except 2 positions: rð and gð, where you can read it either like [r, g] or [rd, gd] respectively. Notice that the usage of ð in the Nynorn dictionary is not quite consistent and is subject to Great Revision. 3.2.2. å (reads as o) - for ON á and a, which gave o in Norn. This applies only o in stressed syllables. In the unstressed syllables we have

decided to use the letter o: -som < -samr, as the spelling -såm has been considered lame. (But you can always contest it!). NB! ON ǫ is spelled as o, unless it is changed to a. 3.2.3. y (reads as i) - for ON y and ý. It has been decided not to create a separate letter for u < ó due to the lack of a good sign for it and, more seriously, because the change ó > ú must have likely occurred already in the Old Norse dialect of Shetland and Orkney. 3.3. Various letter combinations. 3.3.1. hj reads as [j]; 3.3.2. sj reads as English sh; 3.3.3. tsj reads as English ch. 3.4. A few more words on palatalisation. Long palatalised consonants can add the -i to the preceding vowel (especially o), although this is not a universal rule: foiljda < folda, skonjda,skoinjda < skunda, goitt < gott, but kolj < kollr, konnj < korn, knotti < knǫttr. We it that in this case our orthography is not quite consistent, so there may be changes during the Great Revision too.

Grammar of Nynorn In the process of compiling the grammar of Nynorn we have followed two main guidelines, as declared elsewhere: (1) the existing Norn material is to be used to the greatest extent, (2) remaining gaps are filled up from Old Norse or other Nordic languages, where all borrowings are rehashed according to the phonetic rules of Shetland/Orkney Norn. We base the reconstruction on Shetland Norn from the period of The Ballad of Hildina/the Lord's Prayer, i.e. when the grammar still preserved the inflectional system. Latter forms of Norn have not been considered reliable to be used as a model pattern: they seem to be much worn out and probably uttered by people who were more accustomed to use Scots than Norn (if they spoke the latter at all). Working out the endings of Nynorn we have taken most of them from the grammar of Shetland Norn. Those endings that differ or are not present in Norn are explained explicitly. Reconstructing the endings missing from Norn, we normally use their Old Norse archetypes, given a 'Norn touch' when needed. This is not a big step away from the truth, because the existing Norn endings are quite reminiscent of their Old Norse archetypes (our readers are encouraged to check the grammar of Old Norse for more detailed information on grammatical topics that has to do with Nynorn). Having tried various combinations of endings for our reconstruction we have decided to drop some of them for the sake of integrity. For instance, this applies to those endings whose status within the

inflectional system of Norn is not clear or which are considered as a result of corruption, f.ex., -a, which is often used as the definite article in masculine (ON -inn, see Grammar of Shetland Norn, A.2.1.1.a), a plural ending (Orkney Norn) or a common ending for most forms (like in the "Gryle" verse from Foula). The inclusion of such endings did not worked well in earlier test versions of Nynorn grammar, making the whole picture look a bit chaotic, so we have decided to make our reconstruction more conservative and 'Old Norse-oriented'. Whether it is right or wrong, is subject to discussion, but meanwhile our experiment continues its run (feel free to share your ideas on this matter and they will be reserved for the Great Revision). Of course, when dealing with the real Norn such a loose treatment of the material would be inappropriate, but we have full rein for it in our experimental project, so there will always be some space for reasonable imagination, where it is backed up with logical conclusions and typological evidences. Hebrew - you might probably not be aware that we do not know for sure what the vowels of many Old Hebrew words were, because in the writing they were not marked (f.ex., the name of God in the Old Testament can be read either as Yahweh or Yehowah). The vocalisation of the contemporary Hebrew (the revived one) originates from different medieval traditions of reading Old Hebrew textes and uses their combination (read more on the revival of Hebrew here). This is a living example of a theoretical reconstruction that has been brought to life and continues existing as a real linguistic phenomenon. Before we proceed to the actual paradigms let us make some general points, which concern a number of orthography issues. 1. ON ir/ur endings. In Norn they have mixed into -er (ON -ar often did too), so we use the same approach in Nynorn. This system has a close parallel, as in many Faroese dialects the old endings -ir and -ur are also indistinguishable (where either -ir or -ur is chosen; this topic is covered in detail by Björn Hagstrom in his "Ändelsevokalerna i färöskan"). 2. ON i/e and u/o endings. In Old Norse i/e and u/o were phonetic variations of the same vowels (phonemes) in unstressed position. In this case the following policy has been chosen: i,u is used before the final ð and in the final position (except -rne in definite noun declension and comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs -(e)re), e,o in front of a consonant: hesti < hesti, lambið < lambit (Icel. and Far. lambið), but hestenon < hestinum; hvitu < hvítu, but hviton < hvítum. Marius Haegstad postulates the reverse distribution for the language of Hildina, however, the system we have chosen seems to be closer to Jakobsen's data presented in his dictionary. 3. The ON dative ending -um is spelled as -on. Shetland Norn has mostly -en or -an, and the only instance where we have -on is honon < ON honum '(to) him'. It has been decided to use the ending -on instead of -en/-an both for phonological reasons and in order to avoid its mixing together with accusative singular masculine ending of adjectives -an and the article -en: hviton vs. hvitan < ON hvítum/hvítan, heston vs. hesten < ON hestum/hestinn.

Short view A. Substantives A.1. Indefinite declension A.1.1. Masculine A.1.1.1. Strong 1 (ON a-type) A.1.1.2. Strong 2 (ON i/u-type) A.1.1.3. Weak (ON an-type) A.1.2. Feminine A.1.2.1. Strong 1 (ON ō-type) A.1.2.2. Strong 2 (ON i-type) A.1.2.3. Weak (ON ōn-type) A.1.3. Neuter A.1.3.1. Strong (ON a-type) A.1.3.2. Weak (ON an-type) A.2. Definite declension A.2.1. Masculine A.2.1.1. Strong A.2.1.2. Weak A.2.2. Feminine A.2.2.1. Strong (consonantal) A.2.2.2. Strong (vocalic) A.2.2.3. Weak A.2.3. Neuter A.2.3.1. Strong A.2.3.2. Weak B. Adjectives B.1. Strong declension B.1.1. Sonorant and polysyllabic declension B.2. Weak declension B.3. Comparative and superlative degree B.3.1. Comparative degree B.3.2. Superlative degree C. Pronouns C.1. Personal pronouns C.2. Possessive pronouns C.3. Reflexive pronouns C.4. Interrogative pronouns C.5. Indefinite and other pronouns D. Numerals D.1. Cardinal numerals D.2. Ordinal numerals E. Verbs E.1. Strong verbs E.1.1. Present E.1.2. Past E.1.3. Participles E.2. Weak verbs E.2.1. Present E.2.1.1. Type 1 (ON ja/ia/ē-type) E.2.1.2. Type 2 (ON ō-type) E.2.2. Past E.2.3. Participles E.3. Preterite-present verbs

E.4. Reflexive mode F. Syntax A. SUBSTANTIVES A.1. Indefinite declension A.1.1. Masculine A.1.1.1. Strong 1 (ON a-type) Gen.sg. -s, nom.pl. -ar. The most widespread type in masculine. hest 'horse ' Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

hest

hestar

Acc.

hest

hesta

Dat.

hesti

heston

Gen.

hests

hesta

A.1.1.2. Strong 2 (ON i-/u-type) Gen.sg. -s, -ar, nom.pl. -er. The genitive singular ending can vary between -s and -ar. Several words (f.ex. benk 'bench' it either ending. rygg 'back', gest 'guest' Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

rygg, gest

rygger, gester

Acc.

rygg, gest

ryggi, gesti

Dat.

ryggi, gesti

ryggon, geston

Gen.

ryggar, gests

rygga, gesta

A.1.1.3. Weak (ON an-type) Gen.sg. -a, nom.pl. -ar. skuggi 'shade' Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

skuggi

skuggar

Acc.

skugga

skugga

Dat.

skugga

skuggon

Gen.

skugga

skugga

A.1.2. Feminine A.1.2.1. Strong 1 (ON ō-type) Gen.sg. -ar, nom.pl. -ar. mør 'bog, swamp'

Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

mør

mørar

Acc.

mør

mørar

Dat.

mør

møron

Gen.

mørar

møra

A.1.2.2. Strong 2 (ON i-type) Gen.sg. -ar, nom.pl. -er. ferd 'journey' Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

ferd

ferder

Acc.

ferd

ferder

Dat.

ferd

ferdon

Gen.

ferdar

ferda

A.1.2.3. Weak (ON ōn-type) voga 'week' Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

voga

voger

Acc.

vogu

voger

Dat.

vogu

vogon

Gen.

vogu

vogna

A.1.3. Neuter A.1.3.1. Strong (ON a-type) lamb 'lamb' Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

lamb

lamb

Acc.

lamb

lamb

Dat.

lambi

lambon

Gen.

lambs

lamba

A.1.3.2. Weak (ON an-type) joga 'eye' Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

joga

joger

Acc.

joga

joger

Dat.

joga

jogon

Gen.

joga

jogna

A.2. Definite declension We faced a number of problems with certain definite forms, first of all the genitive singular of feminine (strong) and the dative plural (of any gender, not found in the existing Norn material). a. The problem of the ending for dative plural is closely related to that of dative singular of masculine (ON -unum and -inum/-anum respectively). The language of Hildina has one form for Dat.sg. bardagana < ON bardaganum (weak masculine declension). Such a form would look the same as accusative/genitive plural in Nynorn, so it is not what we need. However, there can be a solution, which we can look up in the pronominal forms hana/honon 'him' < ON honum. These forms show us that the endings -ana and -onon were interchangeable (where -ana most likely represented the unstressed form). This is why we have decided to construct the ending -anon. For the strong declension -enon is chosen and in the case of plural we go for -onon. The last point can be argued and we reserve the right to it -enon instead of -onon for this form, which saves us from creating one more artificial ending. Such a system exists in a number of Faroese dialects which do not differ between -inum (sg.) and -unum (pl.), see Hagström, "Ändelsevokalerna i färöskan", p. 160. However, bearing in mind that Old Norse and most other Scandinavian dialects with a surviving dative case strictly distinguish between dative singular and plural in the definite declension, a separate ending for dative plural like -onon looks to be more preferable. b. Genitive singular feminine (strong). Shetland Norn seems to have the indefinite ending -a/ar and definite -na. To construct the Nynorn form we have tried several options, most of them either coincided with other endings or were too far from the real Norn. In the end the following compromise was found: indef. -ar < ON -ar, def. -anar < ON -arinnar, f.ex. Nynorn årnar - Norn orna < ON árinnar. The final -r in -anar is brought in because, as we have found out in the Hildina chapter, this sound is often omitted in Norn in the final position, especially when the next word begins at a consonant. This makes it reasonable to restore the original -r when we specially need it. It is also worth mentioning that our reconstruction of the ending fits perfectly into the whole feminine definite paradigm. As mentioned below (A.2.2), like in Norn, there is no distinction made between the strong and weak definite endings in Nynorn. This goes well with most endings except genitive of singular, where the strong and weak endings considerably differed in Old Norse. But in our reconstruction the strong genitive singular ending becomes almost the same as in the weak declension (except the first vowel), so the problem is happily solved: Nom. grinden, stoljken < ON grindin, stúlkan Acc. grindena, stoljkena < ON grindina, stúlkuna Gen. grindanar, stoljkenar < ON grindarinnar, stúlkunnar A.2.1. Masculine A.2.1.1. Strong

Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

hesten, ryggen

hestarne, ryggerne

Acc.

hesten, ryggen

hestana, ryggena

Dat.

hestenon, ryggenon

hestonon, ryggonon

Gen.

hestsens, ryggarens

hestana, ryggana

A.2.1.2. Weak Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

skuggen

skuggarne

Acc.

skuggan

skuggana

Dat.

skugganon

skuggonon

Gen.

skuggans

skuggana

A.2.2. Feminine We have decided to distinguish between the vocalic and consonantal declension in the strong feminine declension as is the case in Shetland Norn (see The language of the Ballad of Hildina and Grammar of Shetland Norn, A.1.1.1.2.b). The vocalic declension includes nouns ending at vowels and -ð (silent) and preserves the old Old Norse dative singular ending -ni < -inni. The consonantal declension has -en coinciding with nominative: hallen < ON hǫllinni, but leðni < ON leiðinni, ånni < ON ánni Another feature borrowed from Norn is that the ending of definite weak female nouns is in accusative, dative and genitive the same as in the case of the strong ones, i.e. its vocal is e instead of the o of the indefinite paradigm: accusative indefinite dimsku, but definite dimskena < *dimskuna, dative definite dimsken < *dimskunni. These are exclusive features of Norn unknown in Old Norse, Icelandic or Faroese. A.2.2.1. Strong, consonantal (mør, pl. mørar - Strong 1) Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

møren

mørarne

Acc.

mørena

mørarne

Dat.

møren

møronon

Gen.

møranar

mørana

A.2.2.2. Strong, vocalic (leð pl. leðer - Strong 2), Dative -ni leð 'way'

Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

leðen

leðerne

Acc.

leðena

leðerne

Dat.

leðni

leðonon

Gen.

leðanar

leðana

A.2.2.3. Weak Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

vogan

vogerne

Acc.

vogena

vogerne

Dat.

vogen

vogonon

Gen.

vogenar

vogana

A.2.3. Neuter As shown in Grammar of Shetland Norn, A.2.1.1.c, Norn data show two variants of the neuter nominative/accusative definite article: ON -it and -i, which refers to its later version, cf. Icelandic -ið [ið] and Faroese -ið [i]. We have declined to use the later version too. The rest of the endings is trivial and identical to the masculine declension (except dative singular). The plural nominative/accusative ending had in Norn two variants: ene and -en/in (see Grammar of Shetland Norn, A.2.2.1.b). The former coincides with the Old Norse ending and is still present in Icelandic. The latter type is represented in Faroese and Danish. We use the Old Norse variant. Apart from the fact that the number of occurrences of en/in is noticeably higher, we would also like to point at the Norn word sotskin n.pl. 'brother(s) and sister(s)', also mentioned in A.2.2.1.b. In several other Nordic languages the latter part of the word coincides with the respective neutral plural ending of the article, cf. Icel. systkin vs. börn-in 'the children', but Far. systkini vs. børn-ini, Dan. søskende [syskǝnǝ] - børn-ene. Using the word sotskin as a marker, we have chosen to use the article -en in neutral plural instead of -ene. A.2.3.1. Strong Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

lambið

lamben

Acc.

lambið

lamben

Dat.

lambenu

lambonon

Gen.

lambsens

lambana

A.2.3.2. Weak Sg.

Pl.

Nom.

jogað

jogen

Acc.

jogað

jogen

Dat.

joganu

jogonon

Gen.

jogans

jognana

B. Adjectives B.1. Strong declension The strong declension is used with indefinite nouns: svart hest '(a) black horse', guder båtar 'good boats'. As in the case of masculine nouns, we have decided to omit the old ending -er ( < ON -r) that is still present in a few Norn adjectives (naber, uvolter). The only place where we had to use a direct borrowing from Old Norse is the genitive plural ending -ra. Norn has only one form in this case and number - gamla, which is not very illustrative about the ending due to assimilation: gamla < ON gamalla < *gamalra. The same decision to use the archaic ending -ra is often taken by Faroese grammatists (see Lockwood "Introduction into Modern Faroese", p. 46, ; Føroysk orðabók (1998), p. 1438, cf. also Meginfelag føroyskra studenta 'Association of Faroese students'), despite the fact that the ending has disappeared from Faroese for good as well as the genitive case itself except in several types of set expressions. The feminine dative singular ending -ari is the same as in Faroese (cf. ON -ri) and is inspired by the forms arar and whìtrane, see our analysis of the Ballad of Hildina. gul 'yellow', gud 'good' Sg.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

gul, gud

gul, gud

gult, goitt

Acc.

gulan, gudan

gula, guda

gult, goitt

Dat.

gulon, gudon

gulari, gudari

gulu, gudu

Gen.

guls, guds

gular, gudar

guls, guds

Pl.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

guler, guder

gular, gudar

gul, gud

Acc.

gula, guda

gular, gudar

gul, gud

Dat.

gulon, gudon

gulon, gudon

gulon, gudon

Gen.

gulra, gudra

gulra, gudra

gulra, gudra

B.1.1. Sonorant and polisyllabic stems that end in l,n decline in the following way (grøn 'green', gamel 'old'): Sg.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

grøn, gamel

grøn, gamel

grønt, gamelt

Acc.

grønan, gamblan

grøna, gambla

grønt, gamelt

Dat.

grønon, gamblon

grønari, gamblari

grønu, gamblu

Gen.

grøns, gamels

grønar, gamblar

grøns, gamels

Pl.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

grøner, gambler

grønar, gamblar

grøn, gamel

Acc.

grøna, gambla

grønar, gamblar

grøn, gamel

Dat.

grønon, gamblon

grønon, gamblon

grønon, gamblon

Gen.

grønna, gamela

grønna, gamela

grønna, gamela

The main distinction is the form of genitive plural, where r is assimiliated by l or n of the stem. Polysyllabic stems lose the vowel of the second syllable if the ending begins at a vowel (this type is widespread among strong past participles, see E.1.3.). Notice that when m and l meet in several forms of gamel, b is inserted inbetween. B.2. Weak declension The weak declension is used with definite nouns and possessive attributes consisting of possessive pronouns or genitive nouns: svarti hesten 'the black horse', gudu båtarne 'the good boats' min svarti hest 'my black horse', svarti hest drengsens '(the) black horse of the boy The only change from the Old Norse paradigm is the ending -a instead -u in accusative, dative and genitive of feminine singular, which fully corresponds to many existing instances from Norn (see Grammar of Shetland Norn, B.2.3.). The plural ending remains -u as in Old Norse, cf. the form dimmodali (ibidem). The main weakness of this system is that it does not distinguish between the weak and strong forms of accusative singular feminine. Sg.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

guli, gudi

gula, guda

gula, guda

Acc.

gula, guda

gula, guda

gula, guda

Dat.

gula, guda

gula, guda

gula, guda

Gen.

gula, guda

gula, guda

gula, guda

Plural of all cases and genders has the same form: gulu, gudu B.3. Degrees of comparison

B.3.1. Comparative: gulari (from gul), beter (from gud) Indeclined (like in Faroese). B.3.2. Superlative: gulast (from gul), best (from gud) its both strong and weak declension. However, due to the nature of the superlative meaning, which assumes the singleness, and hence definiteness, the weak superlative forms are used more often than not. C. Pronouns C.1. Personal pronouns. Reconstructed forms are marked with blue. Sg.

1

2

3. masc.

3. fem.

3. neut.

Nom.

eg

du

hann

hun

dað

Acc.

mog dog

hann

hana

dað

Dat.

mjer djer

honon

henni

di

Gen.

min din

hans

hennar

dess

Pl.

1

2

3. masc.

3. fem.

3. neut.

Nom.

vi

di

der

der

de

Acc.

vus

dor

då

der

de

Dat.

vus

dor

dem

dem

dem

derra

derra

derra

Gen.

vora dora

C.2. Possessive pronouns min 'my' din 'your (sg.)' hans 'his' hennar 'her' dess 'its' vor 'our' dor 'your (pl.)' derra 'their' Sg.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

min, vor

min, vor

mitt, vort

Acc.

min, voran

mina, vora

mitt, vort

Dat.

minon, voron

minari, vorari

minu, voru

Gen.

mins, vors

minnar, vorrar

mins, vors

Pl.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

miner, vorer

minar, vorar

min, vor

Acc.

mina, vora

minar, vorar

min, vor

Dat.

minon, voron

minon, voron

minon, voron

Gen.

minna, vorra

minna, vorra

minna, vorra

din and dor conjugates like min and vor respectively. The other possessive pronouns are in fact genitive forms of corresponding personal pronouns and hence do not change. C.3. Reflexive pronouns Nom. – Acc. Sog Dat. Sjer Gen. sin The possessive reflexive pronoun sin conjugates like min, see C.2. C.4. Interrogative pronouns (to be updated) hvar? - who? (masc.) hvat, hvatna? - what? (neut. of hvar) hvarna? - where? ner? - when? C.5. Indefinite and other pronouns (to be updated) sikk - 'such' ingen - 'none', neu. Ikke hvar - 'every' (same word as hvar?, see C.4.) annar - 'other' annarhvar - 'either' (annanhvarn, adrahvara, annaðhvat, adruhvaru etc.) Sikk declines like a usual adjective (see B.1.). The other pronouns in this group decline as follows: a) ingen: Sg.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

ingen

ingen

ikke

Acc.

ingan

inga

ikke

Dat.

ingon

ingari

ingu

Gen.

inges

ingar

inges

Pl.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

inger

ingar

ingen

Acc.

inga

ingar

ingen

Dat.

ingon

ingon

ingon

Gen.

ingra

ingra

ingra

b) annar: Sg.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

annar

annar

annað

Acc.

annan

adra

annað

Dat.

adron

annari, adrari

adru

Gen.

annars

annar

annas

Pl.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

adrer

adrar

annar

Acc.

adra

adrar

annar

Dat.

adron

adron

adron

Gen.

annara

annara

annara

Sg.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

hvar

hvar

hvat

Acc.

hvarn

hvara

hvat

Dat.

hvaron

hvarari

hvaru

Gen.

hvars

hvarrar

hvars

Pl.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

hvarer

hvarar

hvar

Acc.

hvara

hvarar

hvar

Dat.

hvaron

hvaron

hvaron

Gen.

hvarra

hvarra

hvarra

c) hvar:

D. Numerals D.1. 1 en 2 tver 3 trir 4 fyre 5 fimm 6 seks 7 sjø 8 åtta 9 nie 10 tie 11 ellive 12 tolv 13 tretten 14 fjurten 15 fimmten 16 seksten 17 sjøtjen 18 åtjen 19 nitjen 20 tuttu (Ork.)

Cardinal

numerals

Like in Faroese, only the first 3 numerals decline. en '1' has singular and plural, while tver and trir are plural only. Sg.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

en

en

ett

Acc.

en(an)

ena

ett

Dat.

enon

enari

enu

Gen.

ens

ennar

ens

Pl.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

ener

enar

en

Acc.

ena

enar

en

Dat.

enon

enon

enon

Gen.

enna

enna

enna

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

tver

tver

tvø

Acc.

två

tver

tvø

Dat.

tvemon

tvemon

tvemon

Gen.

tvegga

tvegga

tvegga

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

trir

trår

tru

Acc.

trå

trår

tru

Dat.

trimon

trimon

trimon

Gen.

trigga

trigga

trigga

D.2. Ordinal numerals 1. fyrsti 'first' 2. annar 'second' etc 3. tridi 4. fjurdi 5. femti 6. Betti 7. sjøendi 8. åittendi 9. niendi 10. tiendi 11. ellivti 12. tolvti 13. trettendi etc. All of the above numerals decline as weak adjectives except annar, which is covered in Pronouns, see C.5. E. Verbs The verb declensions of Nynorn repeat in most respects those of Old Norse and Faroese. Like in the latter, no distinctions between persons is done in plural (cf. Norn vi forgiva < vit forgefa, di gava < þit gefa);

optative (the old subjunctive) has only one indeclined present form. The only place where Nynorn differs from Faroese and follows Old Norse is the 1. person of singular in the strong present declension (cf. Hildina winn < ON ek vinn) - it has zero ending and i-umlaut (cf. ON ek tek, Nynorn eg tek vs. Far. eg taki). E.1. Strong verbs E.1.1. Present Strong verbs have i-umlaut in the singular except those where the root vowel is -e- or -i-. at driva 'to drive', at taka 'to take' Pres.

Sg.

Pl.

1.

eg driv

vi driva

2.

du driver

di driva

3.

hann driver

der driva

Imperative: sg. driv(du), pl. drivið Optative: driv i Pres.

Sg.

Pl.

1.

eg tek

vi taka

2.

du teker

di taka

3.

hann teker

der taka

Imperative: sg. tak(tu), pl. takið Optative: taki E.1.2. Past Pres.

Sg.

Pl.

1.

eg drev

vi drivu

2.

du drev

di drivu

3.

hann drev

der drivu

Pres.

Sg.

Pl.

1.

eg tuk

vi tuku

2.

du tuk

di tuku

3.

hann tuk

der tuku

E.1.3. Participles Present (active): drivandi, takandi Past (ive): driven (neu. drivið), teken (neu. tekið) The neuter form of past participle is used in perfect (this participle form is called 'supine'): eg hevi drivið/tekið Present participles do not change. Past participles decline like normal adjectives (gamel-type): Sg.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

driven, teken

driven, teken

drivið, tekið

Acc.

driven, teken

drivna, tekna

drivið, tekið

Dat.

drivnon, teknon

drivnari, teknari

drivnu, teknu

Gen.

drivens, tekens

drivnar, teknar

drivens, tekens

Pl.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

drivner, tekner

drivnar, teknar

driven, teken

Acc.

drivna, tekna

drivnar, teknar

driven, teken

Dat.

drivnon, teknon

drivnon, teknon

drivnon, teknon

Gen.

drivena, tekena

drivena, tekena

drivena, tekena

E.2. Weak verbs E.2.1. Present E.2.1.1. Type 1 (ON ja/ia/ē-type) at gera 'to do, make' Pres.

Sg.

Pl.

1.

eg geri

vi gera

2.

du gerer

di gera

3.

hann gerer

der gera

Imperative: sg. ger(du), pl. gerið Optative: geri E.2.1.2. Type 2 (ON ō-type) at kalla 'to call' Pres.

Sg.

Pl.

1.

eg kalla

vi kalla

2.

du kallar

di kalla

3.

hann kallar

der kalla

Imperative: sg. kalla(du), pl. kallið Optative: kalli E.2.2. Past In type 1 the stem of the past tense is formed through adding -d or -t to the root: gera > gerd-. Like in Faroese, the tense has only 2 endings: singular -i and plural -u., cf. Norn sagde < ON sagði, soketu < sóttu, sóktu. (The plural ending -e, as in rude < *róðu, vogede < vǫktu, is

considered in this connection as corrupted or representing a later version of Norn than the one we base our reconstruction upon.) The past tense of type 2 (kalla) caused us a bit of a problem. The only example of its past is a form from the Ballad of Hildina: kast-ans < kastaði hans (no past plural is ed). his would suggest creating the same past in Nynorn: kalla. But then there would have been no distinction between past and 1. sg/1.-3. pl. of present which is kalla as well. As a solution, we have decided to use the following artificial endings to distinguish between singular and plural: -aði and -aðu respectively (like in Faroese). The phonetic value of these endings, namely, the spelling of ð, will be clarified later during the Great Revision. Past

Sg.

Pl.

1.

eg gerdi

vi gerdu

2.

du gerdi

di gerdu

3.

hann gerdi

der gerdu

Past

Sg.

Pl.

1.

eg kallaði

vi kallaðu

2.

du kallaði

di kallaðu

3.

hann kallaði

der kallaðu

E.2.3. Participles Present (active): gerandi, kallandi Past (ive): gerd (neu. gert), kallað (neu. kallað) The neuter form of past participle is used in perfect (this participle form is called 'supine'): eg hevi gert/kallað. In the case of kallað we had to choose between the ending -t (archaic) and -ð (latter) of the neuter form. Norn preserves both types: vandet < vandaðr/vandat, sópet < sópaðr/sópat, hoitted < háttaðr/háttat, but uppidoga < uppidagaðr/uppidagað. It is quite possible though, that the -et/-ed in these participles has stayed due to the influence from numerous adjectives ending in -et < -óttr, so we have decided to go for the 'silent' forms and use -ð- (as is the case in modern Faroese and Icelandic). The present participles do not change. The past participles decline like usual adjectives: Sg.

Masc.

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

gerd, kallað

Acc.

gerdan, kallaðan

gerda, kallaða

gert, kallað

Dat.

gerdon, kallaðon

gerdari, kallaðari

gerdu, kallaðu

Gen.

gerds, kallaðs

gerdar, kallaðar

gerds, kallaðs

Pl.

Masc.

gerd, kallað gert, kallað

Fem.

Neu.

Nom.

gerder, kallaðer

gerdar, kallaðar

gerd, kallað

Acc.

gerda, kallaða

gerdar, kallaðar

gerd, kallað

Dat.

gerdon, kallaðon

gerdon, kallaðon

gerdon, kallaðon

Gen.

gerdra, kallaðra

gerdra, kallaðra

gerdra, kallaðra

E.3. Preterite-present verbs This group consists of the following verbs: munu 'will/shall (fut.)', skulu 'shall, must', kunnu 'can', vilja 'to wish, will', må 'may'. These are mostly used as modal or auxiliary verbs. Pres.

Sg.

Pl.

1.

eg myn, skal

vi mynu, skulu

2.

du myn(t), skal(t)

di mynu, skulu

3.

hann myn, skal

der mynu, skulu

Past

Sg.

Pl.

1.

eg myndi, skuldi

vi myndu, skuldu

2.

du myndi, skuldi

di myndu, skuldu

3.

hann myndi, skuldi

der myndu, skuldu

The other verbs in this group conjugate in a similar way: eg kann, vi kunnu eg kundi, vi kundu eg vil, vi vilja eg vildi, vi vildu eg må, vi må eg måitti, vi måittu (The reflex of ON eiga 'to own' is to be presented later). E.4. Reflexive mode The mode has a reflexive, reciprocal or ive meaning. It has only one ending: -st, which is added to the end of the respective form. Herewith the following phonetic changes occur: - the final r,t,d,ð are omitted: hann gerer > hann gerest, gert > gerst; kallað > kallaðst; - the strong present ending -er (ON -r) is omitted altogether: du teker > du tekst a) at taka: present: eg/du/hann tekst, vi/di/der takast

past: eg/du/hann tukst, vi/di/der tukust optative: takest past participle: tekest b) at gera: present: eg/du/hann gerest, vi/di/der gerast past: eg/du/hann gerdest, vi/di/der gerdust optative: gerest past participle: gerst c) at kalla: present: eg/du/hann kallast, vi/di/der kallast past: eg/du/hann kallaðist, vi/di/der kallaðust optative: kallest past participle: kallast F. SYNTAX The syntax is similar to that of Old Norse. The word order is rather free besides one strict rule, which requires the conjugated verb to be the second member of the sentence (the first member can normally be a subject, object or adverbial modifier): Drengen sjer stolkena. 'The boy sees the girl.' Nu sjer drengen stolkena. 'Now the boy sees the girl.' Notice that a member of a sentence can consist of more than one grammatical word: Vi furu til Lervikar i vår. 'We went to Lerwick (in) this spring' [I vår] furu vit til Lervikar. '[(In) This spring] we went to Lerwick' (modifier [i vår]) Eg så hvita hesten. 'I saw the white horse.' [Hvita hesten] så eg ikke. '[The white horse] I did not see.' (object [hvita hesten]) Genitive attributes are preferably used in postposition. In this case Nynorn s Icelandic and German, the only Germanic languages which preserve the old four-case system and at the same time where the genitive attribute is used in post-position. Nouns with a genitive attribute or possessive pronoun do not use the definite article. hund drengsens 'the dog of the boy' hest stoljkenar 'the horse of the girl'

Nynorn texts 1. Logaritm Nynorn translation: Logaritm er flokk matematiskra funksjona loga, sen uppfyller: loga(ax) = x

fyri all x. a heder grunnek logaritms. loga(y) er så dað tal (dað stig), sen skal upplyfta a i, til að få y, og er di anduvsfunksjonen av eksponensfunksjonen ax. Teger man sen døm log10(100) er utgången 2, av di at 102 = 100. Tvø mest notað logaritm eru desimallogaritm veð grunntalenu 10 og naturligt logaritm veð grunntalenu e (2,71828...). Dað naturliga logaritmið er skilmarkað sen:

English translation: Logarithms are a class of mathematical functions loga which meet: loga(ax) = x for all x. a is called the base of the logarithm. loga(y) is therefore the number (the power), to which a must be raised in order to produce y, and is consequently the inverse function to the exponential function ax. If we take as example log10(100) the result is 2 because 102 = 100. The two most common logarithms are decimal logarithms with the base of 10 and the natural logarithm of the base e (2.71828...). The natural logarithm is defined as:

Matematikkerar kalla oft dað naturliga logaritmið fyri bara logaritm (log), miðen dir marka 10-talið veð desimallogaritmið (log10). Å insjenjøramåli tøder logaritm tvartimuti desimallogaritm, miðen dað naturliga logaritmið heder ln. Då insjenjørar var dir sen uppfunnu lummareknera, hever derra markin vorden ålmenn. Logaritm eru mella annars notað í umreknin av ymiskon enekon og virdon, og logaritmsmåt sjåst etsa oft i krosslaston fyri viss grafrit. Rekninarregler Fyri all logaritm gilder:

Umreknin til annara grunntala Logaritm kann umreknast frå enu grunntali til annars veð fylgandi formulu:

Essi formula kann utleðast å fylgandi hått:

English translation - Danish tanslation - Faroese translation - Icelandic translation Vocabulary: Reconstructed Norn forms or Nynorn neologisms based on original Norn words are marked with blue, direct borrowings from other languages are in brown. logaritm (nn., pl. -) logarithm flokk (nm., pl. -ar) group sen, eð which matematisk (G.pl.) mathematic funksjon (nf., pl. -er) function uppfylla (vw., pres. ind. 3.sg., past -ti) - to meet (some condition), Dan. opfylde heda (vs., pres. ind. 3 sg., past hjed) - to be called grunnek (nm., pl. -ar), grunntal (nn., pl -) base dað that tal (nn., pl. -) number stig (nn. pl. -) power upplyfta i (vw., past -i) - to raise smth., Dan. oplyfte anduvsopposite taga (vs., pres. ind. 3 sg. teger, past tug) to take døm (nn., pl. -) example utgång (nm., pl. -ar) result av of di Dat. of dað 'that' av di at because

hava (vw., past -di) - to have markin (nf., gen. -ar) - notation varga (vs., past varg, pp. vorden) - to become ålmenn common mella (Gen.) between annar other mella annars - inter alia, Far. millum annað, Icel. meðal annars reknin (nf., gen. -ar) - calculation, Icel. reikningur, Far. rokning ymisk - various, different, Far. ymiskur, Icel. ýmiss enek (nm., pl. -ar) - entity, unit virdi (nn., pl. -) value måt (nn., pl. -) - scale, Far. måt etsa also sjåst - to be seen, sjå - to see krosslast (nf., pl. -er) - coordinate system (Norn last - area of arable land; certain measure) fyri (Acc.) for viss - certain, definite, Far. vissur grafrit (nn., pl. -) - graph, plot, Far. ritmynd,

tvø (neut., masc. tvir) two mest (superl. of gud 'good') - most nota (vw., past -aði, pp. -að) - to use, cf. Norn not 'use, benefit', Icel. nota naturlig natural skilmarka (vw., past -aði, pp. -að) - to define matematikker (nm., pl. -ar) matematician kalla (vw., past -aði) - to call oft often dað (here) - the definite article used with nouns preceeded by adjectives bara - just, simply, Icel. Far. bara miðen while dir (masc.) they marka (vw., past -aði) - to mark insjenjør (nm., pl. -ar) - engineer mål (neut., pl. -) language tøda (vw., past -di) - to mean tvartimuti - conversely, cf. Far. tvørturímóti då as, since, Dan. Nor. da uppfinna (vs., past -fann) - to invent, design, Far. uppfinna, Dan. opfinde lummarekner (nm., pl. -ar) - pocket calculator, Far. lummaroknari

Icel. línurit regla (nf., pl. -er) - rule, Far. Icel. regla all all gilda (vw, past. gilti) - to be valid umreknin (nf., gen. -ar) - conversion, Icel. umreikningur, Far. umrokning umreknast (vw., past -aðist) - to be conversed frå (Dat.) from en one til (Gen.) to veð (Dat.) with fylga (vw., past -di) - to follow, ON fylgja fylgandi the following formula (fw., pl. -er) formula essi (masc., fem.) this kunnu (pres. kann, past. kundi) - can utleðast (vw., past -leddist) - to be derived, Far. útleiðast å (Acc.) on hått (nm., pl. -er) - way, manner å fylgandi hått - as follows, Far. á fylgjandi hátt

English translation: Logarithms are a class of mathematical functions loga which meet: loga(ax) = x For all x. a is called the base of the logarithm. loga(y) is therefore the number (the power), to which a must be raised in order to produce y, and is consequently the inverse function to the exponential function ax. If we take as example log10(100) the result is 2 because 102 = 100. The two most common logarithms are decimal logarithms with the base of 10 and the natural logarithm of the base e (2.71828...). The natural logarithm is defined as:

Mathematicians often call the natural logarithm simply logarithm (log), marking 10 in decimal logarithms (log10). Conversely, the engineers' logarithm (log) is the decimal one and the natural logarithm is designated as ln. Since it was engineers that designed the pocket calculator, their notation has become prevailing. Logarithms are used, inter alia, in the calculation of certain entities and values, and logarithmic scales are often seen in the coordinate systems for certain graphs. Calculation rules

All logarithms obey the following rules:

Conversion to other bases A logarithm can be converted from one base to another through the following formula:

This formula can also be derived as follows:

Danish translation: Logaritmer er en klasse af matematiske funktioner loga, der opfylder: loga(ax) = x for alle x. a kaldes for logaritmens grundtal. loga(y) er altså det tal (den potens), som a skal opløftes i, for at få y, og er derfor den inverse funktion til eksponentialfunktionen ax. Tager man for eksempel log10(100) er resultatet 2, fordi 102 = 100. De to mest anvendte logaritmer er 10-talslogaritmen med grundtal 10 og den naturlige logaritme med grundtallet e (2,71828...). Den naturlige logaritme er defineret som:

Matematikere kalder ofte den naturlige logaritme for blot logaritmen (log), mens de pointerer 10-tallet i 10-talslogaritmen (log10). Omvendt er ingeniørerens logaritme (log) den med grundtallet 10, og den naturlige logaritme betegnes ln. Da ingeniørerne var dem, der konstruerede lommeregneren, har deres betegnelser vundet indpas. Logaritmer bruges bl.a. i udregning af visse enheder og værdier, ligesom logaritmiske skalaer ofte ses i koordinatsystemerne til visse grafer. Regneregler For alle logaritmer gælder:

Omregning til andre baser En logaritme kan omregnes fra en base til en anden med følgende formel:

Denne formel kan udledes på følgende måde:

Faroese translation: Logaritma er ein bólkur av støddfrøðiligum (matematiskum) funksjónum loga, ið uppfyllir: loga(ax) = x

fyrir øll x. a er kallað fyri grunntalið hjá logaritmu. loga(y) er soleiðis tað talið (tað stigið), sem man skal seta a á, til að fáa y, og er tí andstødda funskjónin til stigfunksjónina ax. Tekur man sum dømi log10(100), er úrslitið 2, av tí at 102 = 100. Tvær mest brúktu logaritmurnar eru desimallogaritma við grunntalinum 10 og natúrlig logaritma við grunntalinum e (2,71828...). Natúrliga logaritman er ásett sum:

Støddfrøðingar kalla oft natúrligu logaritmuna fyri bara logaritmu (log), meðan teir merkja 10-talið hjá desimallogaritmuni (log10). Á verkfrøðingamáli er logaritman mótsett desimallogaritmuni, og natúrliga logaritman eitur ln. Av tí at verkfrøðingar vóru teir ið uppfunnu lummaroknarar, gjørdust teirra fakligu heiti almenn. Logaritmur eru millum annað brúktar í útrokning av vissum eindum og virðum, líka sum logramát síggjast ofta í krossskipanum fyri ávísar ritmyndir. Umrokningsreglur: Fyri allar logaritmur er galdandi:

Umrokningur til onnur grunntøl Logaritma kann umroknast frá einum grunntali til annað við fylgjandi frymlinum:

Hesin frymilin kann útleiðast á fylgjandi hátt:

Icelandic translation: Logri (lógariþmi) er flokkur stærðfræðilegra falla loga, sem uppfyllir: loga(ax) = x fyrir öll x. a heitir grunnur logra. loga(y) er þannig sú tala (það veldi), sem á að hefja a í, til að fá út y, og er því andhverfa vísisfallsins ax. Ef við tökum sem dæmi log10(100) er útkoman 2, af því að 102 = 100. Tveir mest notaðir lograr eru tugalogri með grunntölunni 10 og náttúrulegur logri með grunntölunni e (2,71828...). Náttúrulegur logri er skilgreindur sem:

Stærðfræðingar kalla oft náttúrulega logrann einfaldlega logra (log), en jafnframt merkja 10-töluna við tugalogrann (log10). Í máli verkfræðinga vísar logri aftur á móti til tugalogra, á meðan náttúrulegi logrinn heitir ln. Þannig að vasareiknivélar voru hannaðar af verkfræðingunum, hefur þeirra merking orðið ofan á. Lograr eru meðal annars notaðir í útreikningu ýmiss konar eininga og gilda auk þess að logramælikvarða má oft sjá í hnitakerfum hjá ákveðnum línuritum. Umreikningsreglur: Fyrir alla logra gildir.

Umreikningur til annarra grunntalna Logri getur verið umreiknaður frá einni grunntölu til annarrar með eftirfarandi formúlu:

Þessi formula getur verið leidd út á eftirfarandi hátt:

2. Drying lamb meat in Shetland Nynorn translation: Et førøskt fyritak, Faroe Foods LTD, atlar at bygga en sturan sjall i Lervik i Hjetlandi til at turka kjød i. Efter hemasiðeni Shetland News vunar fyritakið at turka upp i 6000 krov um årið at utflytsja til milljan annars Denmark. Bønder i Hjetlandi fena um atlena, ti djer vuna at få mere fyri erne og sleppast kann unden at flytsja livandi søð til Skotlands. Sen tillag få båð slåtervirken i Hjetlandi mukkið at gera. (translation follows soon) Faroese original: Ein føroysk fyritøka, Faroe Foods LTD, ætlar at byggja ein stóran hjall í Lerwick í Hetlandi til at turka kjøt í. Sambært heimasíðuni Shetland News vónar fyritøkan at turka upp í 6.000 krov um árið at útflyta til millum annað Danmarkar. Bøndur í Hetlandi fegnast um ætlanina, tí teir vænta sær meira fyri ærnar og sleppast kann undan at flyta livandi seyð til Skotlands. Harafturat fáa bæði sláturvirkini í Hetlandi nógv at gera. Source:

http://www.kringvarp.fo/index.asp?s=49&Id=56129

(translation follows soon) 3. Laying undersea cable between Scotland and Faroes. Nynorn translation: Båð i Hjetlandi ok i Orknøjon hava de sturar vuner å samskiftakadli, sen Føroya Tele myn legga milla Førøja og Skotlands i sommer. Kadlen skal i land båð i Hjetlandi og Orknøjon. Orkningar fena lika um nyjan Føroya

Tele-kadel. I Orknøjon fenar Jim Wallace, sen er lim i skotska tingenu, um førøska kadlen. Men hann teker ut, at dað stender etsa å at reda ut digitalt samskift innenøja, so aller få bredband. I Hjetlandi hever Tavish Scott, sen er etsa lim i skotska tingenu, gevið uppå BT, British Telecom, at taka kastið, sen kadlen gever hjetlendingon fyri beter og skøtere samskift veð umhemen. Etta er fyrsta tið, sen hjetlendingar få ennan bolbak fyri gødasifullu digitalu samskifti. Serli fyri drivlivið i Hjetlandi varger etta et sturt framstig, skrivar hemasidan Shetland News. Efter attel BT um mukkið skøtere samband får Hjetland ikke gleði av henni fyrr en i 2011, men nu atlar Tavish Scott at skonda BT. (translation follows soon) Faroese original: Bæði í Hetlandi og í Orknoyggjunum hava tey stórir vónir til samskiftiskaðalin, sum Føroya Tele fer at leggja millum Føroyar og Skotland í summar. Kaðalin skal í land bæði í Hetlandi og í Orknoyggjunum. Orknoyingar fegnast eisini um nýggja Føroya Telekaðal. Í Orknoyggjunum fegnast Jim Wallace, sum er limur í skotska tinginum, um føroyska kaðalin. Men hann leggur dent á, at neyðugt er eisini at menna talgilda samskiftið innanoyggja, so øll fáa breiðband. Í Hetlandi hevur Tavish Scott, sum eisini er limur í skotska parlamentinum, heitt á BT, British Telecom, um at taka av og gagnnýta møguleikarnar, sum kaðalin gevur hetlendingum fyri betri og skjótari samskifti við umheimin. Hetta er fyrstu ferð, hetlendingar fáa hendan møguleikan fyri dygdargóðum talgildum samskifti. Serliga hjá vinnulívinum í Hetlandi verður hetta eitt stórt framstig, skrivar heimasíðan Shetland News. Sambært eina ætlan hjá BT um nógv skjótari samband fær Hetland ikki gleði av henni fyrr enn í 2011, men nú ætlar Tavish Scott at skunda undir BT. Source: http://www.kringvarp.fo/index.asp?s=49&Id=41315 (translation follows soon) 4. Gunnie Moberg (1941 - 2007) Nynorn translation: Til at bera dað øver skal du taka dina tið og vitsja fotografisojning Gunnie Moberg um Tria Øjaflokka - Førøjar, Orknøjar og Hjetland. Moberg, boren i Sverige og uppdragen sen fotografer, siter i Orknøjon og er kanske best kend i Hjetlandi fyri sina buk "Hjetlands stol" og senest prentaðu "Hjetland", ena av 'Island Trilogy' utgåvon. Moberg er kend båð i hemenon og i Bretlandi sen mester i sinu tolkekasti og tuk upp veð at legga til urval av sinon fotografon til soindar i bygging skotska tingsens. (translation follows soon) English original:

IN ORDER to do it justice, you must take your time when visiting Gunnie Moberg's exhibition of photographs of Three Island Groups - Faroe, Orkney, and Shetland. Moberg, born in Sweden and trained as a photographer, lives in Orkney and is probably best known in Shetland for her book The Shetland Story, and the more recent publication Shetland, one of the Island Trilogy publications. Nationally and internationally recognised as a master of her trade, she has been commissioned to provide a selection of her photographs for the Scottish Parliament building. Source: http://www.shetland-news.co.uk/features/Review Photographic triumph.htm

Nynorn Tutorial (Shetland version) 1. Lesson One 1.1. Alphabet. Common reading rules. - 1.2. Strong substantives. Plural 2. Lesson Two 2.1. Orthography - 2.2. Weak substantives. Plural - 2.3. Personal pronouns 3. Lesson Three 3.1. Orthography (cont.) - 3.2. Adjectives. Introduction - 3.3. Verbs. Present tense. Introduction 4. Lesson Four 4.1. Accusative. Strong declension - 4.2. Prepositions with accusative 4.3. Verbs. Present tense. Strong declension 5. Lesson Five 5.1. Accusative of weak substantives - 5.2. Accusative of personal pronouns - 5.3. Verbs. Present tense. Weak conjugation 6. Lesson Six 6.1. Irregular plural - 6.2. Accusative of adjectives - 6.3. Possessive pronouns 7. Lesson Seven 7.1. Dative. Strong substantives - 7.2. Prepositions with dative - 7.3. Past tense of strong verbs 8. Lesson Eight 8.1. Dative of weak substantives - 8.2. Past tense of weak verbs - 8.3. Questions and interrogative pronouns 9. Lesson Nine 9.1. Dative of adjectives - 9.2. Interrogative pronouns (cont.) - 9.3. Declension of adjectives in -el,-en,-er.

Lesson One 1. Alphabet. Common reading rules.

The Nynorn alphabet consists of 24 letters: Aa Bb Dd (Ð)ð Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Yy Øø Åå The letter ð never occurs at the beginning of the word, so its capital counterpart Ð is mentioned only for completeness sake. The following counterparts:

letters

are

pronounced

as

their

English/Scots

b,f,g,h,k,m,p,v, d,l,n,s,t r is a trilled rhotic sound as in Scots, Gaelic or Spanish ng is uttered as ng + g hv reads as [hw] except Foula and Westside where it is uttered as [kv] j reads as English y in young hj reads as j (English y) sj reads as English sh; tj reads as English ch. One consonant letter, ð, reads as zero sound (like in Faroese), except 2 positions: rð and gð, where you can pronounce it either like [r, g] or [rd, gd] respectively. The letter g in the adjective ending -ig is silent, i.e. the ending reads as [i]. The vowel letters are pronounced according to rules, common for most European languages: a reads as a in French and German (or Arabic Allah akbar) o reads as o in English song u reads as oo in English spoon i reads as a mix of i and ee in English bit, steel e reads as e in English bed ø reads as Shetlandic ui in guid, German ö or French eu (very close to English ur in hurt) å reads as o y reads as i NB! The pronunciation of a,o,u,å + ll,nn,tt,pp,kk may have dialectal variations which are to be covered in the following lessons. The letters ð,y,å refer to Old Norse sounds which have merged with other sounds or become silent during the history of Norn. The stress in Nynorn normally falls onto the first syllable, except in borrowings from other languages where other syllables can be stressed.

The vowels in the stressed syllable are long, unless followed by a long consonant (marked with two consonant letters) or a group of consonants. Examples: long vowels: hus 'house', taka 'to take', dag 'day', voga 'week' short vowels: hest 'horse', drengi 'boy', efter 'after', kerling 'old woman' long consonants: miss 'loss', hvessa 'to sharpen', sommer 'summer' Exercise 1.1. Read the following words: bera 'to carry', joga 'eye', udal 'allodial', hval 'whale', tjug 'thigh', hånga 'to hang', bjårga 'to save', hjog 'hill', sjalder 'oyster-catcher', miss 'loss', njavi 'fist', nyr 'kidney', bjørg 'rocky hill', jøl 'Christmas', ting 'court; district', sjå 'to see', hvessa 'to sharpen'. Sometimes it can be handy to use the dialectal orthography: thus, hval, hvessa should be written in Foula/Westside Nynorn as kval, kvessa. 2. Strong substantives. Plural As in German and Scandinavian languages, all substantives in Nynorn are divided into two main classes, strong (S) and weak (W). It has nothing to do with force or weakness, this naming is purely conventional and refers to two main declension types. As a rule, the strong nouns, with a few exceptions, end in a consonant (hest, kerling, hus), while the weak ones always end in a vowel (drengi, voga, joga). Another characteristic common to all substantives is gender. As in Faroese, Icelandic and German, there are three genders in Nynorn: masculine (M), feminine (F) and neuter (N). The gender of a substantive is to be checked in the dictionary. First we introduce the strong substantives and how they form their plural form. Masculine and feminine nouns add either -ar or -er, while the neuter nouns stay unchanged. The plural ending in each particular case is as given in the dictionary. The majority of masculine nouns has ar in plural, while -er seems to be more typical for feminine nouns. Masculine 1. hest 'horse' - hestar 'horses'; 2. gest 'guest' - gester 'gests' Feminine 1. kerling 'old woman' - kerlingar 'old women'; 2. ferd 'journey' - ferder 'journeys' Neuter kast 'chance' - kast 'chances' Exercise 1.2.

Change the following words to plural (the class of the word is given in the parantheses - e.g., FS2 stands for feminine strong, type 'ferd'): dag 'day'(MS1), toft 'thwart; ruin'(FS2), fjord 'fjord'(MS2), hus 'house'(NS), rug 'heap'(FS1), fisk 'fish'(MS1), sild 'herring'(FS2), rum 'space; room'(NS), stað 'place'(MS2), mess 'mass'(FS1)

Lesson Two 1. Orthography In Shetland Mainland Nynorn, the double consonants ll and nn are regularly pronounced palatalized: [lj,nj]. The same change occurs in ld,lt,nt,nd: [ljd,ljd,njd,njt], although exceptions are possible (check the dictionnary). Several vowel changes occur before [lj] and [nj]: a reads as [æ], which is equivalent to a in English cap; o and å reads as [oi] Palatal consonants lj,nj are formed with additional articulation by which the body of the tongue is raised toward the hard palate (as if j followed). The sound nj is like Spanish ñ, lj is like Spanish ll. Exercise 2.1. Read the following words: a) hann, ull, Dumbvilla, mella, kalla, full, enni, gronn, annehvar, kenna, bånn; b) kelda, mond, millablanda, hald, golti, brand, folda In the dialectal orthography for Mainland Nynorn hann, kalla, hald, bånn, millablanda are spelled as hænnj, kællja, bå(i)nnj, hæljd, milljablænjda. **************************************************************** (This part of the lesson has only to do with the Foula/Westside dialect and can be skipped by those only interested in Mainland Nynorn) In Foula/Westside Nynorn, ll and nn are read as [dl] and [dn] respectively. Additionally, rn often changes to [dn] (possibly also rl). The above mentioned vowel changes caused by llj and nnj do not occur. Exercise 2.2. Read the following words with Foula/Westside pronunciation: all, ill, inni, bjarn, korn, henni, ern, enni In the Foula/Westside Norn dialectal notation the above words are spelled as adl, idl, idni, bjadn, kodn, edn, edni. Exercise 2.3. Read the words from exercise 2.1. with the Foula/Westside pronunciation. Notice that Shetland Mainland bånn [boinnj] 'child' corresponds to Foula/Westside bjarn [bjadn].

**************************************************************** 2. Weak substantives. Plural. As we said in Lesson One, Ch. 2, substantives in Nynorn are divided into strong and weak. We have already started covering the strong declension in the previous chapter, now let us introduce its weak counterpart. As already known, weak nouns always end in a vowel: -i for masculine, -a for feminine and neuter. Weak substantives form their plural by replacing -i with -ar (M), -a with -er (F) or -u (N): M. drengi 'boy, lad' - drengar 'boys' F. floga 'fly'- floger 'flies' N. joga 'eye' - jogu 'eyes' Exercise 2.4. Change the following words to plural: dokka 'young girl', mågi 'stomach' (MW), jora 'ear' (NW), bogi 'curve; small bay' (MW), nyra 'kidney' (NW), nalta 'grain, particle' (FN), måni 'moon' (MW), skiva 'slice; piece of turf' (FW) 3. Personal pronouns Sg.

Pl.

1. person

eg 'I'

vi 'we'

2. person

du 'you (sg.)' di 'you (pl.)'

3. person Masc. hann 'he'

dir 'they (M)'

Fem. hun 'she'

der 'they (F)'

Neu.

de 'they (N)'

dað 'it'

Hann/dir refer to masculine names, hun/der refer to feminine names and dað stands for neuter ones. This has nothing to do with animacy, which differentiates pronouns in English, Norwegian or Danish. For example, Nynorn sten (M) 'stone' should be referred to as hann 'he' (never dað 'it'!) and stenar 'stones' as dir. Analogically, hun 'she' stands for rug (F) 'heap' and der stands for rugar 'heaps'. On the other hand, bånn (N) 'child' would be referred to as dað 'it', bånn 'children' as de. The use of the same pronouns for humans and inanimate objects is an ancient Germanic feature, still valid in Faroese, Icelandic and German. When a masculine and feminine substantive meet together, the neuter plural pronoun is used: Johan (M) og Maria (F), sten (M) og rug (F) 'a stone and a heap' should be referred to as de (N). This is another old trait, no longer relevant to German but still vital in Icelandic and Faroese. Exercise 2.5.

Replace the following words with the corresponding pronoun (third person) or several different pronouns when applied: mågi – rum – joga – fjord – skiver – nyru – hus – månar – nalta – ruger – Johann og Hendrik – bånn og hus – Hendrik og Astrid – rug og skiva – Astrid og Maria -

Lesson Three 1. Orthography. The long consonants tt,pp,kk and p,t,k before l or n everywhere in Nynorn acquire the so called preaspiration, i.e. a short preceding [h]: [ht,htl,htn,hp,hpl,hpn,hk,hkl,hkn]. Exercise 3.1. Read the following words: a) bakk 'bank, slope; edge, bank', ikke 'not', mukkið 'much', mitt 'my (N)', røtt 'red' (N), upp 'up', knippa 'to break asunder', knotti 'ball', neppa 'to together', skinnalepp 'remains'; b) ketling 'kitten', netla 'to trifle with one's work', bjokl 'high dorsal-fin of a whale', mukler 'big (pl. M)', driplet 'spotted', skiplaga 'to build aircastles'. In Mainland Nynorn, o,å change to [oi] in front of tt: gott [goiht] 'good (N)', nått [noiht] 'night', tottlig [toihtli] 'comely, neat'. Foula/Westside Nynorn is free of this change. The preaspiration of tt,pp,kk and p,t,k + n,l is obligatory in Icelandic and Faroese. It also occurs in several Norwegian and Swedish dialects, albeit less regularly there. Outside of the Scandinavian area, stops p,t,k are widely preaspirated in Scottish Gaelic (apparently borrowed from the language of the Vikings). Non-existent in today's Shetland live speech, preaspiration was still sporadically heard in a number of old Norn words recorded in Shetland by the Faroese linguist Jakob Jakobsen in the end of the 19th century. 2. Adjectives. Introduction. Nynorn adjectives take genders, cases and numbers. It means that, for instance, in the expression "white horse" the word "white" must take the same gender, number and case as the word "horse".

Such a dependency from the substantive is called 'agreement': the adjective 'agrees' in gender, number and case with the substantive it describes. The initial singular forms of masculine and feminine have no ending and do thus not differ: gul 'yellow' (M,F). The neuter form takes the ending -t: gult 'yellow' (N). If the adjective ends in -d or -ð, in neuter either consonant changes to -t, giving double -tt after a vowel or single -t in case there is a preceding consonant: blid 'kind-hearted' (M,F) - blitt 'kind-hearted' (N), røð 'red' (M,F) - røtt 'red' (N), bald 'bold; quick; skilful' - balt. Adjectives which end in a vowel require in neuter double -tt too: grå 'grey' (M,F) - grått 'grey' (N). Adjectives ending in a consonant + t undergo no changes in neuter: bjart 'cold (of wind); biting, sharp (of weather)'. The adjective gud 'good' has an irregular neuter form gott. NB! Do not forget about preaspiration in words like blitt, røtt and additionally the [o]-[oi] alternation as in grå-grått, gott. The plurals of adjectives are -er (M), -ar (F) and zero in N (the plural N form is identical to the singular M/F): M. gul - guler, røð - røðer, blid - blider, gud – guder F. gul - gular, røð - røðar, blid - blidar, gud – gudar N. gult - gul, røtt - røð, blitt - blid, gott - gud Examples: M. gud drengi 'a good boy' - guder drengar 'good boys' F. svart floga 'a black fly' - svartar floger 'black flies' N. blitt hjarta 'a kind heart' - blid hjartu 'kind hearts' NB! Don't confuse the endings of substantives and adjectives! Masculine and feminine substantives may take either -ar or -er in plural endings, while for adjectives it is strictly -er for M and -ar for F! The following combinations are possible: hviter hestar 'white horses' (M) guler vegger 'yellow walls' (M) langar ferder 'long journeys' (F) blidar kerlingar 'kind-hearted old women' (F) Exercise 3.2. Change the following adjectives to neuter: Hvit lang stur 'big' gud

los 'loose, free' bleg 'light-brown' bjart Exercise 3.3. Change the following phrases to plural: svart hest røtt joga bald hund grå vegg gul knotti (MW) 'ball' blid dokka gott hus 3. Verbs. Present tense. Introduction. We begin our study of the Nynorn verbal system with two very common verbs: at vara 'to be' and at heda 'to be called'. At is a particle which means 'to' as in English 'to be' and is only used with infinitives. There is another particle - ikke, which means 'not' and is always placed after the verb. Nynorn does not have the form 'do not', ikke always provides the negation alone: at vara 'to be': eg er - I am du ert - you (sing.) are, thou art hann/hun/dað er - he/she/it is vi,di,dir eru - we/you (pl.)/they are eg er ikke - I am not du er ikke - you (sing.) are not etc. Eg er mann. Hann er ikke hest. Hestar eru ikke guler. I am a man. He is not a horse. Horses are not yellow. NB! Adjectives after the word 'to be' agree with the substantives in gender and number. at heda 'to be called': eg hedi - I am called, my name is du heder - you (sing.) are called, your (sing.) name is hann/hun/dað heder - he/she/it is called, his/her/its name is vi,di,dir heda - we/you (pl.)/they are called, our/your (pl.)/their name is eg hedi ikke - my name is not etc. Eg hedi Magnus. Hon heder Astrid. Hann heder ikke Torkel. De heder Hendrik og Maria. Hon er blid. Dað er røtt. Dir eru balder. Der eru baldar. I am Magnus. Her name is Astrid. His name is not Torkel. These are Hendrik and Maria. She is kind-hearted. It is red. They (M) are bold. They (F) are bold.

Exercise 3.4. Translate the following phrases: Our names are Torsten and Bjarnhild. Your (sing.) name is not Sunneva. You (sing.) are not a horse. You (pl.) are not horses. Journeys are long. White horses are kind-hearted.

Lesson Four 1. Accusative. Strong declension. So far we have been dealing with the initial form of nouns which is called the nominative case. In Nynorn there are three additional cases. One of them is called the accusative. The accusative case is used for the object of verbs and with a number of prepositions. The difference between nominative and accusative can be rather difficult to grasp for those whose native language is English. There are several tips you can follow in order to distinguish between the cases: the subject is normally in the nominative (the acting body), the object of the action is normally in the accusative (the patient). There is a golden rule: normally there would not be two nominatives within the same phrase (the main exception being the verbs like 'to be', 'become', 'be called/named', 'is like' and similar). In fact, English is not totally free of cases - they are still used with the personal pronouns I, he, she, we, they (corresponds to nominative), which change to me, him, her, us, them (in our case corresponds to accusative) respectively. So if you are in doubt as to which case, nominative or accusative to use in a given situation, you can check it by replacing the substantive with a personal pronoun instead. Say, we are dealing with the sentence A dog is biting a man. Which case(s) would a dog and a man have in Nynorn? Replace a dog with I and a man with he and you will get I am biting him. The unchanged pronoun (I, he) corresponds to nominative, the changed (me, him) refers to accusative (at least in this particular case). Hence a dog will have nominative and a man - accusative. See also our brief introduction to the case system: http://www.nornlanguage.110mb.com/index.php?term#case In the strong declension, accusative (A) is the same as nominative (N) except for the plural of masculine. The first masculine class (pl. -ar) has the ending -a in accusative plural, while the second masculine class (pl. -er) takes the ending -i: Sg.

Pl.

M. N hest - A hest, N fjord - A fjord

N hestar - A hesta, N fjorder - A fjordi

F. N ferd - A ferd, N kerling - A kerling N ferder - A ferder, N kerlingar - A kerlingar N. N kast - A kast

N kast - A kast

Exercise 4.1. Change the following words to the nominative and accusative of plural:

dag 'day' (MS1), toft 'thwart; ruin' (FS2), fjord 'fjord' (MS2), hus 'house' (NS), rug 'heap' (FS1), fisk 'fish' (MS1), sild 'herring' (FS2), rum 'space; room' (NS), sta? 'place' (MS2), mess 'mass' (FS1). 2. Prepositions with accusative å 'onto' i 'into' veð 'close to, near' um 'about' Examples: i hus 'into a house/into houses', um Hjetland 'about Shetland', å hesta 'onto horses', veð fjord 'near a fjord', veð fjordi 'near fjords'. Exercise 4.2. Translate the following phrases into Nynorn using the words from the preceding lessons: close to ruins, about horses, near Shetland, into houses, onto heaps 3. Verbs. Present tense. Strong declension. Like substantives, verbs in Nynorn are divided into strong and weak, depending on how they form their past tense. Strong verbs roughly correspond to English irregular verbs (like bite-bit-bitten, stand-stoodstood), while weak verbs are reminiscent of English regular verbs, which form their past by adding -ed. In this lesson we will show how strong verbs form their present. The present tense in Nynorn corresponds both to English present simple (I go) and present progressive (I'm going). The endings are as follows: eg - (zero)

vi -a

du -er

di -a

hann,hun,dað -er dir,der,de -a

As in Faroese, the plural of the present tense looks the same as the infinitive. Further on, we are going only to give one form for plural: at bita 'to bite': eg bit 'I bite' du biter hann biter vi bita Verbs with radical -a- and -o- (i.e. with a or o in the root) change the vowel to -e- in singular forms: at standa 'to stand', at koma 'to come': eg stend, kem du stender, kemer hann stender, kemer vi standa,koma

Several verbs conjugate irregularly, e.g., at sjå 'to see': eg se du ser hann ser vi sjå At vara and at heda from Lesson Three belong to the strong verbs too, albeit having some irregularities. Exercise 4.3. Conjugate the following strong verbs in the singular: skina 'to shine', taga 'to take', sita 'to sit', sjå 'to see', halda 'to hold', koma 'to come', lega 'to play', ligga 'to lie', ganga 'to go', geva 'to give', finna 'to find' Exercise 4.4. Translate the following phrases: I'm seeing horses. She is going into a house. We are sitting near a heap. A dog is biting fishes. Old women find children.

Lesson Five 1. Accusative of weak substantives. In Lesson Four we became acquainted with the accusative case and its form in the strong declension. Now let us see how the accusative is formed with weak substantives. In singular, the masculine words have the ending -a, -u applies for feminine, while neuter stays unchanged with the ending -a. As for plural, the situation is the same as in the strong declension: masculine nouns have -a, while in feminine and neuter ones the accusative form is equal to its nominative counterpart: Sg.

Pl.

M. drengi - drenga drengar - drenga F. floga - flogu

floger - floger

N. hjarta - hjarta

hjartu - hjartu

NB: neuter (singular and plural) and feminine (plural) never distinguish between nominative and accusative in any declension types. Exercise 5.1. Translate the following phrases: I'm seeing boys. He's seeing girls. A dog bites a boy. Flies don't bite girls. 2. Accusative of personal pronouns Sg.

Pl.

1. eg 'I' - mog 'me'

vi 'we' - vus 'us'

2. du 'you' - dog 'you Acc' di 'you pl.' - dor 'you pl. Acc 3. hann 'he' - hann 'him'

dir 'they M' - då 'them M'

3. hun 'she' - hana 'her'

der 'they F' - der 'them F'

3. dað 'it' - dað 'it Acc'

de 'they N' - de 'they N Acc'

Examples: Eg se dog 'I'm seeing you (sg.)'. Hann kenner hana, men ikke dor 'He knows her, but not you (pl.)'. Der finna då 'They (females) find them (males)'. Exercise 5.2. Translate the following phrases: a) I know them (M), but not him. A dog is biting you (sg.). They (F) don't find us. b) about me, near her, into that, , onto them (M), near them (N) 3. Verbs. Present tense. Weak conjugation In Lesson Four we learned about the present tense of strong verbs. Now let us see how the present is formed by weak verbs. The main difference from the strong class is the endings: weak verbs form their present tense through adding either -i/er (type 1) or -a/ar (type 2): Type 1. at gera 'to do, make' eg geri du gerer hann gerer vi gera Some other verbs of this type: senda 'to send', bygga 'to build', køba 'to buy', birta 'to quicken a fire', fylga 'to follow', støda 'to ', legga 'to lay'. In exceptional cases the root vowel undergoes changes similar to those for strong verbs: hava 'to have': eg hev du hever hann hever vi hava Type 2. at kalla 'to call': eg kalla du kallar hann kallar vi kalla This is the most widespread conjugation type in Nynorn. It also includes the following verbs among many other: bjårga 'to save', fena 'to show delight, hospitality', prenta 'to print', nota 'to use', ferda 'to walk quickly', vitsja 'to visit', marka 'to mark'.

Exercise 5.3. Translate the following phrases: A boy is calling a dog. A girl is saving horses. She has dogs. We don't have dogs. I save you (sg.). You (pl.) visit us. He is building houses. A boy is buying balls.

Lesson Six. 1. Irregular plural In addition to the previously mentioned classes of substantive declension there is a small group of nouns which form their plural in a different (as they say, “irregular” way). This group belongs to the strong declension. To this group belong many common kinship : fader (faðer Westside/Foula), moder, syster, dotter, son, bruder Words are used in high style speech and have more colloquial equivalents/counterparts: påbi mw, mor, brui mw. instead of fader, moder, bruder respectively. The following words do not change in the singular and have an umlaut in the plural wherever the root vowel allows it. The endings in plural are similar to those in the other classes of substantives. Mor 'mum' belongs to the same class and has the same plural as moder 'mother'. Sg.

Pl.

Nom. - Acc.

Nom. - Acc.

masculine: fader – fader

feder – feder

bruder – bruder brøder – brøder son – son

syner – syner

feminine: moder – moder møder – møder mor – mor

møder – møder

dotter – dotter

døter – døter (NB single t!)

syster – syster

systrar – systrar

The irregular class also includes the following words: masculine: finger ‘finger’ (pl. finger), fud ‘foot’ (føder), mann ‘man’ (menn) feminine: buk ‘book’ (bøker), nått ‘night’ (neter, NB single t!), gås ‘goose’ (geser), mus ‘mouse’ (møs), ku ‘cow’ (kør). Exercise 6.1 Translate into Nynorn: I have a father and a mother. Mothers love fathers and sisters love brothers. Nights are cold. Feet are long. Geese are seeing men.

2. Accusative of adjectives In Nynorn the cases are proper/intrinsic/inherent not only to substantives. Adjectives and some other grammatical classes, such as pronouns, participles and certain numerals take them too. In this chapter we introduce the accusative form of adjectives (the nominative was covered in Lesson Three): Sg.

Pl.

Nom. - Acc. Nom. - Acc. M. gul – gulan guler – gula F. gul – gula

gular – gular

N. gult – gult

gul – gul

Notice that as in the case of substantives, adjective neuter and plural feminine forms do not distinguish between nominative and accusative. Examples. Eg se sturan hest. Hun elskar blidan drenga. Vi finna ikke gula tasku. Du hever gott kast at gera dað. Hann ser fullan måna, hvitar sterner og brett hav. Der hava ung bånn og svarta hesta. I’m seeing a big horse. She loves a kind boy. We don’t find a yellow bag. You have a good possibility to do that. He is seeing the full moon, a white star and the broad ocean. They (the women) have young children and black horses. Exercise 6.2 Translate the following phrases into Nynorn: I am placing a yellow cup on a white table. They are seeing young dogs and old birds. We are thinking about a big star. We are traveling over a green valley (dal m.s2.). They (M and W) are traveling over green valleys. to place – at legga vw1 to think about – at tenka um vw2 valley – dal (m. s2) 3. Possessive pronouns Possessive pronouns, which express ownership, can be divided into three groups: a. min ‘my,mine’, din ‘your, thine (sg)’, vor ‘our’, dor ‘your pl.’ b. hans ‘his’, hennar ‘her’, dess ‘its’, derra ‘their’ c. sin ‘his/her/its/their own’ The words in group a. belong to the 1st and 2nd persons. They decline like adjectives, with a few exceptions for min ‘my’ and din ‘your,thine’: 1. In the accusative of masculine min and din stay unchanged. 2. In the neuter nominative and accusative min and din change to mitt and ditt respectively.

Sg.

Pl.

Nom. - Acc. Nom. - Acc. M. min – min

miner – mina

F. min – mina

minar – minar

N. mitt – mitt

min – min

(din ‘yours’ and sin ‘his own’ decline accordingly). Vor and dor decline like usual adjectives. The pronouns in group b. belong to the third person. They are never inflected for case. These forms are actually the genitive forms of the respective personal pronouns (which will be covered in future lessons), and this is why they do not need to change any more. As you will see later, the pronouns from the group a. descend from genitive forms of respective personal pronouns too. The only difference is that they have turned into independent words and started taking cases on their own. The pronoun sin means ‘his/her/its/their own’. The difference between sin on the one hand and hans/hennar/dess/derra on the other can be best illustrated with the following examples: Hann ser sin hest. He’s seeing his own horse Hann ser hans hest. He’s seeing his (somebody else’s) horse Hun kenner sitt atdriv. She knows her (own) business. Hun kenner hennar atdriv. She knows her (somebody else’s) business. Dir elska sina hesta. They (masc.) love their own horses. Dir elska derra hesta. They (masc.) love their (somebody else’s) horses. X kenner Y. Hann ser sin hest. Hann ser hans hest. X knows Y. He’s seeing his (own) horse. He’s seeing his (Y’s) horse. X og Y kenner Z og T. X og Y elskar sina hesta. X og Y elska derra hesta. X and Y know Z and T. X and Y love their (own) horses. X and Y love their (Z and T’s) horses. Examples: Vi tenka um vora ferd runt um Island. Eg kenni hans konu og derra bånn. De kenna etsa min bånn. Hun elskar sin bruder. Din son kenner ikke mina dotter. Dorer hestar rida øver voran voll. Miner foreldrar kenna ikke dinar systrar. De elskar derra hunda. We are thinking about our trip around Iceland. I know his wife and their child(ren). They know my children too. She loves her (own) brother. Your son doesn’t know my daughter. Your horses are riding over our field. My parents do not know your sisters. They love their (somebody else’s) dogs. Exercise 6.3 Translate into Nynorn:

My horses are going into your (of you=du) houses. My child is going into your (you=di) house. Her father knows my parents. I know their mother, but don’t know her sister. He is thinking about our dogs. They (M and W) find their (own) dog. My daughters love your (you=di) dogs. I’m giving you my book. You (sg.) are not thinking about your heart. He is not thinking about his (own) heart.

Lesson Seven. 1. Dative. Strong substantives. Dative is another important case in Nynorn. Dative normally means ‘to whom’. This is not the direct object (“patient”) of an action, it is rather its addressee or recipient. In the phrase I gave you the pen, the word you is meant to be in dative, pen in accusative and I in nominative. Strong masculine and neuter nouns form the dative case by adding -i while feminine nouns stay unchanged. In plural all genders have the universal ending -on: Sg.

Pl.

Nom. - Dat. Nom. - Dat. M. hest – hesti hestar – heston F. ferd – ferd

ferder – ferdon

N. kast – kasti kast – kaston

Declension 3 (irregular) has the following forms: Sg.

Pl.

Nom. - Dat.

Nom. - Dat.

fud – fudi

føder – fudon

fader – fader

feder – fedron

bruder – bruder brøder – brødron muder – muder møder – mødron ku – ku

kør – kun

gås – gås

geser – gåson

etc. Of these words, only three (fader, bruder, muder) keep the altered vowel (e or ø) in the dative plural, the rest have the same vowel as in the initial form. Ku has the reduced dative plural form kun instead of *kuon. Dative case of personal pronouns:

Sg.

Pl.

Nom. - Dat.

Nom. - Dat.

1 eg ‘I’ – mjer ‘(to) me’

vi ‘we’ – vus ‘(to) us’

2. du ‘you’ – djer ‘(to) you’

di ‘you pl.’ – dor ‘(to) you pl.’

3 hann ‘he’ – honon ‘(to) him’ dir ‘they M’ – dem ‘(to) they M’

hun ‘she’ – henni ‘(to) her’

der ‘they F’ – dem ‘(to) they F’

dað ‘it’ – di ‘(to) it’

de ‘they N’ – dem ‘(to) they N’

Dative is used with a large number of verbs: geva vs. ‘to give someone (D) something (A)’, soina vw1. ‘to show’, løva vw1. ‘to allow’, banna vw2. ‘to prohibit’, sija vw1. ‘to say something (A) to someone (D), to tell someone (D) something (A)’, fyrigeva vs. ‘to forgive’, skriva vw2. ‘to write something (A) to someone (D)’, hjålpa vw1. ‘to help’, takka vw2. ‘to thank’ etc. Exercise 7.1. Translate into Nynorn: He is giving her his heart. Your brother is showing me his fist. We forgive you your sins. He is helping them. They (F) are thanking him for that. He's writing me a letter. We are telling them to go. sin - synd fs2 for (as in to thank for) - fyri A letter (text) - brev nns. to go (away) - at fara vs. 2. Prepositions with dative In Lesson Four we learned several prepositions which govern the accusative. Some of them can take dative as well, although in this case they will have a different meaning: å ‘on’ (cf. å ‘onto’ with Acc.) i ‘in’ (cf. i ‘into’ with Acc.) As a rule, such prepositions take the accusative when referring to movement and dative in the case of still position: Buk ligger å bordi. (Dat) ‘A book lays on a table’ vs. Eg legg buk å bord. (Acc) ‘I’m putting a book on a table’ Drengi siter i husi. (Dat) ‘A boy is sitting in a house’ vs. Eg sendi drenga i hus. (Acc) ‘I’m sending a boy into a house’. Similarly, a number of other preposition are “inflected for case”, f.ex. øver ‘above, over’ and under ‘under’: Hamar henger øver mjer. (D) 'A hammer is hanging over me' vs. Fugl fljuker øver dal. (A) ‘A bird is flying over a valley’. In other cases , when a preposition does not mark location or movement, it can have very different meanings in the dative and accusative: veð D ‘together with’ – veð A‘close to, near’ fyri D ‘in front of’ – fyri A ‘for’ The following prepositions govern only the dative case: muti 'against'

ur 'out of' av 'off' frå 'from' Notice the following prepositions are opposed to each other: å 'on(to)' vs. av 'off' i 'in(to)' vs. ur 'out of' (frå 'from' is opposed to til 'to' which is to be covered in later chapters). Examples: fyri mjer in front of me, veð djer with you (sg.), fyri hana for her, ur di out of it, av vus off us, frå dem from them, veð dem together with them, um der about them (fem). Exercise 7.2. Translate into Nynorn: I’m going into my house. She’s coming out of their house. A letter is falling off a table. I’m coming with my father. A dog is sleeping in front of our house. He comes from Shetland. I’m doing it for you. She is against your (you=di) brothers. 3. Past tense of strong verbs Past tense in Nynorn corresponds both to the past indefinite and past continuous of English. As with the present tense, the past tense does not differ between indefinite and continuous forms. To express the continuing meaning you can add respective adverbs, like nu ‘now’ (present), då ‘then’, fyri tiðena ‘at the moment’, um da tiðena 'at that moment' etc. See also Lesson Four (#3). Strong verbs form their past tense by mutating the root vowel (this mutation is called ablaut) and adding the past tense endings. This is a closed group of verbs which date back to ancient times. Although we can give you the main guidelines of conjugation, the best way is to learn the conjugation of each strong verb by heart. There are six main classes of strong verbs in Nynorn which mostly differ by vowels and the way how they are ‘ablauted’. Each different form of ablaut is called grade or degree. Strong verbs in Nynorn (as well as in Old Norse, Faroese and Icelandic) use four degrees of ablaut. You already know the first one, which is used in infinitives and in the present tense (where it sometimes undergoes an additional mutation, see Lesson Four). The second degree of ablaut is used in past singular and the third in past plural. The fourth degree is reserved for past participles (which will be covered later). The singular and plural of strong verbs differ not only by ablaut degrees, but also have different endings. There are only two endings: (zero) in singular and -u in plural regardless of person. The ablaut map: Root– past singular – past plural 1. Verbs with the radical i: i - e - i:

bita ‘to bite’ – eg bet ‘I bit’ – vi bitu ‘we bit’ driva ‘to drive,run something’, gripa ‘to catch, grip’, riva ‘to tear, pull’, triva ‘to catch hold’ , riða ‘to ride’, skriða ‘to manage with difficulty’, sviða ‘to singe, scorch; to sting, smart; to suffer’, viga/vika ‘to move; to answer’. 2. Verbs with the radical ø, (j)u, o: ø/u/ju - ø - u: bøða ‘to propose’ – eg bøð ‘I proposed’ – vi buðu ‘we proposed’ fljuka ‘to fly’ – eg fløk ‘I flew’ – vi fluku ‘we flew’ fljuka ‘to fly; to fly off, fall off’, luta ‘to stoop, bend forward’, smjuga ‘to slip; to hide away’, lopa ‘to run’. 3. Verbs with e or i followed by two consonants or one long: i,e - a – u finna ‘to find’ – eg fann ‘I found’ – vi funnu ‘we found’ bresta ‘to rush with a noise’, brinna ‘to burn’, hverva ‘to toru, rake together’, rinna ‘to run’, vinna ‘to work’ Verbs with -nd- and -ng- have irregular singular past tense where the last consonant becomes voiceless and acquires length making the preceeding -n- disappear: binda ‘to bind’ – eg batt ‘I bound’ – vi bundu ‘we bound’ stinga ‘to stick’ – eg stakk ‘I stack’ – vi stungu ‘we stack’ håbenda ‘to tie a band round the hough of an animal’, springa ‘to burst, break’. One verb of this class has a in the root: varda ‘to become’. Originally it had -e- in the infinitive, cf. ON. verða. 4. Verbs with e or i followed by one short consonant: e(o,a) – a(o) – å: geva ‘to give’ – eg gav ‘I gave’ – vi gåvu ‘we gave‘ vara ‘to be’, geva ‘to give’, koma ‘to come’, geta ‘to beget, get’, ligga ‘to lie’, rega ‘to drive, chase’, sita ‘to sit’, sova ‘to sleep’, så ‘to see, look’, tigga ‘to receive’, eta ‘to eat’, sjera ‘to cut’ 5. Verbs with the radical a(å,ø): a - u - u: taga ‘to take’ – eg tug ‘I took’ – vi tugu ‘we took’ ala ‘to feed’, fara ‘to depart, go’, lada ‘to be about to die’, grava ‘to dig up; to bury’, høva ‘to raise, lift; to fling’, slå ‘to strike, kick’, Similar to English, standa ‘to stand’ looses the radical -n- in the past: standa ‘to stand’ – eg stud ‘I stood’ – vi studu ‘we stood’ 6. The most irregular verbs with the radical a, å: a - e - e: falla ‘to fall’ – eg fell ‘I fell’ – vi fellu ‘we fell’

Similar to verbs like binda, stinga in class 3. several verbs (gånga, hånga and the irregular verb få) receive -kk in singular past: gånga ‘to go, walk’ – eg gekk ‘I went, walked’ – vi gengu ‘we went, walked’ få ‘to get’ – eg fekk ‘I got’ – vi fengu ‘we got’ leka ‘to play’, gråta ‘to cry’, halda ‘to hold, keep’, låda ‘to emit a sound’, ousa ‘to bale; to pour down’, så ‘to sew’, åga ‘to creep, crawl; to move slowly’. This is a very old way to form the past tense which dates back to the so called Common Indo-European language that most of the languages in Europe, Iran and India descend from. Ablaut descends from the original alternation of the main IndoEuropean vowel e with o and zero sound (traces of that still can be seen in forms like bresta-brast-brustu). Exercise 7.3. Translate into Nynorn: I fell off a house. They (M and F) stood close to their (own) mother. Men were burying dead horses. You took my dogs. He gave me a book. A dog bit your (di) sons. She grips your hand. We got fish. Reading Johann og Astrid bua i Hjetlandi. Johann bur i Lervik, men Astrid bur å Sandnesi. Johann hever sturan båt. Hann fer ofta ut å sju til at fiska. Astrid hever hesta og kør. Hun er bund. I dag skrivar Astrid brev Johanni. Hun sijer at hun etlar at selja honon ku. Johann fekk brev fra Astrid. Hann svarar henni og sijer at hann takkar henni fyri dað. Vocabulary: bua vs. (6), 3.sg.pres. bur – to live og – and Hjetland nn. – Shetland Lervik nf. (s2) – Lerwick Sandnes nn. – Sandness fara vs. (5) – to depart sju nm. – the sea ut å sju – out to the sea fiska – to catch fish (= veða) ku (kør) nf. (s3) – cow bund nm. – crofter etla vw. (2) – to be going selja vw. (1) – to sell brev nn. (s) – letter

Lesson Eight. 1. Dative of weak substantives

In singular, the dative form of weak nouns does not differ from the accusative. In plural, the common ending -on is used: Sg.

Pl.

Nom. - Dat.

Nom. - Dat.

M. drengi – drenga drengar – drengon F. floga – flogu

floger – flogon

N. hjarta – hjarta hjartu – hjarton

Excercise 8.1. Translate into Nynorn: I’m giving food to dogs. He’s telling daughters that they are beautiful. Boys are sleeping in houses. Boats are full of fish (pl.). He’s coming from Faroe Islands (Førøjar f.pl.), not Orkney (Orknøjar f.pl.). Cats are sleeping under cars. 2. Past tense of weak verbs. Weak verbs form their past tense in a much simpler way than the strong ones, pretty much like regular verbs in English. The stem of the verb adds a special suffix: 1. The verbs in class 1 (gera) add -d after voiced consonants (r,m,n,l,v,b,g) or -t following d or unvoiced consonants (t,s,p,t,k). 2. The verbs in class 2 (kalla) add the suffix -að. The suffix is followed by the ending of past tense: -i in sg. and -u in pl. 1. gera: eg gerdi 'I did/made' – vi gerdu 'we did/made' senda: eg senti 'I sent' – vi sentu 'we sent' hjålpa: eg hjålpti [jolti] 'I helped' – vi hjålptu [joltu] 'we helped' 2. kalla: eg kallaði 'I called' – vi kallaðu 'we called' NB. The ending -aði sounds as [aji], -aðu – as [avu]. (The same pronunciation of the endings is used in Faroese.) The verb bua ‘to live (somewhere), inhabit’ has a strong present, but weak past: eg buði [buvi], vi buðu [buvu]. Exercise 8.2. Translate into Nynorn (see also exercise 5.3): A boy called a dog. A girl saved horses. She had dogs. We didn't have dogs. I saved you (sg.). You (pl.) visited us. He built houses. A boy bought balls. 3. Questions and interrogative pronouns Nynorn has at its disposal the following interrogative pronouns: hvar? – who? which?, neuter hvat(na)? – what?

hvarna? – where?, hvagar?/hvartil? – whereto? hvaðan?/hvarfrå? – wherefrom? ner? – when? hvu? – how hvi? – why? Hvat? and hvatna? are more or less interchangeable, although the latter variant adds more expression. The word order in an interrogative sentence is the reverse of the normal. The phrase begins with the interrogative pronoun to be followed by the verb in 3 sg., subject and the rest, if any. As with negation (see Lesson X), there is no word for the English auxiliary verbs do(es), did (as in the case of the English verbs to be, shall, should etc). Ner kemer du? When do you come? Hvarna ligga dinar kør? Where are your cows lying? Hvar kallar å mog? Who is calling me? Exercise 8.3. Translate into Nynorn: When do they go? Which boat is yours? Where is your brother? How big is their house? Where are you going (fara) to? Where do you come from? Why is your child not sleeping? Reading Hvatna heder du? Eg hedi Harald. Hvarna bur du? Eg bu i Skålavågi. Hvar er her veð djer? Dað er Magnus, min vin. Hvarna kemer hann frå? Hann kemer frå Kollafirdi. Hvaron driva di at? Eg er sjofør og Magnus er fiskemann. Hvar mål tala di? Eg tala hjetmål (nynorn), engelsk og norsk, men Magnus talar nynorn, engelsk og tvartri kinesisk. Hvi talar Magnus kinesisk? (Hvu ber dað til at Magnus talar kinesisk?) Hann fur en dag til Kina til at veða fisk og lerdi dar kinesisk. Dað var mukkið spennandi i Kina, hans ferdalek stud lengi og hans skip fekk mukkið af fiski. Der vunnu dag og nått og fingu stura løn. Der furu så veð sinon pengon vester og derra bånn vuru mukkið glað at sjå sina feder atter at dir komu hem. Vocabulary: Skålavåg nm. – Scalloway vin nm. (2) – friendo sjofør nm. – driver fiskemann nm. – fisherman mål nn. – language tala vw. (2) – to speak hjetmål nn. (s) - Shetland N(yn)orn nynorn nf. (s2) – Nynorn engelsk nf. (s2) – English language norsk nf. (s2) – Norwegian language kinesisk nf. (s2) – Chinese language

(engelsk, norsk and kinesisk also can be used as respective adjectives; in this case they take adjective endings) Kina nn. (indecl.) – China veða vw. (past veddi) – to catch (fish); to Hunt tvartri adv. (from tver-tri '2-3') – a little, a bit mukkið adv. – much hvu ber dað til at... ? – how come ... ? lit. how is it possible that... ? spennandi adv. – exciting; lit. constrained ferdalek nm. (s1) – journey, trip standa vs. (6) – to endure; lit. to stand fisk nm. (s1) – fish mukkið av + D – a lot of løn nf. (s2) – salary så – then, so pengar nm. pl. (s1) – Money vester adv. – west, to the west glað adj. – glad, happy atter – after

Lesson Nine. 1. Dative of adjectives. Similar to substantives, adjectives take dative, depending on the case in which the attributed noun stands. As with substantives, in plural dative the common ending -on is used. Moreover, it is also present in singular masculine (instead of -i of the substantive declension). Neuter has -u and feminine -ari: Sg.

Pl.

Nom. - Dat. Nom. - Dat. M. gul – gulon guler – gulon F. gul – gulari gular – gulon N. gult – gulu

gul – gulon

Possessive pronouns and the word hvar ‘who, which’ have the same endings – M.sg. minon, voron, hvaron, F.sg. minari, vorari, hvarari, N. sg. minu, voru, hvaru, pl. minon, voron, hvaron. Exercise 9.1. Translate into Nynorn: In a yellow house, in your (du sg.) boats, together with a happy girl, off my tables, against kind-hearted boys, out of black buildings (bygging nm.s1), from your (di pl.) fathers, under grey cliffs (klett nm (s1)). girl - dokka nf. building - bygging nm. (s1) cliff - klett nm. (s1) 2. Interrogative pronouns (continued) The interrogative pronoun hvar always takes the number, gender and case of the noun it refers to. This can be any case, including accusative and dative. So if a question is raised about any member of

a sentence, the interrogative pronoun in the interrogative phrase will take the same case, number and gender as the respective noun is supposed to have. Examples: 1. Accusative: Eg kenni hana. -> Hvarn kenner du? I know her. -> Whom do you know? Eh kalla å hana. -> Hvarn kallar du å? I'm calling her. -> Whom are you calling? 2. Dative Eg takka dem. -> Hvaron takkar du? I'm thanking them. -> Whom are you thanking? Eg hjålpa dinni syster. -> Hvarari hjålpar du? I'm helping your sister. -> Whom (=which woman) are you helping? 3. Mixed examples: Eg se. -> Hvar ser? I'm seeing. -> Who's seeing? Eg se. -> Hvatna gerer du? I'm seeing. -> What are you doing? Eg se hana. -> Hvar ser hana? I'm seeing her. -> Who's seeing her? Eg se hana. -> Hvarn ser du? I'm seeing her. -> Whom are you seeing? Eg se hana. -> Hvatna gerer du? I'm seeing her. -> What are you doing? Eg takka. - > Hvar takkar? I'm thanking. -> Who is thanking? Eg takka. - > Hvatna gerer du? I'm thanking. -> What are you doing? Eg takka henni. – Hvar takkar henni? I'm thanking her. -> Who's thanking her? Eg takka henni. -> Hvaron takkar du? I'm thanking her. -> Whom are you thanking? Eg takka henni. -> Hvatna gerer du? I'm thanking her. -> What are you doing? Eg gev -> Hvar gever? I'm giving. -> Who's giving? Eg gev. -> Hvatna gerer du? I'm giving. -> What are you doing? Eg gev henni fisk. <- Hvar gever henni fisk? I'm giving her fish. -> Who's giving her fish? Eg gev henni fisk. <- Hvaron gever du fisk? I'm giving her fish. -> Whom are you giving fish? Eg gev henni fisk. <- Hvat gever du henni? I'm giving her fish. -> What are you givng her? Eg gev henni fisk. <- Hvatna gerer du? I'm giving her fish. -> What are you doing? Notice also that if there is a preposition between the verb and object, the interrogative word takes the case of the object (as it has to be) and the preposition is moved to the final position in the sentence (as it is normally done in English): Eg tenki um dog. -> Hvat tenker du um? I'm thinking about you. -> What are you thinking about?

Eg driv at di. -> Hvaru driver du at? I'm occupied with it. -> What are you occupied with? Exercise 9.2. Translate into Nynorn: What are you seeing? Whom are you talking with? What are you occupied with? Whom are you writing? What are you writing? Whom are you writing letters? What are you writing to her? 3. Declension of adjectives in -el,-en,-er. Adjectives of this type have almost the same declension as other regular adjectives. The main difference here is that -e- of the last syllable drops if the ending begins in a vowel. Words in -en preserve en in the accusative of masculine singular and replace it with -ið in the nominative and accusative of singular neuter. The world litel 'little' is an exception and undergoes the latter change too, swapping -el with –ið in neuter singular, while all other adjectives in -el have here -elt: gamel 'old': Sg.

Pl.

M.

F.

N.

M.

gamel

gamelt

gamler gamlar gamel

Acc. gamlan gamla

gamelt

gamla

Nom. gamel Dat.

gamlon gamlari gamlu

F.

N.

gamlar gamel

gamlon gamlon gamlon

NB. -ml- is pronounced here as [mbl]: gamlan [gamblan], gamlu [gamblu] etc. vaksen 'grown, adult': Sg.

Pl.

M.

F.

N.

M.

Nom. vaksen

vaksen

vaksið

vaksner vaksnar vaksen

Acc. vaksen

vaksna

vaksið

vaksna

Dat.

vaksnon vaksnari vaksnu

F.

N.

vaksnar vaksen

vaksnon vaksnon vaksnon

litel 'little': Sg. M.

Pl. F.

N.

M.

litel

litið

litler litlar litel

Acc. litlan litla

litið

litla

Nom. litel Dat.

litlon litlari litlu

F.

N.

litlar litel

litlon litlon litlon

mager 'lean': Sg. M. Nom. mager

Pl. F.

N.

M.

F.

N.

mager

magert

magrer magrar mager

Acc. magran magra Dat.

magert

magron magrari magru

magra

magrar mager

magron magron magron

Exercise 9.3. Translate into Nynorn: Old buildings and old houses look beautiful. My dogs are slack (doven). She came with a drunk (drukken) man. She has a little child. We have lean horses. Wolfs (ulv) are greedy (hjårken). slack – doven drunk – drukken wolf - ulv nm. (s1) greedy - hjårken Reading Dað er mitt hus. Dað er ikke sturt, men ikke litið helder. Min brui er ikke uppvoksen i voru husi, hann buði hema hjå abba og ammu, hjejer vorer foreldrar vuru ung og ikke åttu sitt hus enndå. Vorer foreldrar buðu då sjålver hjå abba og ammu. Hjejer min brui vard voksen, køptu de vort nuvarandi hus og fluttu higar. – Så hvad heder du? – Eg hedi Gunnbjørn. Og du? – Eg hedi Gunnar, nesten dað sama. – Hever du bånn? – Ja, eg hevi liten son og voksna dotter. Hvat veð djer? – Dað er dvars imut hjå mjer, eg hevi litla dotter og voksen son. Vocabulary: helder – either uppvoksen part. – grown up bua vs. (past buði) – to live hema adv. – at home hjå prep. + Dat. – at, by abbi nm. (w) – grandfather amma nf. (w) – grandmother hjejer conj. – when (is only used in subordinate clauses and never in questions) foreldrar nm. (s1) – parents ega vpp. (past åtti, åttu) – to own (a preterite-present verb, to be explained in detail in Lesson Twelve) enndå part. – still, yet sjålv pron. – oneself (declines as an adjective) køpa vw. (1) – to buy nuvarandi adj. (indecl) – current, today's flyta vw. (1) (past fluttu) – to move higar adv. – hither, hereinto, over here nesten – almost dað sama – the same hvat veð djer? – what about you? dvars imut adv. – opposite, on the contrary

hjå mjer – for me, with me

Nynorn dialects As pointed out on the introduction page, Nynorn is mostly based on Shetland Norn. This does not mean though that the other dialects, such as West Norn (which differs from Shetland Norn mostly phonetically) and Orkney Norn are valued any less. If you are up to it, you can use those versions instead and on this page we give you a sketchy insight into what it could look like. It should also be mentioned that the creation of 'Nynorn dialects' allows us to include those real features of Norn that we have rejected from the main 'dialect' (apart from eventual lexical distinction between Shetland and Orkney). As an example, we can take the case system. Nynorn has 4 cases, which seems to be present in the Shetlandic version of Lord's Prayer and the Ballad of Hildina. On the contrary, the only known specimen of Orkney Norn, the Orkney Lord's Prayer, shows a reduced number of cases, if any. Most probably, Orkney Norn had 2 cases, common and genitive, like f.ex. in English, Scots and Danish. Someone would even argue that a similar 2-case system, as presented in Orkney Norn, should be chosen for the 'default' (Shetland) Nynorn instead of the 4-case one. This view can be ed with plenty of evidence from the existing Shetland Norn texts (s. Grammar of Shetland Norn, A.1.1.1.4.), cf. also the mixing of nominative and accusative in the ballad of Hildina (the ballad also features sporadic vacillations between accusative and dative, accusative and genitive). As a compromise solution, we have chosen the 4-case system for Shetland and Foula/Westside Nynorn and the 2-case system for Orkney Nynorn. The same logic should apply for other dialectal features that cannot be included within the same reconstruction. Below you will find a list of the main distinctive features of Nynorn dialects with a few 'live' examples (see General for more detailed information on the difference between the three 'real' dialects). This is just a rough sketch and at the moment we have no plans to further develop this section. Of course, if any of our readers come up with new ideas on this matter, we will not object in any respect. Shetland Nynorn: ON ll,nn > llj,nnj, a > æ before llj,nnj, -in(n) > -en, -i(t),u > -i,u, ON hv > hv, 4 cases system; West Nynorn: ON ll,nn > dl,dn, -in(n) > -in, -i(t),u > -e,o, ON hv > kv, á > wå, h- is dropped in pronouns, occasional postvocalic -g inserts, 4 cases system; several distinctions from Shetland Nynorn: Sh. er, eg, mukkið, lengi - W. jar, jag, megeð, linge; Orkney Nynorn: ON ll,nn > ll (occasionally llj),nn, ON hv > v, partial preservation of diphtongs and the ON þ/ð (marked as þ to distinguish it from the silent ð), 2 cases system (common case and genitive), weak feminine nouns end at -o. Shetland Nynorn

Shetland Mainland

Foula/Westside Orkney Nynorn Nynorn

Old Norse

English

(default)

Nynorn

Bånnið sat i Bånnjið sat i Bjadneð sat i Bannið sat i Barnit sat í The child sat grasenu. grasenu. grasino. grasið. grasinu. in the grass. Dokka (stolka) fell i hørug sen stud veð hjogen.

Dokka (stoljka) fellj i hørug sen stud veð hjogen.

Stulka Dokka (stolka) Stjølko fell(j) i (dokka) fell í fedl i hørug høru sin stud heyhrúgu sen stug veð viþ houen. sem stóð við hjogin. hauginn.

Dokken (stolken) hever kallað å hvita hesten.

Dokken (stoljken) hever kælljað å hvita hesten.

Dokken (stolken) hever kadlað wå kvita hestin.

Hænnj Hann glemdi glemdi um tegen og tegen hjogen. hjogen.

Hesten feller ikke, båden er i landi og eg hevi sovið mukkið lengi.

Stjølken hever kall(j)að å vita hesten.

Hann Ann glemde um glaimde um tegin og og taien hjogin. houen.

Hesten felljer ikke, båden er i lænjdi og eg hevi sovið mukkið lengi.

Hestin fedler ikke, båtin jar i lande og jag heve soveð megeð linge.

A girl fell into a hey stack which stood near the barrow.

Stulkan hefir The girl has kallat á called hvíta (upon) the hestinn. white horse.

He forgot Hann about the en gleymdi um field strip og teiginn ok and the hauginn. barrow.

Hesten fell(j)er ikke, båten er i land og eg heve sovið [mikið lenge].

Hestrinn fellr ekki, bátrinn er í landi ok ek hefi sofit mikit lengi.

The horse does not fall, the boat is onshore [in land] and I have slept for a very long time [much long].

Dictionary of Nynorn The dictionary is based on Jakob Jakobsen's Etymological Dictionary of Shetland Norn. Words from Norn texts (from the same dictionary), as well as both versions of the Lord's Prayer, The Ballad of Hildina, Hugh Marwick's Orkney Norn and existing Nynorn texts will be added later on. ABDEFGHIJKLMNOPRSTUVYØÅ Remarks: nm. - masculine substantive

nf. - feminine substantive nn. - neuter substantive adj. – adjective adv. – Adverb. pron. – pronoun vs. - strong verb vw. - weak verb vpp. - preterite-present verb prep. – preposition conj. - conjunction Default grammatical classification: - Masculine substantives belong to the 1st strong class ("hest"), when they end in a consonant or to the weak class ("skuggi") when they end in -i. - Feminine substantives belong to the 2nd strong class ("ferd") when they end in a consonant or to the weak class ("voga") when they end in -a. - Neuter substantives belong to the strong class ("lamb") when they end in a consonant or to the weak class ("joga") when they end in -a. - Weak verbs belong to the 2nd weak class ("kalla"). Other classes are explicitly specified. Grammatical keys are subject to revision.

A ag nn. movement forward, drift; ag nordesten frå wave-motion from north-east; norden-/sudenag; hannj er ag her; dað er ikke ag å fiskenon the fish will not bite aga vw. 1. to have feelings of sickness; 2. be obliged to vomit agga vw. to incite; sudenvinden aggaði fisken til strandanar agbånd nn. care for and interest in something; at taka mukkið agbånd i e-u agisom adj. frightful agla vw. to dirty; at agla veð lorgi [skiti] agla vw. 1. to get to blaze; at agla upp birteken get the fire blaze up; 2. to work energetically;at agla inn i hvara vinnu agment nn. anxiety, unrest aker nm. 1. corn(field): aker og hø corn(field) and hay; 2. stalks of corn; 3. something destroyed; at leggja i aker to crush, destroy akkel nm. shoulder ala vs. 1. to feed; du hever alið kuna; 2. to rear, ; 3. to entice ali nn. young domestic animal all pron. 1. all; 2. neu: over: dað er alt it is over; alt i sennall at once altra vw. to hesitate; at altra at gera e-t, hann myn ikke altra at gera dað amla vw. 1. to make little progress; 2. dabble at job; at amla at e-u

amos nn. 1. alms; 2. pitiful creature; hannj myn vinna at amosi ut inn under sten; jift kirkjan å Nesi vinner amos so at vi få sikken fisk amp nn. restlessness and nf. 1. breath; 2. last breath; to blag de a. at blaga andena to die, to draw one's a. to worry one to death andelukknn. 1. accident, misfortune; dað er andelukk falljen uppå då they met with an accident; 2. sudden ilness; jift ikke andelukk ber til [kemer å, sker] kuanar andi nm. 1. strong smell; 2. breath andor nn. small porch, penthouse; hannj lagdi dað uppå andor hussens andu vw. 1. to oppose; 2. to keep a boat against stream with oars anker nm. dry measure; anker taatiss annjehvar, fem. acc.sg. adrahvara 1. pron. every second one; 2. annjehvart adj. irregular, changeable, unsteady, chopping; hann bleser annjehvart ansa vw. to heed, look after, mind, care about; aldri ansa hannj! nevermind him!;eg (myn) ansa ikke idag I don't care today; ansa dog! look out! be on y. guard! ansilig adj. helpful ansperr nn. stiffnes in the limbs; at få ansperre ante, ende adv. even, yet, still aper adj. sharp, distinct apra vw. 1. to sharpen; 2. to liven up; 3. to get to blaze; at apra up birteken to get the fire to blaze apra vw. (ON aptra) 1. to detain, hinder; 2. to change one's mind; 3. to obey orders: hunden myn ikke apra; er hannj en gud aprandi hund?; devilin apri dog devil take you! apta nn. eve of a feast; Tammasmessapta; Toljegsapta ar, erk (Ork) nn. small particle ar nn. scar, scratch ard adj. covered with scratches ark nf. chest; case arra vw. to move feebly and lifelessly; at arra um [gånga arrandi um]to walk with difficulty, totter about; dað var alt, de kundu kenna, dað var arrandi they could just tell that the tide was moving arg adj. 1. evil, bad; arg uppå e-t; 2. very desirous of something, eager arga vw. to talk ill-temperedly; de argaðu en muti adron argeri nn. angry, importunate crowd argosi nn. malice, anger arm nm. 1. arm; 2. tail-end arm adj. poor, wretched arv nm. inheritance arvhus nn. large or high-class house asek nm. a closely woven straw-basket aska nf. 1. haze; 2. mist; aska uppå [øver] landið assu nn. rough, rainy weather at prep. at, to, by; at hava ilt (illvilja) at e-on to bear ill will; hvat hever du at honon? what have you against him?; at vara vel at sjer sjallon to be in good condition; at standa at sjer to move aside; upp at - up; against, alongside: at standa upp at veggenon; geve mjer tag at give me a helping hand/push the boat; tage hannj at!stick her (the boat) at! - after landing (pull); nord at in a northerly direction, northward; sud

[sør] at in a southerly direction; upp at upward, northward; up against, up by; vinden er faren upp at the wind is gone a little more to the north; ballestenen er sten fyri elden til at seta balla upp at (see balli) at conj. that; eg kennji at du myn gera dað atbørð nm. behaviour; gera illan adbørd [illa adbørdi] atdraga vs. to draw towards oneself = at geva e-on atdrag atferð nf. behaviour, conduct, manners; often pl.: atferðer atkoma nf. appearance, arrival; fyrsta atkoma av grundeni impression formed of the fishing-ground attel nf. 1. arrangement; 2. entertainment atlaga nf. taking hold vigourously, performing a task strongly attaljosnn. 1. daybreak, dawn, twilight; 2. daybreak in the summer;attaljos i mynni attekasten adj. (ON kasta aptr) cast off, rejected attekast nn. 1. queer, foolish, helpless person, rejected; 2. resistance atte, åita (ON aptan) 1. prep. G at the back of; 2. adv. behind; en kemer atten drilljande one (tail) comes dangling behind av prep. of avboden adj. distasteful avbregð, avbrigð nn. 1. sheep-mark; 2. variant avbregget adj. marked anew, altered avgeng, avgång nm. 1. accomplishment; 2. conclusion; 3. departure avhenta vw. to assign, transfer avhyda vw. to flay avkleda vw. to undress avkom nn. offspring avada vs. to unload avlag nn. fluency of speech avljuta vw. to make ugly, defacing avlynns adv. at sea fishing avlådna vw. to unload, discharge avrå vs. to dissuade: at afrå e-n frå e-u, at afrå e-n ikke at gera e-t avråk nn. offshore tide avsadla vw. to unsaddle avsetten adj. repulsive, distasteful avskerri nn. remote skerry, rock avtak nn. improvement: aftak i vedri improvement in the weather avtekja(avtesja) vw. to unthatch avunavara adj. at random, haphazardly < å vun og vara; at gera e-t (uppå) avunavara avvinning nm. finishing (of a a work)

B ba vw. (Far. paða) to pick (the flesh from the bones) bad nn. garment baffa vw. 1.to warm; 2.to poultice bag nm. purse bak nn. high and long wave bakbørd nn. port-side bakk nm. 1. bank, slope; 2. edge, bank

bakkalist nf. edge of the sea; at gånga [fara] um helu bakkalistena to search far and wide, everywhere baklengja nf. back-strip of halibut baklim nm. hindleg of an animal baklins adv. backwards baksår adj. sore on the back; esp. of a horse bal nn. noise bald adj. 1.bold; 2. quick; 3 skilful, good ball nm.a round lump balla vw. throw, fling; strike against so that it resounds; dokka (stelpa) stud ballandi skuna a girl was cleaning the boots with all her migth balla vw. to roll together balli nn. small cake of oatmeal balti nm. struggle bambusla vw. 1. to turn upside down; 2. to confuse; bambuseld confused band nn. band, bundle; bunch a b. o' pilteks banda to tie fish bang nn. 1. crack, noise; 2. sudden violent movement; at koma veð bangi to come with violence banga vw. to knock; bang til sørs (south) highest of the wind; banga at døronon [uppå dørnar] to knock at the door bani nm. 1. death;2. bad treatment bank nm. 1.edge; 2. bank, ledge banna vw. to swear bar nn. fins of fish Bardasoga (ON Bardolsvaka) nf. St. Bartholomew's Day; dað myn vara Bardasoga til då du fer dað gørt barfljuga (ON -fleygja), past. fljugdi vw. to separate corn from straw basla vw. 1.tosplash; 2. to work hard, struggle; at basla burt at; basla muti vindenon bati nm. great pile, mass; du heverfengið bata av honon (fish) i morgen belget adj. greedy ben nn. bone ben nn. bleat (of a sheep) Bena, *Bøna nf. Prayer-Sunday, 4th Sunday of Advent bend nn. preparedness; at vara uppå bend to be on the point of undertaking something; hvat er du uppå bend um? where are you going, what are you about? benda vw. to equip benidju nn. clenched hand, fist T benigrind nf. 1. skeleton; 2. skeleton of a dead animal benk nm. bench benling nm. 1. definite are in the sea, esp. of fishing; 2. boundary bennla vw.to tie together benwerk nn. gouty pains bera vs. to carry; at bera byrdek; at bera årana to use oars while rowing bera at vs. to get fastened to; de line bör at in a pluk and was made op (smapped in two) bera av vs. 1. to bear off, induce someone to give up a purpose; 2. to decline; avberin having desire to decline or withdraw; 3. to apologize bera fyri vs. to occur in one´s dreams or thoughts:dað bar fyri mjer

bera in 1. to stick in; 2. to occur to one (= bera fyri); 3. to agree, sympathize bera sog 1. to behave in a certain manner; 2. to move; 3. to drive bera til 1. to happen, take place; dað bar til, at...; 2. to chance bera upp 1. to arrive at destination; 2. to introduce a topic or conversation; at bera upp e-t til e-s to introduce, address bera samen 1. to match; 2. to harmonize bera um to bear in one's mind bera um vs.to happen, occur, take place bera ut 1. to execute, accomplish; 2. to colloborate, confirm; du myn bera ut hvat eg segi; 3. to differ, disagree, quarrel about something (ON bera sundr);de hava borið ut um dað they have disagreed about it (begun to quarrel about it); bera ut av monnjenon to try to stop the subject and direct the conversation another way bera vel at e-on 1. to be kindly or unkindly disposed at someone; du mått ikke bera ilt at di don't be offended; 2. to entertain bera veð to make the best of, to bear bera å [uppå] 1.to endeavour; 2. to take pains; hannj bar å [uppå] at høra dað berer nm. carrier berg nn. mountain, rock bergfallj nn. crash of somethingfalling; dað gav bergfallj bering nf. 1. act of carrying; 2. dense snowfall berk nm. 1. bark, exterior covering on trees; 2. skin on the surface of a liquid berket adj. covered with a skin berja vw. 1. to beat; 2. to thrash corn bersket adj. unpleasant, stale, strong (of a taste) bersugget adj. variegated, with faded colours best adj.superl. best; see gud bet nn. something to bite; geve køronon bet!give some good grass to the cow! taati-bet - seed-potatoes beta vw. (ON beita) to get to bite, let bite; at beta sedviti to set a dog on a sheep; drive sheep with the help of a dog; beta tunið við hundenon to drive the sheep away from the homefield; beta roddeken to plant a snigle row of potatoes betri adj.compar. better; see gud bid nm. short piece of line biding nm. small line, fastened to the main-line biker nm. wooden cup binda vs. to bind; jarden er bunden op the earth has become quite hard due to wind binder nm.cold, dry north-east wind birk nf.1. birch; 2. species of aquatic plant birta vw. to quicken a fire; at birta upp elden [birteken] to quicken a fire or light; opp. to at birta ut elden [birteken] let the fire out birtek nm. 1. fire;2. bright spot; 3. enlivenment bisnakka vw. to be busy with something without doing use bist nn. partly bad characteristics; der er ilt bist i honon bit nn. a bit taken before breakfast bita vs. to bite bitel nm. large tooth bitlek nm. 1. broken tooth; 2. small tooth bjak adj. weakly, having little physical strength

bjakk nm. small person, physically weak bjark adj.little, insignificant bjar adj. (ON berr) 1. bare; 2. with no fish; dað er bjart bjart adj. 1. cold (of wind); 2. biting, sharp (of weather) bjenek nm. dogT bjert adj. miserly, sparing, stingy bjog nn. (ON bauka) 1. disorderly heap; at ligga i bjogi (of things disorderly flung together); 2. mass bjog nm. (ON baugr) 1. ring; 2. ring around the sun or moon; 3. collar; 4. circular stripe bjoget adj. having a circular stripe bjokl nm. high dorsal-fin of a whale bjorg nf. 1. city; 2. house T, esp. of the manse; uppstanders bjorg bjørg nn. rocky hill of a fairly great height bjårga vw.1. to save; 2. to put away; 3. to hide blad nn. blade; devils blad no news at all (on inquiry on news) blada vw. 1. to reap, cut heather for thatching; at blada heddreken (heather);2. to cut peat;at blada videka = at fla mørena;3. to strike bladd nn.pl. very large raindrop; hannj ligger bladd å vindoganu, dað sama som dað var kavi blag nn. 1. interval; 2. breathin-space; 3. rest; take blag! blaga sog vw. to breathe, take a little rest; at blaga andena to die; blaga dog! rest a little! = take blag! blaga vw.to throw (away); fling b. dee doon! - throw yourself down! to b. de sail - to lower the sail blag(et) adj. dead blan nn. wind, breath of wind; ikke blan i seglenu not a breath of wind, not a breeze bland nn. mixture; blandablirek [-bliri] thick gruel; blandakjølek thick water-gruel blanda, blanjda nf. "dredge" mixed with oats and barley blannablura adj. mixed in a conspiracy or bad deed blasmek nm. thin cake of barley, oat or wheatmeal blattra vw.to flicker, flutter bleg adj. light and rather drab, colour bleget adj. of a whitish, drab colour blen nn. 1. spot of cloud; 2. light smoke; 3. fig. spot, blemish; ikke blen av guveni not a sign of a smoke; dað er ikke blen å honon blett nm. spot blettet adj. spotted blid adj.1. gentle, kind; 2. mild; hannj er ikke blid i bruneni he is looking angry, in bad humour blik nn. shine, something gleaming, pale or white blikkna vw. to turn pale; hannj blikknaði veð he turned pale (on of something) blind adj. blind blinda vw.to make blind blink nn. 1. wink, flash; blink jognana, fyrst blink dagsens, 2. a wink of sleep, doze; hannj hever takið sjer blink he had a short good sleep blinka vw.to gleam, flash; at blinka jogen; at blinka kolena to light the open train-oil lamp blinker nm.eye; star (tabu) blode nm. liquid blohonning nm. sheep with wooly hair growing out of the tip of its horn

blokka nf.1. buttercup (plant); 2. large leaf blurar nm.pl. something kept secret and brooded over; at hava [halda] e-t i blura; dað er komið i blura it has started to leak; føre dað ikke i blura! don't let it be seen!; dað er i blura it is just in sight; i blura veð e-n in partnership with somebody; hannj var i blura veð hannj um dað blynd nn. 1. somethingvery dense and dark; dað er ikke blynd av ljusi innen dørana;vi kann ikke få blynd ut av eson torvi; 2. a wink of sleep, doze; eg hevi ikke sovið et blynd i nåitt I have not slept tonight bløda vw., (past bløddi)to bleed blødfrind nm. kinsman blødsdropi nm. drop of bload; hannj er ikke blødsdropi til min he's in no blood relation to me bløva vw.(past bløvde)to perish, die (of people or animals; to die at sea); pp. bløvddead; hannj bløvde igår he died yesterday; hannj er faren at bløva he is going to die blå adj.dark blue blåhå nm. large shark = blågahå blåster nm. 1. strong wind, blast; 2. violence; hannj var i blåstri he had anger; 3. hasty speech blåstra vw. to cough bo nm.old fellow; gamel bo bo nm. sunken rock bod nn. 1. message; 2. offer; 3. invitation boda vw.to proclaim, announce, bode; hannj bodar fyri ilt bodabid: at gånga bodabid to share catch equally bodda nf. my dear (endearment to children); hjarta bodda! mammu piri bodda mother's little darling bodek nm.old boot bodra vw.to exceed boittn nm. 1. bottom; 2. little round valley; Vågboittn bolljet adj. round, clumsy bofi nm. 1. rogue; 2. an exclamation in swearing; bofi take dog [mog]!(d)evil take you/me! bofskit adv. headlong, precipitately bogi nm.: i bogacrushed, crumbling; at vara [liggja] i boga to crumble, crush, destroy completely bog(r)i nm. a little boy bogel nm. large cake (of oat- or barley meal); Bogladag - March 29th, when the field-work (de vor) began bogi nm. 1. creek,small bay; 2. curve boka vw. to squeeze, press down, stamp; at boka upp landið to trumple the ground down; at boka um 1. to stamp about; 2. to walk clumsily boki nm. ghost, bogey for frightening children; devils boki bol nn. 1. beacon; 2. blazing fire bolbak, -ek nm.(ON bilbugr) 1.upperhand, advantage, benefit; du myn ikke taka bolbak øver mog you shall not get the upperhand of me;2. opportunity; at taka [få] bolbak; hannj tuk bolbak øver mog bolføra vw. (past bolførdi) to hide away, put aside, keep safe bolførding nm. object preserved in a secret place bolljasog nn. violent shower bolk nn. large lump, bundle bolket adj. lumpy, bulky bollek nm. (Ísl. bull) 1. foolish talk, nonsense; 2. incoherent talk

bollet adj. round; bollet sten bolli nm.darling; min piri bolli! bolman nm. farmer, lessee, small holder bolsa vw. to press, squeeze, to nip (in wrestling) boltin adj. 1. big;2. round; 3. lumpy (head; cod) bolts nn. 1. anxiety, irritable state of mind; 2. preevishness; at vara i boltsenu to be irritable bomfisin nf. (ON *bumbfýsn) one's fill of food, abundant meal bon, bonfrost nn. severe frost; at frøsa sen bonið to freeze very hard bor nm. breeze bor nf.hole bord nm. point of land, promontory de Bord o' Musa bord adj. young; brood (of birds) borek nm. short breaking wave borg nf. fort (Pictish forts) borl nn.strong wind borrisk nm. (ON borðdiskr) 1. wooden tub; 2. large wooden bowl bord nm. (ON burðr) 1. distance a boat is carried away by the tide; 2. distance between two boats bost nn. attack of peevishness, bad humour; dað var ilt bost å honon bost vw. to speak harshly or angrily; hannj bosta at honon bragð nn. incision as an ear-mark in sheep bragða vw. to incise; cut an ear-mark in sheep bragasten nm. a heavy stone one tries to lift as a test of strength braktin adj. recently enclosed or cultivated ground bran nn.: at vara uppå bran to be on the point of going out or doing something brand nm. burning piece branjd nm. stripe branjdet adj. striped bred adj. broad breda vw. (past bredde) to melt; at breda sina båta to idle away a while, to do nothing useful bredband nn.: at liggja å bredbandi to lie spread for drying bredd nf. breadth brek nm. stripe (trough) brejda to sprout, grow (of a corn) brennja nf. fire brennek nm. 1. mock-sun; bright spot near the sun; 2. end of the rainbow brest nm. 1. crash;2. violent storm; 3. hard struggle; brest hvala shoal of whales bresta vs.1. to come rushing with a noise; 2. to come or go at great speed bri vw. (past bride) to sharpen; at bri skønið to sharpen the knife T brigda vw. to braid, twine, twist brim nn. surf brimi nm. 1. wave of heat or smoke from fire; 2. aurora borealis brinna vs. to burn brintek adj. indecl. with strong or dry wind (of weather) bris nn. 1. crack, fissure; 2. defect; dað er ikke bris or skamm å di brismek nm. cusk (a species of cod) britta sog vw. to strecht oneself in the warmth (or the sun) brod nn. 1. a piece of something broken; 2. capable, vigorous person

brodda vw.1. to come in sight; de hill-top just brodds in sight; de gish brodds i' de skröf - near the surface; 2. to begin to sprout (of plants) brodda nf. thefirst view or appearance; koma i broddu come in sight, leak brolk nm.protuberance, knob brolli nm. brother (tabu name for sea) bronget adj. dark-coloured with light breast or vice versa brosek nm. bold, quick active person broser nm. stout, vigorous person, woman brugg nf. edge, border brui nm. 1. brother; 2. gnome; 3. devil; haltu sjaft drengi, brui myn koma og taka dog! (NB: sjaft < ON kjaftr 'jaws' like sjag < ON kjaka 'to move jaws') bruk nn. 1. mass, heap; 2. multitude of a crowd bruksa vw.to have a bad cold and cough brults nn. crash, noise; eg hørdi brults av hans komu brun adj. brown bruni nm. 'the brown one', tabu for otter T brunka nf. brown mare or cow brunket adj. brownish bruski adj. frank, bold-looking brydda vw. to begin (to be floodtide); opp. toat nugga brustið brygg nf. bridge; brygg av noseni; røse bryggena at ber dog øver (proverb) praise the bridge you safely cross (= praise nothing before it has been tried) brynda vw.to desire a male (of female animals) brynnja vw.to give domestic animals water brytja vw. to cut up, cut into pieces (fish) brød nf. opened road; at braka brødena to clear the way; brødbrakandi pathfinder (Icel. brautryðjandi, Far. slóðbrótari) brølek nm. 1. cow, loving one; 2. tabu name for sea brøniskolt nn. banquet, feast; vildi du ikke stansa [stoppa] og taka purt [vera veð] i voru brøniskolti? brøsk nn. gristle brøst, brøs nn.(ON brjóst) breast brå nf. bubble of foam;hon hever bitið bråen suddenly becoming ill or taken offence, felt offended (without reason) brå nn. 1. characteristic likeness or feature; 2. resemblance; hon hever ikke brå av sinnari modershe has no resemblance to her mother brå nf. liver of halibut bråka nf. tangle, disorder; bråka i sjuenonheavy sea with choppy waves bråka vw.1. to speak badly or unintelligibly; hann kundi bråka um engelsk; 2. to walk in a careless manner bråket adj. behaving in a strange manner bråri nm. 1. bugbear, scarecrow; 2. repulsive person bu nn. abode, farm bu nm. 1. shoulder of an animal; 2. the bow of a vessel bua nf. cow (petname); gånge og binde buena go and tether the cow buffla vw. to push, shovel bugga nf. barley buhelli nf. 1. 5th day before Christmass; 2. sexual continence between the reading of the banns and the wedding itself; at halda buhelli

bulag nn. 1. family, breed; 2. special kind of breed or cattle bulder nn. rumble, noise, quick unintelligible speech buli(g) adj. healthy, vigorous, robust bulk nn. 1. bump; 2. breast, bosom; at gånga veð bjaron bulkon; bjarbulket; stikk dað i ditt bulk! put into your bosom! (stikk - imperativ of stinga) bull nn. measure for fluids bulla vw. to run rapidly, stream forth bulta vw. to push buman nm. brownie bund, bundsman nm. farmer, crofter; en gud bund uppå landið bunderi nn. crofter's allotment bunga vw. to strike, push bunki nm. a round wooden tub bunkset adj. short; stour, awkward bur nm. porch, porch-door burta vw. to kindle; at burta upp eld; burta ut elden let the fire go out; burta kolena bus nn. 1. precipitation;2. excessive haste; 3. blazing fire busten 1. big boulder; 2. stone bringing good luck buster nn.bolster, cushion bygd nf. collection of houses; øvre og nedre Bygdenar = villages Taft and Nisthus bygg nn. barley bygga vw. to build; at bygga hus, hø (in stacks) byggarablanjdanf. (ON bygghafrablanda) "dredge", a mixture of barley and oats bygging nf. cluster of houses bylki nn. a (bare, naked) breast; at gånga við bjaron bylkon byr nm. 1. strong sudden breeze; 2. haste; at vara i byri to be in a hurry; dað var mukil byr å honon he dashed away (in excitiment); hannj er i byri å doghe is embittered against you byrdek nm. heavy burden byrra vw.(ON byrja 'to set going') 1. to commence to blow; 2. to begin, start byrsten adj. angry byster, buster nm. (ON bólstaðr) collection of farms bø nm. farm; hus bøarens = sea-term for Kjorkabi bø nn. [ON boð] bid bø inn vs. [ON bjóða in] to invite; katten byr inn the cat is raising one hint-leg and licks its tail bø ut to call out bød nf. booth, tent, shed bøl nn. 1. litter, restingplace for animals; 2. residence, farm bøli nn. 1. ominous warning: unlucky word; 2. tremendous oath; hannj lagdi ut bøli he swore a tremendous oath bønhus nn. church børd nn. board, plank båken adj. baked båla vw. to blaze, flame (of fire); bålandi eld bålk nm. partition-wall in a house (de but; de ben) bånabegnm. 1. dwindling; 2. misreable state (because of hunger); faren til bånabegs miserable,vanished, lost bång nn. 1. ball, ball of the foot; 2. stroke, blow

bånga nf. 1. knock, knocking at a door; oba dørna, dað er bånga! open the door! somebody is knocking! 2. rocky cave, where the breakers roar bånga vw. to knock; at bånga at døronon to knock at the door bånnj nn. child bånnjbunden adj. hindered by having a child (of a woman) bånnjhogi nm.1. childhood's home; hannj er faren after til hans bånnjhoga he is gone back to his childhood's home; dað var bånnjhogi millja derra it was understood without mentioning; 2. a good trip (iron.); de hava gert bånnhjogi idag they have got nothing of their trip or errand today bånnjdom nm. childhood bånnjsvammnn. sickness, labour pains båt nm.boat båt(s)tiind nf. fishery tithe

D dadderi nn. tiresome work daddet adj. (ON dagsetr) tired-looking, faint, weary sunset dað pron. it; dað var en dag at... dafa nf. otter dag nm. day; goden dag, Tammasmessdag 21. December; Todlessdag 23. December; jøldagChristmass day, dags vinna a day's work daga vw. to break (of a day), hannj dagar the day breaks dagalig adj. badly done or prepared dagaliðen nf. (ON dagalíðan) decline of day; dað er komið til dagaliðenar the day declines; dað myn vara dagaliðen til då de koma atte [åitte] it will be long before they come back; du hever varið djer dagaliðen you've been long away dagaljus nn. daylight dagdvelja vw. (-dvaldi) to while away a time uselessly dagdvelj nf. 1. lounging; 2. fruitless occupation; dað er ikke men dagdvelj this is nothing but a fruitless occupation; 3. pl. dagdveljar toys for pastime; bånnjen mynu få knipptu [vermdu] diskana fyri [sen] dagdveljar the children will get the borken dishes as toys dagg nf. dew, moisture dagset nn. the close of day, sunset dakk nf. (ON þökk) thanks dala vw. to descend, go down, become calmer; hannj dalar there's a lull dala vw. to iddle about dal nm. 1. valley (ON dalr); 2. strip of level land (Gael. dail) dalamjork nn.mist in the dales dalarøk nm.mist rising from the water dalka, djalka vw. to walk heavily damp nm. end (of a fishing line) dampa vw. to wear off the end of fishing-line; linan er dampað (upp)the end has been torn off the hand-line; at dampa pipena to break asunder the pipe darg nn. mass, large portion dask nn. thickness, misty clouds; dask øver landenon misty clouds over the place

dasket adj.exhausted, worn out dat pron. that; veð dat sama 1. at once, at the same moment; 2. immidiately davra vw. to abate, diminish;vinden davra the wind quitened down defna-jora nn.deaf ear degi nn. verywet piece of ground, hollow dekk nn. 1. sea-bottom (tabu); 2. tyre del nm. deal, part densk adj. Danish; densker pengar Danish money derg nn.somethingimportant and valuable derga vw. (ON daðra) 1. to poke with fire persistently and violently; 2. to flirt derl nm. tail (of a sheep or pig) desja vw. to heap up hay in stacks desket adj.exhausted, worn out deva vw. (devdi) 1. to deafen; 2. to soften devilin nm. the devil; til devils! oh! the devil! di vw. to warm up di vw. to abate, calm di pers. pron. you 2 pl dibjasafit adj. weak, ailing, wretched digger nf.1. firmness of texture; 2. strength dikk nm. drink; få mjer dikk!give me a drink! diløda vw. 1. to disfigure; 2. to be unbecoming = afljuda;esi hatt diløder dog this hat disfigures you dimma nf. 1. dusk; 2. twilight;dað myn vara dimma til då de komma atte [åitte] it will be twilight before they come back; du hever varið djer burt ena dimmu you have been a long time away dimma vw. to make or grow (somewhat) dark; hannj dimmar om nåittena it's growing dark in the night dimmra vw. to darken, become nightfall dimmodali adj. (ON dimm-ok-dali) (a good while) away dimmriv nm. dawn in the summer dimmset nn. nightfall in the summer dimska nf. fog, bank of fog; dað er dimska gångandi ut frå sjunon there is a fog coming from the sea dirda vw. to stamp (with the feet); to d. de feet - with the feet dirdla vw. to shake, swing dirl nn. vibration, swinging; at seta e-t i dirl; at få dirl; at vara i [uppå] dirli; hannj kom veð dirli; hvatna dirl er dað at du hever åitte dog divlek nm. large piece of bread djag nn. dough, lump of dough djarf nm. boldly, fearless, bold djarf nf. 1. hardiness, courage; 2. absense of fear in the dark djeld nf. (ON deild) 1. plot of ground, strip of grassland; grasdjeld; 2. deal, part djubek nm. small, undeveloped ling djup nn. depth djur nn. 2. animal; 1.pl. cattle djur nm. "brick", excellent fellow, dear (mingling of djur) dodd nm. broken nail dof adj. stale, having lost its strength

dofna vw. 1. to become slack and feeble person; 2. to abate, calm (of a storm); hannj hever dofnað i vedrenu the storm [rough weather] has calmed dofning nf. calming; hannj er dofning i vedrenu doger nn. intense anxiety or waiting, hon var i dogri doi interj.: doi tak dee! devil take you! doitt nm. dull, indolent person doitta vw. to nod froms sleepiness; at sita doittandi øver e-u doker nm. 1. firmness os texture; 2. strength dokk adj. gloomy, depressed, discouraged; hannj er mukkið dokk uppå dað dokka nf. young girl; min dokka, min piri dokka! my (little) sweetheart! doli, dwali nf. soft hollow in sea-bottom dolk nm. a big bulky person dolsket adj. foolish, half-witted domra nn. (ON dómrof) fine paid for absense from the court domsket adj. dejected, silent, melancholy dona vw. to boon, din don nn. 1. dust; 2. grain, particle donare nm. fierce blazing fire dongja nf. heap, pile dor pers. pron. you pl., you polite; gen. dora; kwar gånga dor? where are you going?, Goden dag til dora! - reply to Goden dag! dorafel nf. board of a door; faren i dorafelar broken into pieces dordek nm. portion of something dorga vw. to fish with an angling line dorro nf. fishing line < *dorg dos nf. (ON dys) small stack of corn dost nn. grain, particle dotter nf. daughter;Jamesdotter, Jonsdotter doven adj. slack, feeble, numb dovna vw. to become slack and feeble dover nn. doze, light slumber not speak for sleepiness or weakeness dovra vw. to be or become drowsy orsleepy; dovra øver to fall into a light sleep; ordið dovraði fyri hans monnji he could not speak distinctly, either for sleepiness or weakness dradska nf. slowness, tardiness drag nn. 1. dragging, pulling; geve oss drag veð djer, drengi! give us a hand, boy!; 2. quantity of milk; mjølka drag ut ur kuni; draga vs. to draw, pull; draga fisk to catch fish with a hand-line; at draga mjølk (ut or kunni) to milk a cow draga at to stick fast (to the sea bottom);hannj dreger at dekkenu draga frå to draw line a little from the bottom draga ned draw to the night; hannj dreger ned til nåittar draga sog øver to begin courting draga til to steer the boat up into the wind draga upp to educate; rear; pp. draget upp, uppdragen; eg var uppdragen i Bressø draga upp sog: 1. to approach; 2. to draw near (of time); hannj dreger sog upp til jøla/til tolv draga uppå 1. to draw out, make long-drawn; 2. to speak very slowly draga ut to take fish out of brine, wash and prepare it draga ut uppå e-n to excite a kind of preternatural anxiety; dað byrraði at draga ut uppå mog

draga å to put on an article of clothing draga øver to overhaul dranga vw. to tie firmly dratsa vw. to move heavily and slowly drav nn. 1. drift; 2. shoal of young fish dravin adj. 1. decomposed, being rotten; 2. out of sorts dredlet adj. that trails something, f.ex. garment while walking drega vw. to troll with a fishing-line, keep it in motion up and down, to and fro drenga vw. 1. to draw tight, strangle;2. to make it up after quarrel; 3. at drenga at [til] to recover from illness drengi nm. 1. boy; 2. halibut T drift nf. drift, speed drilla vw. to upset, knock over drilla vw. to lag behind drinj nn. cat T drintel nm. 1. man with baggy clothes; 2. poor worthless article drintelskiti nm. dirt driplet adj. spotted, having irregular spots drita vs. (past dret, pp. dritten) to evacuate, cacare drit nn. excrement driv nn. 1. hurry, excitement; 2. agitated haste driva vs. to drive driva at to work or be occupied with something; hveron driver du at? what is your work? ungu mennener aldri drivu havið sen gamblu mennener the young men did not attach importance to deep-sea fishing as the old men did drog nn. person who carries heavy burdens droga vw. to carry heavy burdens droga uppå to work for a long time without being able to finish it droll nn. 1. slowness in movement; 2. hesitation drolsket adj. 1. slow; lounging; 2.dilatory drong nm. high rock in the sea droinnja vw. (past. drundi) 1. to drone, emit a hollow, long sound; 2. speak slowly droinnj nm. the hindmost part of the back of an animal drog nm. (ON draugr) gnome, troll drukk nm. drink, something to drink drukken adj. drunk, intoxicated drumba vw. to emit cross sounds, talk crossly and unwillingly: hannj drumbaði tvartri ord ut or sjer drummer, drummi nm.snipe, common snipe drums nn. gloomy, peevish mood: Hvat sette dog i sikket drums? drumsa vw.to be peevish, sulk: Hvat drumsar du um? drumset adj. sulking, peevish, morose drumsket adj. out of sorts, in a gloomy mood drunga vw. to draw firmly together, tie fast: at drunga til e-s drung adj. 1.narrow; 2. troublesome, heavy, difficult to force onward; 3. fatiguing; drung båt; tung drung vinna heavy troublesome work drupa vw. (ON drupti) to stoop, bend, lean over: veggerne drupa at hans sidu the walls stooped to his side drupsjag adj. 1. quite exhausted; 2. depressed; 3. very rainy drus nm. person who works well and energetically

drusla vw. 1. to chase; 2. to drive away in a harsh manner; drengi, drusla burt ditt svin! boy, drive away your swine! drusla hannj upp! move it (the horse) quicker (in ploughing) drusla vw. to sprinkle; at drusla salt å fisk drypa vw. (drypti) 1. drop slowly down; 2. to collapse drøg adj. (ON drjúgur) 1. substantial, abundant; 2. large T; at sni neberten øver drøgan to cut the bain into too large pieces (sníða niðrburðinn of drjúgan) drøri nn. (ON dreyri) blood (esp. from a wound); at draga drøri to wound somebody dråitta vw. to come lagging behind du nf. dove dua vw. to address familiarly du pron. pers. thou, you, serdu! looks-to! look here! duk nm. 1. duck; 2. fabric, cloth dulk nn. night cap dumbvillja nf. Holy Week days; dumbvilljadagavoga Holy Week, week before Easter Sunday dumm adj. 1. deaf, hard of hearing; 2. stupid dun nm. down, soft plimage of birds dunder nn. rumbling sound; Dondri - waterfall (cf. Dynjandi) dunter nm.eider-duck dura vw. 1. do doze; 2. to move drowsily durasuk nm. draught between doors or through narrow age duster nn. quarrel, angry dispute; de havde duster they had a quarrel, dað var duster mellja dera; at storta [mana] duster to wrangle, dispute angrily dvala vw. 1. to sleep lightly; 2. to fall into a light slumber; at dvala øver dvali nm. 1. light slumber, nap; 2. short lull in rough weather: hannj gørdi dvala fyri tiðena a lull in the storm for awhile dvelja vw. (past dvaldi) 1. to idle away the time; 2. dawdle about dvang nn. piece of wood dvarg nf. 1. haste, speed; 2. ing shower; hannj gekk veð dvarg å sjer dvarga vw. to move speedily, rush dvars prep. across: de nail is driven in d. dvarsa vw. to place crosswise; dvarsa grundena to set long-line acros the fishing ground dvavra vw. to doze dvetla vw. to wash slightly, rins dvimmsa vw. to dwindle, diminish dvåg nn. (ON þvag) 1. urine; 2. mud dy nf. calming of the weather, abatement of storm; hannj er dy i vedrenu dy nn. heave, swell; at finnja landið veð dyi dyba vw. (past dybdi) to dip, to be constantly at sea dyba sog vw. to strive, soil, slave dyba intil vw. to indulge (into gossip) dyba å vw. to constantly soil oneself dyba ut vw. to stay out long, away from home; kørna liggja dybandi ut til heveds av dimmu the cows stay away till midnight in summer dyppa vw. (dypti) dip, bend oneself dø nn?. 1. miry place; 2. swamp dølos adj. lazy, inactive, unwilling to work

døm nn. example døms, a-døms as, for example dør nf.pl. (Gen.pl. døra and dura) door dørka vw. to hold out, continue work or project as long as possible; vi dørka hannj ut; de dørkaðu hannj vel ut dagen they stay long today on the fishing-grounds despite the bad weather dørkalig adj.usable, serviceable Døt nm. him you know, aforemenshioned (see also hannepå, hannister, haipernor, Ovik, Og);mannen uppå Døt dåð [do] nf. 1. strength, energy; 2.solidity, quality; 3. durability dådda interj. bless us! dådda mog! 'bless' < dått dålos adj. slow, inactive, wanting in energy and ability dåma nf. sensation, taste; dað er ikke dåma å fiskenon dår nn. drop dåren nm.: ill dåren to the devil! hold your tongue! dårska nf. 1.daring, foolhardy action; 2. lack of sense, delusion

E ebb nn. (L.Sc. ebb, ON fjara) foreshore ed nn. 1. isthmus; 2. neck of land, narrow strip of land between 2 seas or firths eder nn. 1. venom, poison; 2. sharp [cancer, bitter] cold; 3. a mythical fish, 'sea-serpent'; at fljuka sen eder to make rapid headway edjek nm. eddy, branch from a main current efter prep. (D) 1. after: at biða efter e-on to wait for someone; 2. towards, along; nord [sud] efter in northerly direction;øver efter towards that side, in efter inwards, 'ut efter outward; ut 'efter all the time after, right through, from beginning to end: lat deir reda dað upp, sen de kunna, or sibba efter let them arrange or settle it as they're able to, or are related; efterbåt nm. 1. boat which can't keep up with others; 2. person inferior to another efterkast nn. afterclap eftergerd nf. 1. forgery, imitation, counterfeit work; 2. discoveringof stolen goods by witchcraft efterman nm. folower; successor efterstander nm. something left standing eg pron. pers. I: A mog, D mjer, pl. vi, AD us eg nm. 1. chastisement, correction; 2. deserts egg nn. 1. egg; 2. birds egg egg nf. edge egga vw. 1. to egg; 2. to drive; 3. to incite; at egga samen ei interj. eh! ha! eing nf. property eken adj. thin, meagre eld nm. fire elderin adj. elderly el nn. (ON él) strong current of air or draught elska vw. to love elsket adj.: elsket eg! wearied I! elta vw. (past elti) 1. to squeeze, handle too roughly; 2. to pull about; 3. to chase, pursue; at elta smor to be very long aboot doing something;

at elta å e-t to dig ground; de elta at taatis they are eagerly occupied in taking up the potatoes elta vw. to spew, vomit en num. one; neu. et ende part. yet, still, even now; cf. ante endlang adj. at full length, from end to end endmark nn. the farthest boundary enfald adj. 1. single, of a single part; 2. simple eng nf. meadow engskipti nn.pl. 1. ameadow-lot; 2. allotted piece of meadow enjd nm. breath; at draga enjdena enk, jenk nf. 1.possesion;2. dedication; 3. sweaheart; hon havdi aldri jenk she never had a boyfriend enka vw. 1. to dedicate; 2. to allow; at enka djurið uppå et mannligt namn to give an animal a human name ennji nm. steep projection or slope ent a vw. to heed, care for entig adj. obedient er nf. (ON æra) honour, glory; alt veri er til din (jer)! may all your wishes be fulfilled! ill er veri til hans!shame to him! er nf. flat sand-bank erdros nm. old Shet. wooden plough erendlos adj. without errand; dað er sagda ikke erendi at hava sent dog heryou have surely not come here exept on an important errand erga vw. to irritate, tease;at erga uppå e-t erik nm. yearling ering, hering nm. a boat rowed by oars ern nm. eagle erpa, jarpa vw. 1. to be prudish, turn up one´s nose, 2. to constantly becomplaining; at erpa um e-t to be always asking for something; 3. to harp upon the same subject; at erpa uppå e-t to keep on asserting something incorrect; at jarpa uppå to repeat the same question erskið nn. mouldboard (of a plough) erta vw. 1. to irritate, tease; 2. provoke erta vw. to strive forward es nf. fiercely blaming fire esing nm. lower, interiour part of a roof Essja nf. ash-coloured cow esten adv., adj.subst. 1. east; 2. eastern, from eastside esterkop nn.fine paid every third of a year estra vw. to become easterly (of a wind) esterlig adj. easterly et nn. 1. agitation; 2. excited state of mind; at vara i eti øver e-t et nn. eating:dað er et å fiskenon eta vs. to eat; etandi - eadible; at eta upp to penetrate, worry, make envious or malicious; uppeten filled with angry eter nn. 1. venom, posion; 2. cancer, bitter cold eterkap nn. large spider eterskab nm. bitterly cold weather

etersom adj. bitterly cold Eti nm. name for a goblin (Eater?); Eti [Gonni] myn taka dog! ettri adj. (ON eptri, aptari) latter (half): dimsens ettri the later half of midsummer night ev nn. doubt, irresolution eva vw. to doubt evalig adj. doubtful, not to rely upon evla vw. to master, be able to even nn. 1. material;2. matter, means; hannj hever gert dað ut av litlu evni he's done it out of (with) little resources ever nn. (ON œrinn, yfrinn 'excessive') being or thing of a very large size eviltu interj. live it alone! (exclam.) < ei, viltu!

F fadabrod nn. old, partly broken object fader, faðir nm. father fallj nn. current in the sea; infallj flowing tide; utfallj ebbing tide fallja vs. to fall fallja at to fall asleep, slumber fallja fyri to occur to one: dað fellj fyri mjer! it came into my mind fallja frå 1. to fall off; 2. to forsake; 3. to die falljauppå to begin to lose freshness (fish, meat); fisken er falljen upå fallj nn. 1. fall; 2. downfall, lameness fanga vw. to tie a knot; at fanga upp linena fang nn. 1. grasp, hold; 2. knot; 3. prize, booty, profit fann nn. heap fo drifted snow de snaw lies in fanns far nn. epidemic far nn. vessel, boat far nn. time, round;fyrsta farið! annar (farið)! first round! second (round)! (in children's games) faren adj. gone, ed away, old-fashioned, obsolete fasgerd, fasgård nm. 1. wall of peats; 2. length of pleated straw; 3. long rag dragged behind: hvatna fasgerd er dað, at du dreger efter djer? fasgårda vw. to repair a straw-basket (kessi) sewing a new bottom fallsjon nn. epidemic Fasten nf. Quinquagesima fasta vw. to fasten fatgud nm. butter and train-oil, paid as a tax to a feudal feda vw. to have a severe, fierce look fedek nm. 1.bucket; 2. waterpail fedmel nf. thick woman feg, fåg 1. beautiful; 2. sun T feg, fej adj. dying fegska nf. supernatural vision portending death fellj, fjellj nn. 1. mountain; 2. height

fellja vw. to strike felljo nm. 1. mate, an equal; 2. companion fema vw. to float as a layer on the water (of oil) fena vw. to show delight, receive hospitably; eg fena hannj ikke I could not bear him fenlig adj. pleasant, attractive ferd nf. 1. travel, journey; dað kom til ferdar [ferdeks] it was a nice journey (ironically);2.speed, great haste (also fjerd); at gånga veð muklari fjerd; dað er fjerd å honon ferd, fjørd nn. 1. a person of value or importance; 2. good compensation ferda vw. to walk quickly; at gånga ferdandi; hvarna ferder du til? sjuven ferdaði burt veð sinu fragi ferdalek nm. journey or errand resulting badly; dað kom til ferdaleks ferdebord nm. great haste or bustle ferdig adj. 1. in good condition; 2. still active; 3. ready, prepared ferdimet nm. provisions for a journey fifla vw. to act foolishly fifler nm. foolosh person fillafjoga nf. nothing turning out; dað gekk fiflafljoga veð honon everything gone wrong with him filska vw. 1. to make fun; 2. to make fun; at filska veð stoljkon filska nf. 1. foolery, sillyfun; 2. flighty behaviour finna vs. 1. to find; 2. to feel; eg fann guvið av hans anjd I felt his breath; at finna kalt [gott, ilt]; fu finner du? how do you feel? firdet adj. lost, disappeared (in spite of search) firl nn. ridiculous new fashion in dress fisk nm. fish fiskafjel nf. fish-board, partition in a boat to prevent fish from slipping fiskalig adj. suitable for fishing; dað er ikke fiskaligt i dag the weather is not good for fishing today fiskarroe nm. unlike or unbecoming a practical fisherman fisket adj. out of order, tangled fitgeng, fitgång nm. cattle track fitja vw. to plait or twist into each other fivla vw. to cover thinly; at fivla uppå kost fjagers interj. hang it!; fy upon it! = exclamation of annoyance fjala vw. 1. to hide oneself; 2. disappear fjaldrekar interj. exclamation of surprise fjalsgård nm. fence, division, marking boundary parts of a out-field fjandi nm. devil; fjandin siter i dinon hanjdon! confound it! hang it! fjansken interj. oath, exclamation: confound it! hang it!; fjansken uppå ita ting! may fortune attend that child! fjarsken 1.nm. devil; 2. interj. outburst, anger: hvatna er fjarsken veð djer? fjasken adj. desirous, greedy; fisken er ikke fjasken the fish won't bite fjedemor nm.poor butter fjel nf. board, esp. plank in a boat fjoda nf. short skirt; esp. skirt with a bodice fjog nn. loose substance, dust fjoga vw. to grind, crush fjomtan num. fifteen, 15 fjora nf. edd, foreshore

fjorahvarf nn. absense of ebb fjord nm. 1. firth; 2. extensive fishing-ground fjord nm. 1. crowd; 2. multitude fjorek nm. pet name for a little child: oh du piri fjorek! darling, my little life! fjorken adj. 1. nimble; 2. active; fisken er ikke fjorken fjosket adj. slovenly, untidy fjårka vw. to move nimbly in a wheedling orcoquettish manner fla nn. (ON flag) thin, pared off heather- or grass-turf flakra vw. 1. to play fond pranks; 2. to fool; at flakra veð stoljkon flatja vw. 1. to flatten, press down; 2. strike to the ground flemper nn. ion, excited state of mind flemster, flemter nn. a rushing along in a confused hurry flet nm. patch of cultivated land, strip of arable or grass land flinder nn. splinter; shaving; thin slice flingset adj. giddy, wild flinsja sog vw. to lie basking in the sunshine flitja vw. 1. to move aside; 2. move oneself; 3. to carry flitman nm. porter flo nm. 1. swampy place, morass; 2. sea T floga vw. to throw, let fall floga nf. fly; longafloga, swartafloga flogadriftnf. (confused) haste, speed flokk nm. crowd, multitude flokner, flukner nm. (ON árflognir 'raven poet.', *flognir) fowl T floraskit nn. unsuccessful work flosa vw. to flirt, coquet, dally floti nm. small ferryboat, raft fluka, fljuka vs. to fly off, fall off fluki nm. little fellow; to a child: min piri fluki! flukra nf. 1. quantity of big snowflakes; 2. occas. snowflake flurakavi nm. dense snow fløda vw. (past fløddi) to reach high water flød, flørd nf. speed, great haste flødferd nf. great hurry, speed foga vw. to drift (of dense snow); fogandi [murandi] kavi dense falling snow, snow-storm fogbord nm. dense snow-storm folekar nm. folk, people, esp. men T folgja, foldja 1. annual pension; 2. abundant provisions; 3. long time, eternity foiljda vw. to wrap oneself in clothes; foiljdet; foiljdet um andlitið fomma vw.1. to smoke; 2. to drift; 3. to escape (of a smoke); guven fommar ut um dørnar; hannj fommar ut guvena; fommandi kavi foni nm. fire T for(ð) nm.(ON forði) a find of great value for prep. (Dan, Nor for) for; hvat for mannj er hannj? what kind of man is he? ford nf. poor result;dað kom til pørligara fordar it didn´t succeed forgeng, forgång nm. foreboding, supernatural appearance of a person; see fegska forken-metet nm. delicious, savoury food forkop nn. 1. lawman's salary; 2.taxes constituting the lawman's salary forlegen adj. thoroughly exhausted, weakened

forrum nn. forehold in a boat fors nm. waterfall forsend nf. snell on a fishing-line formela vw. (ON fyrirmæla) to consecrate, sanctify forspoken water (holy water) forsukn nf. piece of iron or whalebone fixed to a sinker on a fishing-line fosens interj. exclamation of surprise: oh min fosens! oh my gracious! foud nm. (ON foguti) 1. bailiff, prefect; 2. president of supreme court foudrí nn. (Dan. fogderi) 1. bailiff's district, bailiwick; 2. office of bailiff (great foud) frad nm. fart fradavw. to fart frek nm. feeble, delicate person fråsaga 1. tale, narrative; 2.rumour frag nn. 1. person or thing of value; 2. good bargain; dað er frag that's a great deal; at gera frag ut av e-on to make a good profit (partly ironically) fram adv. 1. forward; 2. forward to the stem of a boat; 3. away from the shore out to sea; at seta ut fram to head towards the high seas; hannj er fram setting seawards (tide); fram veð (forwards) along; at vara frammito be out at dep-sea fishing; fram av in front of, farther out at sea; in games: at vara frammi to be forward; comp. framer farther out at sea opposed to hemer: fremer Sedeken - hemer Sedeken framhav nn. deap-sea fishing grounds; at gånga til framhavs = at gånga fram framsida nf. foreside fremd nf. foreign countries fremd adj. strange, not akin frend nm. kinsman, relative;see blødfrind frest nn. poor attempt to carry out a piece of work frest nn. respite, time spent in waiting fresta vw. 1. to afford; 2. to attempt, try; 3. to dispense with fresta vw. 1. to delay, postpone; 2. to have a respite;3. to wait (Conn.) fro nn. 1. seed of a plant; 2.anthers in a flower frod nf. froth, foam, esp. sea-foam frolik nm. (ON fróðleikr) old magic rigmaroleor formula fromli adj. neat,orderly fron nm. superstition, magic formula fru nf. 1. woman; 2. wife T frøtt nf. (ON frétt) 1. sooth-saying;2. superstitious belief, customs and spells; 3. news frå prep. from; at sija frå fugl, ful nm. bird fuglekavi nm. dense snow-storm ful adj. 1. foul, uncertain; 2.angry, annoyed fullek nm. fool force, speed fumlig adj. big, unshapely, gross in appearance fund, fynd nm. a find, something found fungli adj. 1. generous; 2. open-handed fusom adj. eager, industrious futra vw. 1. to check; 2. to prevent; 3. stand in one's way futvark nm. 1. pain in the feet; 2. much trudging about

fyrering nm. four-oared boat fyri prep. for; alt fyri et just this minute (Fær. alt fyri eitt) fyrebord nm. apparition coming as a (supernatural) warning; gekk til fyrebordar came to nothing, vane hope fyrfoder nm. cat T (the four-footed one) fyrsmå nf. 1. contempt, outrage, neglect; 2. small triffling present, triffle fyrsmå vw. 1. to diminish, lessen; 2. disregard; 3. insult;a firsm body fyrst num. first føra vw. (ON fœra) to convery, carry; du mynt føra sen du finner be content with what you have or get førd nf. 1. hurry;2. unsuccessful result (=misførd); de vuru å muklari (mis)førd førda vw. (ON ferðask) 1. to wander; 2. to get on [along] in a certain manner; 3. to thrive; at førda gott/ilt to behave; hannj førdaði vel he was well received få vs. 1. to get, receive; 2. procure; få mjer dykk! fång nn. embrace fångsnåra nf. violin (old-fashioned) = gju [gu, gø] 2-stringed violin fångstrång nm.the first string of a violin fåren adj. 1. gone away; 2. set off; fu er du fåren? what luck have you had? eg er fåren øver vel I've fared very well

G gallj nm. mock-sun gab nn. 1. gap, opening; 2. idle talk, nonsense gaba vw. to be talkative; gab(s)et gaba nf. cave, grotto gabel, gevel nm. (ON gafl) 1. gable, end-wall; 2.steep headland gabi nm. talkative, tattling person gad nn. hole, opening gadd nm. large nail, spike galafert adj. wild, frolicsome galdragonanf. scorceress, witch gall adj. 1. hard, difficult; 2. bad gama vw. to make fun gamarið nf. (ON gaman-hríð) 1. wild, noisy mirth, loud talk; 2. laughter; at halda [gera] gamarið gammel adj. weak decl. gambli, gambla old gander nm. sudden feeling of powerlessness, sickness at heart (< sickness from witchcraft?) dað er ilt gander uppå mitt hjarta gang, gjang nn. 1. going, gait; 2. age;3. throughfare, floor; 4. turn, times gansel nm. 1. qualm;2. vomiting; 3. strange appearance ganska adv. very well, quite well T gard nm. 1.enclosure, fence; 2. halo around the sun or moon gardbalk nm. ridge of earth marking the boundary between two pacthes of arable land garm nm. : roffatu-garm - with an untidy hair like gart nm. (ON garðr) 1. enclosed uncultivated patch of land; 2. farm gelaegit adj. (ON *ga-litkaðr?) coloured (of animals)

geng nm. 1. going, gait; 2. throughfare; 3. times, circuit, row genga nf. long walk genger nm. sunrise T; å gengerenon of the sun, at sunrise gera vw. 1. to do; gera so! do it! 2. to make,produce; 3. to raise, let blow (weather); 4. to assist, further; hannj gerdi rið; at gera veder to forecast weather (ON gera úr - interpret); gera ilt to cause bad blood between friends gera efter 1. to copy, counterfeit; 2. to discover (by magic) where stolen goods are hidden gera til 1. to fashion, form; 2. to arrange, prepare gera um 1. to change places; 2. to from hand to hand gera uppå (sog) to get ready to set out on a journey gest nm. guest geta vs. to beget, get; hannj gat hana veð bånni he got her with a child getling nm. pig, young hog geva nf. (Nor. givnad) 1. natural ability; 2. correct manner of behaviour or carrying out something; see also gåva geva vs. 1. to give; 2.fail T; 3. give away geva å 1. to urge on; 2. to work energetically at something geva upp to give up; hannj gav upp å dem he gave it up owning to exhaustion and withdrew from the game; båten gav upp å dem the boat was no longer serveable geva til 1. to give much to (intense desire); eg myndi geva e-t til (cf. ON ek vildi gefa mikit til); 2. to drub, cudgel gidli nn.knife T gil nn. 1. ravine, ghyll; 2. small narrow dale gild nn. (ON geld, gjald) payment, compensation gild adj. 1. payable, valid; 2. valuable; 3. capable, good at work; 4. excellent, notable gilet adj. having whitish or yellowish belly girja vw. 1. to press, squeeze; 2. to be squeezed or pressed givamild adj. 1. generous;2. open-handed gjo nf. cleft in a rock gjoger nm.species of sea-perch gjomek nm. stripe, esp. on animal's forehead gjomet adj. faded, pale, sickly-looking gjord nf.1.income; 2. large gift, fine present; hvar røsar gjordena everyone praises what he gets; dað er gjord gjot, gjut nn. 1. defile, hollow; 2.small dale; 3. narrow cleft gjånga nf. in compounds: something given to someone on errand gjånger nm.steed, horse glab nn. 1. opening;2. space, esp. a cleft; 3. hollow; 4. small dale glerla nf., glerhellek nm. sheet of ice glib nn. 1. large quantity; 2. iron. good exchange; 3. good reward glans nn. brightness, shine glansa vw. 1. to shine, give light (of bright metals) glant nn. 1. amusement, mirth; 2. pleasantry and jest glegg adj. 1. sharp-sighted;2. acute; 3. clever, quick to learn; glegt er gestsens joga (Fær. glöggt er gestsins eyga, Ísl. glöggt er gestsins auga) glepa vw. (past glepti) (ON gleypa) 1. to swallow; 2. to dry up; 3. to address somebody crossly glerel, glerhellja nf., -ek

nm. smooth, glassy sheet of ice gljoger nn. foam on the surface of the sea gljur nn. 1. deep cleft; 2. darkrocky cavern; 3. grotto globeren nm.def. the moon T gloder nn. 1. glow of heat; 2. reddish light; sulen var uti veð glodri; dað er gloder veð suleni; dað er gloder uti; gloder fyri [under, av] suleni glodret adj. 1. dense, large, dark (of a cloud); 2. charged with clouds (air) gloga vw. to cast furtive watchful side-glances about gloitta vw. 1. to slide, to slip; 2. to become loose gloitt nm. 1. large portion of food; 2. meal between regular meals, snack; also glutning (glot-, gloit-) - a glutton gloma vw. to grasp, gather;at gloma samen [op] taatis glomek nm. paw, large hand glomet adj. dirty, with begrimed face (striped with dirt) gloming nm. daybreak glonsa nf. additional meal, between regular meals glont nm. 1. big well-grown boy; 2. large jelly-fish, medusa glopen adj. gluttonous, greedy, hungry glu, glua? vw. 1. to glow, give light; 2. shine glub nm. 1. gap, ravine; 2. appetite T dað er ikke glub å fiskenon gluggi nm. small round cake glukast nm. 1. large heap, quantity (of potatoes); 2. snack; hannj lagdi i [var veð] glukasti gluma vw. to suspect, be suspicious; at gluma uppå e-t; at illgluma to scowl glums nf. pit, hollow, depression in sand glupni nm. glutton, greedy person glura vw. 1. to stare, gaze; 2.shine in the dark; fisken glurar i myrkenu glygg, glegg nm. hole in a wall, small window gløb, gløbi nm. good mouthful, large portion glød nf. red-hot embers gløma, glema vw. (past glømdi) 1. to forget; 2. neglect glåm nm.1.moonlight; 2. low fire; 3. white stripe; 4. lamp T goda, gøda nf. road, path godek nm. riddle, something to guess godet adj. minded, tempered goiljd nf. strong heat, short period of heat goiljtinm. 1. hog, (fatted) pig; 2. stupid person gojek nm. 1. snowman; 2. young coalfish gola nf. wind, blast goljdet adj. decayed, beginning to putrefy gollja nf. 1. godmother; 2. young woman attending a mother gong(s)ja vw. 1. to swagger, swing; 2. to walk aimlessly; hvar(na) genger du gongsjandi til? goni, gonni nm. 1. supernat. being (elf); Gonni myn taka dog!; 2. ugly woman gopn, gjopn, gjopem nf. handful, hollow of the hand gorja vw. (past gurdi) to plant too closely gosen adj. slightly dried in the wind gotek nm. 1. fissure, cleft; 2. gutter grabb nn. grab, grasp gram adj. 1. very desirious of; 2. delighted, overjoyed (øver) gramisa vw. (past gramisti) to bewitch; cf. fommis

granda vw. to hurt by witchcraft granderi nn. 1. witchcraft, sorcery; 2. magic grandori nn.septennial court granni nm. 1. neighbour; 2. address my friend! comrade! grava vs. 1. to dig up; 2. bury; sjuen grever av boitnenon gred, greð nm.coll. 1.objects; 2. implement; 3. matter, object; dað er greden! pretty thing! (iron.); 4. sort, kind gref nf. 1. grave;2. sea-bottom; also as -grøf [grof] in bakkagrof grefster nm. 1. digging up; 2. burial gremja vw. (past gramdi) 1. to be embittered, enraged; 2. to swear horribly; 3. to grieve; 4. to complain (øver, um) grep nf. 1. fork;2. forked implement, manure-fork gresi adv. excellently; gresi ger carefully [excellently] done grimm adj. 1. grim, fierce, harsh; 2. ugly grind nf. 1. gate;2. frame; 3. shoal of whales grinda vw. to shut the gate in a fence grindhval nm.'caaing' whale grip nn. 1. robbery;2. taking hold of grip nm. valuable object, excellent of its kind gris nm. pig, (young) swine grist nm. 1. force, strength; dað er ikke grist i honon; 2. hypnotizing, witchcraft;at kasta grist øver e-on groinnj nm. shallow fishing-ground groinnjing nm. cod; tanngroining gronan nf. 1. presentiment, suspicion; 2. casual mention of something;eg havdi gronan av di I heard it incidentally; I got a hint of it grot, grut nm. porridge grund nf. 1. ground, soil; 2. foundation; 3. sea-bottom grunnka nf. shallow bank in the sea gryk nn. dawn grøbi nm. 1. small, feeble, incapable person; 2. naughty child grøflingsadj. adv. face downwards, prostrate grøli, grølek nm. 1. bugbear; 2. witch; 3. masked or disguised person grøn adj. green grøning nf. dawn grønska nf. green heads of turf turned up by digging grøt nn. 1. stone, species of stone; 2. stony ford grøta nf. pot grøtstað, grot- nm. porridge grå nf. 1. wind; 2. gentle breeze grå adj., weak grågi (A.S. græg?) grey gråga nf. the grey one (mare or cow) gråget adj. grey(ish) grågi nm. grey stallion or bush gråkollj nm. mouse T < "grey head" gråta vs. (past gret, pp gråten) to weep gråtsa nf. weeping girl gråtsi nm. weeping boy gråtska nf. crying and noise guð, gud adj. (neut. goitt) good guðen, guðin nf. improvement in the weather guv, gov nf. (ON gufa) 1. steam, smoke; 2. strong smell;eg fann guv av di; 3. heavy breathing; 4. hurry; 5. anger; hannj kom i guv guva vw. 1. to steam, smoke; 2. tobreathe heavily; 3. to hurry on

gulsa nf. jaundice; gulsagras - a remedy against jaundice gum nf. 1. mind; temper; 2. feeling; at hava illja gum at e-on guma vw. to pay attention, to notice; = enta (anta) gykerl nf. 1. ogress, sorceress; 2. tall, stout woman gø nf.(ON gígja) old-fashioned 2-stringed fiddle; see also gju gødasi nf.(Fær. góðska?) good thing put by for a certain occasion; at halda e-t fyri gødasi; 2. quality gør nf. (ON gýgr) 1. unusually tall woman; 2. masculine woman gå vs. (Danicism, Fær. ballads gá, stá) to go, only in: stå or gå gåva nf. 1. natural ability; 2. gift gåit nn. hole, opening in a roof gånga, genga vs. 1. to go, to walk; 2. to flow,to stream, to roll (of nature phenomena); hannj genger ikke at koma he will hardly come; gångandi kjonki [søga] infectious cold gånga av 1. to go off, away; 2. leave off (mood, temper); 3. to accomplish a heavy piece of work; 4. to leave a surplus; at gånga av vårenu gånga at to set upon, attack, go at; at gånga upp [nord] at (of a wind) gånga frå 1. to be taken from (as a part), make an exception of;2. to die (cattle) = gånga til gånga fram to go forward to the stem of a boat; see fram gånga fyri 1. to descend; 2. fall from something steep and perish in the sea; 3. to perish by falling gånga saman to settle (agreement) gånga til to perish, die (especially of young weak animals) gånga um to shift about or turn (of wind) gånga under 1. to take a burden on one's back; 2. to pledge someone to, submit to gånga upp 1. to rise; 2. to heave, break high; 3. to increase; 4. to come to an end; gången upp = gången ut come to an end gånga ut 1. to begin the field work in spring; 2. to come to an end or be worn out, dagen gekk ut the day ed; 3. to have a (definite, foretold) result; 4. to be verified (of a prophecy) gånga veð 1. to go on (in spite of opposition), endure; 2. to decline; 3. to waste away; 4. to perish, die; 5. to own up, confess gånga øver 1. to heave; 2. to go beyond all bounds [too far], exceed; 3. to overflow gångbit nn. (ON gagn-) mark in a sheep's ear gånn nn. (ON garn) yarn, thread gård nm. yard, fence gårdsendi nm.place where an old fence ends gårdsimi nm.one of the thick straw-ropes gårdstað nm. ridge of earth from an old fence gåitt (gåitek)nf. doorcase, doorway; threshold; de vuru ikke ut øver døragåittena; gakk øver gåiteken!; legga gåitt inn under heli båtsens

H habagoitlek nm. (Eng. habit + ON kot) miserable dweling, hut, small house habbi-gabbi nm./adv. haphazard, chance; at leka [kasta] habbigabbi

hada vs. (ON hata) 1. to hate; 2. to treat smb as a thief hadersvisi, -vissi nm.stunt; miserable lean animal hads interj. at him! (to a dog); see hauts/hawots hag nm. 1. state, condition; ill hag komi til din!; 2. order; du hever gert pørligan hag av di; 3. management; at hava hag veð e-t to economize; de havdu ikke hag uppå dað they lived beyond their income; 4. control; eg heve ikke hag å djer I can't manage you!; haga vw. 1. to manage (well); 2. to keep house economically; 3. to save; 4. to cease; 5. to decrease hag(a)lig adj. 1. careful, convenient; 2. proper; 3. fine; neg. uhagalig haglig adv. 1. carefully, conveniently; 2. properly; 3. finely; du er komið hagligt isa tið you've done it finely this time haglos adj. 1. wanting in economy; 2. immoderate, wasteful; 3. boundless; haglosa havið hagmark nn. boundary mark hagrið nf. (ON hagríða, hagreið) ride on the hill, beating the bounds hagri, hageri, hågri nf. 1.a long list of something; 2. flow of words; 3. memoirs; 4. use; 5. application; 6. advantage; 7. (bad) conclusion or use hakka vw. 1. to hack, hew asunder; 2. to dig up hald nn. 1. hold, grip; 2. handle halda vs. (imp. halt!) 1. to hold, keep; at halda hus; 2. to steer, head; at halda nord [sud, imuti] etc; 3. to maintain, mean; at halda gångandi 1. to handle roughly; 2. to fling aside; 3.to keep going; 4. to celebrate; at halda jøl; halt dina hanjd!stop that! Halt dinar henjder and take blag! Stop work and keep a rest! halt(u) gångu! stop your gait [speed]!; halda sog: haltu dog at djer! move aside a little! haltu dog stilt! be silent [stand still!, stop!]; pp. halden 1. in a state; 2. treated halda af to stop execution of something halda at to persist eagerly in an undertaking halda frå 1. to steer away or aside; 2. draw off halda fram to head towards the high seas halda innj to pull towards the shore halda til 1. to frequent; 2. to stay in a place; 3. to last, continue; 4. to be the same; fu helder du til nu?; 5. to head, set off in a direction; 6. to keep shut halda upp 1. to for life; 2. (cf. Fær. halda uppat) to cease halda ut 1. to endure; 2. to hold out halda við 1. to endure; 2. hold out, go on; 3. to consent, agree with somebody halda å to stop; haltu å litið! haldkessa nf. large straw-basket with handles each side hali nm. 1. tail; 2. cow T hallj nm. (ON hallr) rock, stone hallj nm. (ON halli) inclination (of a heavy boat); dað er hallj å båtenon hals nm. 1. neck; 2. bottom-board halsband nm. collar halsgirt nf. neck-lock halslokk nm. neck-lock halt nn. halting, limping gait halta vw. to halt, limp haltadans nm. halting dance (of fairies); at halda haltadans halt adj. lame, limping; halti nm. lame or limping person hams(t) adj. 1. confused; 2. unruly;3. queer; 4. foolish

hana, hannja (ON hérna, þarna?) interj. here! come here! hanjd nf. 1. hand;2. handful; 3. side, edge; 4. five in number; i hanjd, at henjdi, anjdi 1. at hand, near; 2. fast approaching; at koma i hanjd/til hanjdar to be at hand, happen, appear, to arrive on the spot; at koma vel/ilt til hanjdar to turn out well or not; de eru komen ilt til hanjdar they didn't succeed; guð hanjd, uppå mina hanjd! upon my soul [honour]! hanjdaklapp nn. loud noise; halda hanjdaklapp um e-t hanjdalos nm. without a hand/arm; hanjdel nf. 1. objects;2. belongings; 3. gear; 4. goods; 5. luggage hanjdla vw. to handle hanjd(a)gripp nn. firm grip with the hand hanjd(a)kruppan nf.def. 1. slap on the hand; 2. children's game hanjdi nm. 1. (unnamed person) he whom you know; 2. shark T hanjdmel nn. (ON handmál, -mæli) 1. certain quantity of corn; 2. handmeasure hanjdrista vw. (ON handhrista) 1. to separate corn by rubbing it; 2. to overhaul hanjdsel nn. something given with good wishes; eg myn geva djer mitt hanjdsel hannj pers. pron. he; hannj dagar; dað er hannj fram fyri henni there's a boat ahead of ours hannana interj. look out! keep clear! hanvaga vw. (ON andvaka; past -vakti) 1. to lie awake at night; 2. to steal; 3. to be doubtful, hesitate; eg lå og hanvagti I lay and hanvaged hanvaging nm. slight impression of something hap nn. handle, loop-shaped band happ nn. good luck, success; hava (goitt) happ happ adj. healthy, in good condition hardi nm. (ON harðr 'hard') sea-bottom harikel nn.remnant, fragment harka vw. 1. to hawk; 2. cough up phlegm harliben nn. skeleton of an animal harm nm. sorrow, grief, distress harpa nf. harp-shell harsk adj. unpleasant, disaggreeable, coarse hatra vw. to bully, plague, persecute; illhaterd neglected, in a poor condition hatraviti nn. person who is always persecuted; = ulaviti hatt nm. 1. scum, skin (on the surface of liquid); 2. hat hattra vw. to detain, stop, hinder hatter nn.hindrance, drag; dað er ikke hatter fyri mog at gera haust interj. hoy! hallo! hausta vw. to shout hoy! hallo! especially in driving away a sheep hav nn. 1. the open sea; 2. deap-sea fishing-grounds; 3. ocean hava vw. 1. to have; 2. bring, carry, move; at hava bort hem/in/ut; 3. talk, spread rumours; de hava dað, at... there's a rumour afloat...; hava sog av to move aside (oneself); have dog av! hava at 1. to find a fault with somebody; 2. to reprimand; 3. to chastice, punish; have dog at djer! move a little! hava frå to set off from the shore hava imuti to have an objection to, contradict hava up 1. to lift, raise; 2. introduce a subject, mention; at hava upp efter 1. to repeat; 2. to hark back upon (Fær. hava upp aftur) hava veð to remark upon or find a fault with something

havbåt nm. large open boat havr nm. oats he nn. hesitating/evasive manner of expressing oneself/answer hems and hes; du needno ha'e sae mony hems and hes aboot it he vw. to speak/answer hesitatingly/evasively hed nn. (ON heiti + L.Sc. hate, haid) 1. name; 2. grain, particle; ikke ett hed (Fær. ikki eitt eiti) hedemu nn. heathaze hefta vw. to fix heft nn. handle, grip heftet adj. 1. provided, well supplied; 2. well off hegri nm. 1. heron;2. tall person hei interj. ho! aha! hel adj. 1. whole;2. strong, healthy hela vw. 1. to become whole; 2. to be healed hellja nf. flat rock; glerla, glerhellek sheet of ice helljahvarv nn. 1. disease, injured death; 2. jok. bad cold helljakrøs nf. churchyard helljamet nm. 1. Holy Sacrament given to a dying person; 2. small portion of food heller nm. cave helli nf. 1. holyday; 2. festival; hellidag, jølahellidagar; hellilamb; at halda helli to keep a festival hellig adj. holy; hellig muld consecrated earth helma nf. stir, disagreement, quarreling; dað er ikke men helma melljan dera helsa vw. 1. to talk or receive kindly; 2. to greet; 3. to entertain; 4. to agree, harmonize; at helsa mann to greet a man; de helsa ikke vel; helsast helsin nf. 1. congratulation; 2. kind address or welcome hema adv. 1. at home; 2. nf. wife T. heman she who stays at home; hemer nearer at home, opp. to framer; hemest nearest at home hemfer nf. 1. journey home; 2. feast by newly married man hemkomannf. homecoming hemli adj. homely, familiar hemsket adj. foolish, silly hengsa vw. to place in a better position; hengsa byrdek [kessu] å baki e-s henta vw. 1. to fetch; 2. gather up, pick up hent nn. 1. fetching;2. collecting; 3. gleaning; 4. raking hermel nn. 1. remnant;2. small fragment; 3. particle; 4. pl. remnants herms nf. 1. lamentation; 2. cries of woe; 3. noisy quarrel; herms og vallova herrað nn. limited district built on; Innjherrað, Utherrað hest nm. horse, stallion hevdi nm. (ON höfði) 1. promontory;2. high steep point of land heved nn. obs.1. head; 2. object formed like a head; 3. lump hikra vw. to delay, hesitate; hannj myndi ikke hikra um dað hilek nm. hollow in a rock hillfolk nn. (ON huldufólk + L.Sc. hill) fairies hillisom adj. attractive, amiable, having kind manners hilmongen nm. silly, odd-looking person

himinsferd,himmelsferd nf. 1. ascension; 2. fruitless journey; dað er himmelsferd uppå dem they're in a great hurry hind nf. (ON hinna < hinþ-?) 1. film;2. thin covering, skin, thin layer hinda vw. to form a coat hinsin nf. impatience, restlessness hinta vw. 1. to vanish suddenly; 2. snatch away hint nn. glimpse, moment hintet adj. peculiar, not right in the head hippa vw. to earth; hippa taatis hipper adj. fortunate, lucky; hannj war aldri hipper efter dað [derefter?] he was never lucky after that hirda vw. (past hirti) to keep, guard hirs interj. away with you! hits interj. at him! hallo! (to animals) hitta 1. to find; 2. to meet with hjada nf. (ON eta, jata) carcass (of an animal), remains hjarta nn. 1. heart;2. my treasure! Hvar er du faren, hjarta! hjegel nm. hard stone, quartz; also hjigel,sjoggersten hjog nm. (ON haugr) hill hjogelbennnn. shoulder-blade hjogfinni nn. (ON haugfunnit?) strange, odd-looking object or person hjogfinni adj. 1. odd, strange; 2. old-fashioned;3. mysterious hjogga vs. 1. to cut; 2. tear, pluck hjokk adj. small T; opp. to ød large hjolsa nf. health; illja hjolsa! ill luck take you! hjonsa nf. hen hjunamenn nf. (< ON mynd?) savage-like person hjårken adj. greedy, very hungry hnaga, gnega vw. 1. to gnaw; 2. pinch; 3. wrench hneppa vw. to tie, clench hnif, hnjif, hnof adj. 1. clever; 2. active; see knif hnolt nm.strong, well-knit young person hobba vw. (ON yppa; past hobbdi) 1. to bring into conversation; 2. to accuse somebody of something =at hobba upp; de hobbdu hannj fyri sjuv; hobbt ut av stað driven away hobbastju nn. 1.stir, tumult; 2. great dilemma, difficulty hobbaviti nn. notorious thief hobbelskjuadv. wrong, reverse (boots, shoes); at hava skugana hobbelskju;s. hågelsku hofna vw. to swell; at hofna upp hofsa vw. to cause anything to swell (bread) hofset adj. 1. excitable;2. hasty hogg nn. (ON högg) blow, push (games) hoggja [dz] vw. (past hogdi; ON heykjask?) to bend down, crouch; hannj hoggar sog øver eldenon; hoggje dog inn til elden! hoid nf. (ON hæð) 1. ridge of a height, top part of a hill; 2. height; 3.floor (in a house) hoiding nm. clergyman T < the one who threatens (ON hóta) hoisa nf. haddock hoitt nm. (MHG hütte, ME hotte) hut hoitt nm. (ON ótti) fear of something supernatural; dað er hoitt å mjer hokken nm. horse, small horse holberd adj. (ON hold) 1 . fleshy;2. full-figured

hola nf. hole holjket adj. deep, roomy; round-bottomed (boat, pot) homs adj. 1. sulky;2. irritable; 3. touchy; 4. capricious honjdigru adv. in crouching position: at ligga honjdigru hondsja vw. 1. to incite; 2. to set a dog on; 3. to drive by means of a dog honkla vw. to heave upwards, raise; at honkla sog to raise [shrug] shoulders honnjadu interj. attention! stand still! (to the cow) honnj nn., honnjek nm. horn honnjek nm. girl, a slatternly girl;er dað långt siðen du såst honnjeka? honning nm. sheep with woolly hair out of its horn hoppa vw. to hop, jump hord nm. (ON urðr 'great quantity') crowd, great multitude hord nf. (ON urð) 1. big boulder; 2. large object horlos adj. (ON heyrnarlauss) 1. deaf; 2. deafened with noise horn nn. 1. horn;2. high mountain; 3. wind-instrument horni nn. corner, nook horpa vw. to contract, shrink;pp. horpet too much dried up or burnt horra, hurra nf. 1. great noise or confusion;2. ardour, high spirits horsgok nm. (ON hrossagaukr) snipe horrus(j)a vw. to urge one on (by noisy shouting) hospra, hosta nf. (ON húsfrú) wife T host nn. coughing huð nf. hide, skin; veð hu or håri at all costs; take kuna inn um veð huð or håri! make the cow go! drive it along at all costs! millja huðar og hårs with great difficulty;millja huðenar og hårsens that's very strange! =millja honnjs og hårs, millja hålsens og heveds hub nm. (ON hópr) 1. crowd;2. great number, flock hudin nf. hint how to do something; at gånga uppå (fyrstu) hudinena at once; hannj gekk veð fyrstu hudineni at the first hint; hannj tuk ikke hudin he went at once; at biða hudinena to await the opportune moment hugfellja vw. (past hugfeldi) to like, to be charmed with a person or thing huket adj. curved, bent hul nm. hillock huleferdal adj. 1. very uneven; 2. alternately thin and lumpy hulm nm. holm, islet hum nn. gloomy sky huma vw. to grow dusk humska nf. black pudding hun nm. wooden-handle, door-handle hund nm. dog hunek nm. hen T; kyrr hunekana! shoo the hens away! hus nn. 1. house, dwelling; 2. family circle; dað vuru hoittahus fyri hannj there was much anxiety for his fate in many families husa vw. to lift a child up to make it stop crying husa vw.1.to house; 2. bring into the house; 3. to cover; at husa taatisið husfolk nn. inmates of a house hushald nn. housekeeping, management of a house husrum nn. 1. hooom;2. shelter husvirdin nf. 1. clever housewife; 2. hostess hvada nf. foam

hval nm. whale hvalbak nn. back of a whale hvalben nn. whalebone hvalgrinddnf. shoal of whales hvalp nm. whelp (puppy) hvalsløb nm. jelly-fish, medusa hvamm nm. small dale hvar pron. every, each, any hvar pron. 1. where?;2. whither? hvar til whither, where; 3. for what (purpose), why hvarl nn. whirl, something circular hvarva vw. 1. to move quickly, to sweep along; 2. to work at high hvas nn. wheezing sound hvasa vw. 1. to wheeze; 2. to be asthmatic; 3. to whistle (of wind) hvekk nm. 1. start;2. sudden fright hvelja nf. 1. whale-skin; 2, tough skin; 3. outer covering hverma vs. 1. to on quickly; 2. disappear; hannj hvarm ut av minari soind; hannj hvarm ned gegnen golvið; 3. vanish, to be lost hverva vs. to turn or rake together; at hverva høið hvessa vw. (ON hvesti) 1. to sharpen; 2. speak harshly at somebody hvev nm. tidal eddy hvida vw. to turn head or body in different directions hvid adj. white hvider adj. lost; in expression: hvikk og hvider completely disappeared, lost hvidet adj. 1. looking around; 2. turning in different ways hvikk 1. adv. entirely, completely; 2. adj. entire, complete hvild nf. repose, state of rest hvirel nm. 1. twirl;2. disk; 3. the crown of the head; 4. the central point hvisa vw. to whisper, speak in a low voice hvista vw. 1. to whistle; 2. to blow hvisterest nm. 1. crack; 2. blow; 3. box on the ear hvitna vw. to whitten, become white- or light-coloured hvumla vw. to turn upside down hvumpra vw. 1. to murmur; 2. tomake a slight remark hø nn. (ON hý) downy hair or beard hø nn. (ON hey) hay; eker og hø hø vw. to compose oneself, take it easy; hø dog! høbet adj. (ON hæpinn) 1. cohesive, substantial (drink); 2. nauseating; 3. having disagreeble stale taste høda vw. (past høddi) 1. to hint at something; 2.tothrow out hints; hannj helt hødandi at mjer hølig adj. 1. leisurely, comfortable; 2. sad, depressing, uneasy hølig adv. leisurely; slowly høma vw. to darken høming nf. evening twilight opp. to mirknin høra vw. to hear; at høra uppå e-t to listen to something; at høra til e-s to listen to somebody, esp. imperatively høsapann, -pallj nm.1.skull (jokingly); 2. head høslek nm. 1. hut;2. straw-thatched house T høva vs. (ON hefja) 1. to raise, lift, f.ex. of the wind going in a northerly direction: hannj hever sog upp til nordvests; 2. to cause to rise; 3. to throw, fling

hå nm. shark hå adj. high; neu. håitt, also adv. - out for deep fishing; at gånga ut til dess hå to go (to the high seas) by boat totry the deep-sea fishing håbenda vs. to tie a band round the hough of an animal håbiter nm. horse T håg, håch [hoχ] nm. 1. ability; 2. fitness; 3. skill;4. handiness; 5. condition, state; dað er pør håg uppå djer = hag hågi nm. pasture, out-field hågaliv nn. (ON hagaleyfi) 1.leave; 2. payment for permission hågelsku nm. worn-out shoes; at gånga i hågelskun håg nm. (ON hagr) 1. (bad) state or conditions; 2. profit, result; hun gerdi pørligan håg av honon; dað kom til pørligs hågs; cf. hag håkilling nf. large shark håls, hwåls nm. neck hånga vs. to hang hånger nm. kettle, pot T hård adj. hard, severe håskerri nm. very large shark håtask nf. (ON hátaska) species of small shark håitt nm. 1. strange behaviour; 2. (queer) condition, bodily form; dað er håitt å djer idag you're behaving queerly håittabor nm. mode of behaviour, strange conduct håittafer nf. = håittabor håitted adj. (ON háttaðr) conditioned, of certain condition; illhåitted håitten adj. (ON hætta 'to cease') 1. accomplished; concluding; 2. finished;håitten ferd finishing harvest work håitti adj. 2. touchy; fretful; 2. irritable, easily offended

I i prep. in, into; at gånga i husið, kirkena; jogoni i drenganon [dukkoni, honon] (Fær. eyguni í honum) ibit nn. bite, small meal ida nf. whirlpool; eg så idu av hvalenon idin adj. 1. diligent;2. persevering; 3. assiduous in work ifarek nm. shoes T ifetlek nm. mouse T < light-footed ifuding nm. cat T < light footed;intensive of fuding igga vw. to incite igrip nn. ear, loop (on a basket) ikke part. not ill adj. 1. wicked, bad, ill; 2. hostile; 3. harmful; 4. painful; 5. difficult; 6. troublesome; illi mannen devil; dað er ilt vam veð honon [henni] there's bad commotion; ill doren! ill er! ill stonjd! illa hjolsan! ill til out of sorts, indisposed, unwell (Dan. ilde til pas) illberin adj. unable to bear illness or fatigue illbyrstet adj. 1. angry; 2. cross; 3. malicious illbyrsta vw. to threaten to do harm; hannj illbyrstaði fyri honon illfena vw. to show unkidness to someone illgevin adj. continiously complaining illgluma vw. to have a suspicion, scowl illgru vw. to suspect

illgådet adj. being in a bad temper illhagerdadj. 1.unattractive; 2. mishandled illhåitted adj. ill-grown, deformed illkynt adj. 1. wicked by nature; 2. of ill repute illlek adj. (ON ill-legr) 1. of an ugly appearance; 2. with unhealthy complexion illlukket adj. unfortunate illminnjet, illmonjdet adj. 1. evil-natured; 2. malicious; 3. rancorous illraget adj. ill-used, bullied illsetten adj. (Ísl. illa settur) ungraceful, clumsy, awkward illsnitteret adj. (ON snerta 'to touch') malicious and obstinate by nature, wilful and quarrelsome illsnøsket adj. 1. cross; 2. peevish; 3. dissatisfied illtriva vs. (Nor. illtrivast) to thrive ill illveder nn.bad weather illvan nf. slight hope of something illvilji nm. ill-will, rancour illvillet adj. ill-natured illviket adj. 1. malicious;2. intractable, troublesome illvirken adj. 1. wretched;2. sickly-looking illvirket adj. 1. malicious;2. bent on mischeif; 3. tricky ilska nf. 1. malice;2. hatred; 3. anger; 4.severe illness; 5. damage, misfortune; hannj gerdi dað imuti ilsku; dað var ilska uppå honon ilta nf. (< ilt) 1. spite, enmity; 2. ill-will; 3. malice; at hava iltu at e-on; gert igegnen iltu; fullj av iltu; hannj gerdi dað iltufullj inn, innj adv. in; inn efter inward, farther in; inn til more to land and northerly; vinden er faren inn til; upp inn under hidden inn nn. dwelling, haunt innbygget adj. 1. reserved; 2. obstinate; 3.selfish < built up innbøð nn. (ON innboð) hospitable reception; hannj myndi ikke få mukkið innbøð her innbø vs. 1. to welcome; 2. give a hospital reception innerlig adj. 1. rather far in; 2. affectionate, confidential; 3. hearty, very friendly innerliga adv. somewhat far in or near the land; at fiska innerliga innfallj nn. shoreward setting tide; opp. to utfallj innhaf nn. deep-sea fishing grounds near the land; opp. to uthaf, framhaf innhald nn. contents innkomin nf. 1. coming in, arrival;2. occas. beginning; inkomin nya årsens innrið, innarið nf. diarrhoea innsog nn. shoreward-setting tide = landfellj; cf. avsuk inntak nn. taking in, bringing home ira vw. to cry, shriek irepi nn. (ON ør-) 1. diminutive creature; 2. small thing isa, iska vw. 1. to fall; 2. to snow; hannj iskar (ut av sjer) istek adj. (ON ísóttr) cold, rainy issi, essi dem.pron. (neu. itta, jada) this, that (Hild. eso)

J

ja interj. yes ja well! jabba vw. to harp upon the same topic; at jabba (upp)å e-t jader, jar [jaðar] nm. 1. uppermost row of green turf; 2. layer; border, edge; at taka jaðar to take a slanting course jakkel nm.(ON jöxl) molar jalka vw. 1. to yelp (dogs); 2. tobabble, talk noisily (of persons) jamald nm. (ON jafnaldri) 1. person of equal age; 2. twins jaraman nn. (ON jarðarmagn) 1. extent of landed property; 2. ilk person according to his jaraman jard : ut av jardenon: 1. out of the house; 2. over, at an end; jøl er ikke ut av jardenon til då tuttu og førdu nåittena Christmass is not over before the 24th night (to gard?) jarda, jerda vw. (ON jarða) 1. bury; 2. press down, squeeze; 3. hide: at jarda sog jardbind nf. (ON jarðbinda) cold dry continuous worth-east wind jardfast nm. stone by means of which something is weighted down jardfast adj. fixed in the earth (of a stone) jark nm. 1. edge of the sole of the foot; 2. instep; 3. handful jarma vw. 1. to bleat (cow); 2. to mew (cat) jartfallj nn. 1. nausea; 2. inclination of vomit jasp adj. smart, active, eager jatlin adj. that indicates noble descent, pure and strong je nn. a low-lying spit of land covered by water at tide jeder nn. 1. venom, poison; 2. evil-speaking words; 3. biting cold jederpadd nf. (ON -padda) venomous malicious person jeling, eling nm. 1. slight shower; 2. frosty-looking cloud, dark cloud (in frosty weather) jenk nf. (ON eign) 1. property, possession; 2. sweetheart; 3. dedication jenka vw. (ON eigna) to dedicate, make over to someone jetel nm. gland joga nn. (On auga, gen.pl. jogna) 1. eye;2. pool of water, snall hollow jognakoddi nm. small basket where horses (mussels) are gathered jokel nm. icicle jokl nm. 1. shoulder;2. crag; 3. steep end of a ridge jokåll interj. yes!, yes man! jolagråt nn.Christmass weeper (child who weeps when everybody is cheerful) Jonsmessgras nn. 1. ribwort plantain (Jonsmess - Midsummer Day 24 June) jora nn. (gen.pl. jorna) ear; uppomjora up around [behind] the ear josa, hjosa nf. ladle ju interj. yes affirmative jugla nf. owl; kattjugla julter nn. (ON igulker) sea-urchin jungi nm. 1. young animal; 2. hen jusa interj. well, yes! jøl nn. pl. Christmass festival;halda jøl

K kadel nm. string tied around the neck of a lamb as a mark

kaka vw. 1. cacare; 2. to go to stool (mostly to children) kald adj. cold kaldkrogen adj. susceptible to cold kaldvard, -vård adj. chilly kallj nn. 1. crying;2. screaming; 3. business, calling, vocation: du hever ikke kallj at gera dað kallja vw. 1. to call; 2. to scream ( < L.Sc.); dað er min moder sen kalljar å mog kamb, kåmb nm. comb, sharp-crested mountain ridge kann nf?. (ON kanna) can (measure) kannj nn. 1. inspection;2. counting up (cows) kannja vw. 1. to inspect; 2. count up; 3. to try to identify; 4. to clear up, throw light upon kant nm. 1. edge, corner; dað var ikke en stur kant å båtenon the boat was not very deeply or heavily loaded; 2. way of treating person; 3. humour;4. spirits; hannj var å rångon kanti ennan morgen kanta vw. to turn over, capsize kappa vw. cut off (fish) kapsvivla vw. to capsize kara vw. 1. to mix; 2. to root in something; 3. to work with hands in somethingdirty karl nm. 1. old man, fellow; 2. big bulky person karm nm. 1. frame;2. heap; 3. state, condition; 4. humour, spirits; at vara i pørligon karmi kassmelt nm. collaspe, collision kast nn. 1. cast;2. handiness, skill; goitt kast i hans hanjdon; at hava kast um e-t; hannj hever ikke kast at gera dað; 3. handling over of something; 4. attack of illness; 5. habit (esp. bad); 6. change, occurrence; 7. opportunity kasta vw. 1. to cast, fling; 2. to hand one something; 3. to reject kasta um to make an exchange; de kastaðu um sinar kør; ner nåitten og dagen kasta um kasta upp 1. to propose; 2. come to light kastel nm. castle; de castle o' Munes kasten adj. 1. rejected;2. unserviceable; 3. no longer fresh, stale sour kaitthus nn. porch in front of the door kattaram nm. 1. cat's paw; 2. small cloud kattmoget adj. light-coloured, dirty-grey kava vw. 1. to press on one's way; 2. be troubled; at vara kavandi to be out of breath; sugen kavaði øver uss; 3. to rush about; 4. to eat greedily; 5. to insist; 6. to snow in drifts; hannj kavar og ber; kavd under [in under]; hun kom kavandi upp efter kava nf. 1. eagerness;2. hurry; 3. violence kavaborð nm. dense snow-storm =fogborð kavi, kava, kav nm. 1. somethingdiving, sinker; 2. low land; 3. dense snowfall Keddhonjtla nf. kind of ogress, sort of trolls, half cat-half bitch kefsa vw. to be unhandy kefset adj. 1. unhandy;2. awkward, spilling what one is carrying keka vw. (ON keikja) to bend or twist backwards (keka øver); hann genger veð sinu hevdi kekaðu øver kela vw. to bring forth young (rabbits) keljda nf. source, spring of water kelva nf. well-developed, not quite half-grown ling

kenna vw. to know, be aware of, feel, be sensible of; eg kenndi dað å mjer; sugen kenner i (di) (Fær. sjógvurin veit í) there's commotion, approaching storm, forebod kenning nf. 1. feeling, sensation; 2. identification; 3. knowledge kennmark nn. identification mark kent adj. 1. well-known;2. skilful, well acquainted keppa vw. (ON kepti) to compete ker adj. dear kerling nf. 1. crone; 2. big woman kervi nn. 1. bunch, bundle; 2. truss; 3. certain quantity of grass kessa nf. carrying basket ketling nm. kitten keva vw. (past kavdi) 1. to struggle with something; 2. to wrestle in fun; 3. to contend in an eager manner;3. to interfere; 4. to fall on the wrong side; 5. to be overcome with sleepiness kibig adj. lively and alert, quick and clever;du ert kibig at deri vinnu, men du myndi ikke gera hvat du vart biðin at gera kidi nn. small lamb kik nn. 1. peeping, peep; 2. very short visit kik nn. 1. gesticulation;2. crick, stiffeness kika vw. 1. to peer, keep a sharp look-out; 2. to pay a short visit kiljka vw. to be full of joy andlife kilseta vw. (past -setti) to chase obstinate sheep by driving them into a corner kilsket adj. 1. excessively merry; 2. wild and wanton kimtjagg [tj] nn. 1. continuous teasing; 2. putting obstacles; at halda en i kimtjaggi kimtjagga [tj] vw. 1. to tease continually; 2. to put obstacles in one's way kinga vw. to mend something, esp. broken objects kings nn.1.quarrel; 2. dispute kingsa vw. 1. to quarrel; 2. to dispute;3. to grumble kinks nn. offence, fit of bad humour, touchiness kinks adj. easily offended, touchy kinn nf. cheek kinnpuster nm. cheek-muscle kirka nf. church kirkasukn nf. 1. parish; 2. great crowd, multitude; 3. the buried dead of a parish kirkfolk nf. church-goers/-people kisek nm. cat T kist nf. (ON kista) chest kitla vw. to tickle, irritate kittelsom adj. ticklish, sensitive kjob nn. (ON kaup) 1. compensation;2. reward; 3. good gift kjoba vw. (ON kaupa; past kjobti) 1. to compensate, reward a service;2. to induce, bribe kjost nm. tumulus kjud adj. (ON kúgaðr) beginning to get a sour taste kjålk, kjålki nm. jaw kjålkakast nn. facility in using one's jaws; hava goitt kjålkakast to have a good appetit klakk nm. 1. fragment of a rock; 2. mountain hill klakk(a)skorr nf. fishing-ground

klaksa to strike, smack; klaksa ned klappa vw. to tap, strike; hannj klappaði hannj ned i mukla stulen (arm-chair) kleda vw. (ON klæða; past kleddi) to dress, put on; at kleda bånnjið; at kleda sog; at kleda skøvek to put something on the feet klednabun nm. (ON klæð(n)abúnaðr) garment klestra vw. to paste on, smear on klett nm. rock, cliff klima, klina vw. 1. to paste; 2. smear (butter) klingra vw. to turn round; klingra dog! klining nm. piece of bread and butter klippa vw. to clip klipitenger nf. pl. pair of tongs klister nn. butter klokk nf. (ON klukka) beetle; vatnklokk, honnjklokk klovi nm. cleft tool, tongs klud nm. neck-cloth, neckerchief kluka vw. to build up loosely or temporarily, esp. a fence kluk adj. 1. wily, sly; 2. ingenious, dexterous, nimble klumsa vw. 1. to become or make speechless, deprive one of speech; 2. to expire, die; klumsen - also blocked klunk nm. the top of a wall or fence klur nn. scratch, mark made by a cat's claw klura vw. 1. to scratch; 2. to harrow the earth by spade or plough; at klura upp grundena; klurd grund klurer nm. cat T klut, klud nm. 1. cloud, rag; 2. sail T klø nm. (pl. klør) stone; piece of steatite kløf nf. cleft hoof knag nn. (Norw. knag 'trouble') 1. sore, wound (metaph.), grief; 2. foul, stale taste knapp nm. round button; knapp elbogsens [knes]bone of the elbow [knee] knava vw. 1. to gnaw off; hunden knavar benið; 2. to scrape off kne nn. 1. knee;2. ear-mark knippa vw. to pull to pieces, break asunder knippek nm. small bunch, bundle, parcel knirka vw. to creak kniv adj. clever, active, able knoggi nm. short, square-built, well-knit fellow knoggjet adj. small in stature, but stout knor nm. vessel, boat knott nm. 1. roundish lump; 2. person with short but stout figure knotti nm. ball knubbi nm. potato T knurra vw. to whisper, murmur knyrja [rdzj] vw. to squeeze, press knyrk adj. scant, short (applied to measure) knyta vw. (past knytti) to tie, knit (corn, cows) kobb nm. (ON kobbi) young seal kodd nm. (ON koddi) pillow, cushion kod, kjod adj. ingratiatingly kind, confidentional koga vw. to swallow, drink in large draughts kojakka vw. to chatter, have a long gossip; to sit kojakkin

kokkel nm. com T kokkeluri nm. daisy kokra, kjokra vw. 1. to cheer up; 2. torevive; 3. to talk gently; 4. to fondle, caress; 5. kjokra upp: to become revived, recover kol nn. small brand, small piece of partly burnt peat kola nf. small, cup-shaped, open lamp kollj nm. 1. head, head of a fish; 2. hay-stack; see alsomerkol kollja nf. buoy T kolla vw. to take off the top kolljyvirbollji adv. (ON koll fyrir böll?) headlong, topsy-turvy kolmyrk adj. pitch dark koma vs. to come koma at 1. to come to an end; 2. to happen koma frå to become loose, slip out koma til 1. to grow, become greater; 2. to recover, retain strength; 3.to com off (badly) koma upp to get on, become known koma uppå 1. to meet, run across; 2. to come over one (mind); dað er ilska at kom uppå hannj kom veð to occur in certain manner (well/ill) koma å to happen, occur;also koma uppå komin adj. suitable kongalu nn. bush, heather-bush konk, kjonki, kunk nm. 1. illness; 2. very bad cold konn adj. 1. acquainted with, familiar with something; 2. accustomed to something konna vw.1.to become acquainted or familiar with something; 2. to become accustomed with something konnjmerki nm.(ON maðkr) cornwarm kopp nm. precipitous koramussinm. "curly mouth", endearing term korgla vw. to tell strongly exaggerated stories korki nm. oats; korkakost oaten bread korn nn. corn korngild nm. payment for damage done by sheep on corn korr nf. (ON kyrrð) quietest part of midsummer-night; korr dimmonar kors, kross nm. 1. fiery-cross; 2. express message; 3. swearing exclamation; at senda kors; kors! kors uppå dog [dað]!; Korsmess May 3/September 14 (ON Krossmessa) kort adj. 1. short;2. scant kost nm. (ON kostr 'maintenance', Ork. cost, coist) bread kotla vw. (ON kitla) 1. to tickle; 2. to put aside secretly kovla vw. to dress oneself warmly; hun kovlar sitt heved upp krabbi nm. crab krag nm. (ON kragi) 1. collar;2. throat, neck kraget adj. very lean and miserable kragklut nm. cravat, neckerchief krakk nm. 1. three-legged wooden stool; 2. foot-stool kram nm. paw, cat's paw or claw krama vw. to pack into a heap kramma vw. 1. to grab; 2. scrape krammek nm. the paw of an animal krank adj. sick, feeble kranset adj. 1. cross;2. fretful; 3. malicious

kransi nm. coral krapp nm. 1. angular space in the interious; 2. narrow place (Icel. komast í hann krappan) krapp adj. 1. close;2. scant; 3. choppy (of the sea) kravi nm. 1. large flock or crowd; 2. heap, mass kreka vw. to spit, hawk, cough up phlegm kreksa vw. 1. to hawk, cough up phlegm; 2. to grumble krema vw. (ON kreima or kremjask?, past kramdi or kremdi?) to be ailing, unwell and sulky kresta vw. to exert oneself, walking wearily krestin nf. hard toil and struggle kriel, krier nm. (Nor. kria) cock T kriga vw. to hook, grip and let loose again krigga nf. cover or shelter against bad weather krigi nm. corner, sharp angle in a wall or fence krigiseta vw. to drive animal into a corner krik nm. narrow , cleft krimma vw. to cough slightly, clear one's throat; at krimma ut av kvarkeni (throat) krimpa vw. 1. to squeeze;2. to shrink; 3. to narrow, restrict;4. to be too stingy; 5. to wince, complain; du måst ikke krimpa dog you must not sacrifice yourself; 6. to whimper; 7. to emit a low sound (cow); 8. to desire, long for kring nm. 1. cricle, ring; 2. a halter round the neck of an animal; 3. two animals tied together kring 1. prep. around; 2. adv. about kringa vw. 1. to tie twoanimals together; 2. to become entangled (rope) kringlkost nm. round loaf krista vw. to exert oneself, take great pains without making progress krobb nf. (ON krubba) small enclosure krobba vw. 1. to narrow; 2. to confine;3. to pinch for room; 4. to keep (a child) in check krobbet adj. 1. narrow, confined; 2. pinched for room krobbi nm. 1. small hollow, hole in which plants are planted; 2. confined space krod(d)a, krødni, krodni vw. to cram together, crowd kroga vw. 1. to crouch against bad weather; at kroga frå skuri; at kroga inn under; 2. to spy; de hava krogað um annjehvaran kroga nf. shelter against bad weather; at taka krogu to take shelter; at standa i krogu; at koma inn i [inn under] krogu krogabøl nn. enclosure for giving to animals shelter against bad weather kroinjta vw. to whimper, complain krok nm. (ON hraukr, hrúga) heap, cluster (esp. potatoes) kroka vw. 1. to be in utter exhaustion, misery; 2. to starve kroma vw. to whimper, complain about bad health kroppen adj. (ON kroppinn < kreppa) 1. shrunk, contradicted; 2. doubled up; 3. crooked, dent krossmarknn. the sign of the cross; at gera e-on krossmark to maltreat; at ligga krossmark to lie helpless, disabled kru nf. enclosure, fold, esp. sheep-fold krubbet adj. narrow, confined

krug nm. thole in a boat T; hon bleser åitte farið [båten], guda lukk vari at krugenon! it (the ling) 'blows' behind the boat, good luck at the thole! kruget adj. 1. crooked;2. bent; 3. stooping kruk nm. curve; kruk å bandenu krukseta vw. to drive an animal into a fence to catch it krumpet adj. 1. curved;2. crook-backed krumpin nf.sharp curve krumplikin nm. colding krun nf. (ON krúna) 1. crown;2. garland; 3. circular hill-top krupen, kropen adj. (ON kropinn < krjúpa) crawled, crept; bånnjið er krupið burt krupp nm. 1. body;2. man, person; Blessinar vari uppå din krupp!bless your body! du ert krupp you are a queer one; pørlig krupp! poor fellow! sikk krupp! what a queer person!; fy uppå dann [ennan] krupp! fy falli (befalli) dann [ennan] krupp! may misfortune befall him, shame krusa vw. to collect, drive together krø nf?. 1. cluster; 2. dense assembled crowd krø vw. to flock together in a dense crowd; de vuru krød samen krøkni nf?. crowd, multitude, large flock krå nf. 1. corner, nook; 2. space of 'de but' to store potatoes kråga nf. crow krågupil nm. kind of testaceous animal on the shore kråguting nn. gathering of crows holding conference and judgement kråkling nm. (ON kræklingr) small mussel krånk indisposition, malingery krånk adj. (ON krangr) 1. sick, indisposed; 2. cross-grained, disobliging krås nf. nice gift ku (ON kú, pl. kør) nf. cow; tidd ku cow with young, cow on the point of calving kub nm. young seal kuba nf. small basket kuk nn. excrement, esp. of a cow dried in the sun kul nn. light, breeze kula nf. 1. a protuberant little round swelling; 2. the prominent part of the face (nose); 3.roundish hill kumet adj. misty, hazy kumla vw. to turn upside down kummer nf. godmother kuna nf. woman, wife T kunki, kjonki nm. 1. attack of illness; 2. severe bad cold kura vw. 1. to stoop, crouch; 2.to doze; 3. to be unwell, be dejected kuralag nn. confused, noisy assembly kurf nf. 1. (rough) surface; 2. epidermis kurr nm. 1. casual remark; 2. slight rumour kuss, kjos nm. kiss (kiss on the mouth) kussa vw. (past kusti) to kiss kuva vw. to cough slightly kvag nf. (ON kaka) round cake kvaka vw. 1. to quiver, quake; 2. to creep (about small animals); 3. to swarm kvala vw. to abate, calm (wind) kvark nf. 1. throat; 2. narrow kveg nf. (ON kvíga) heifer

kven nf. (ON kvein) lamentation, sorrow kverk nf. throat kvern nf. 1. quern, hand-mill; 2. water-mill (placenames) kvi nf. enclosure for cattle, milking-place kvikk, hwikk adj. 1. living; 2. swarming, teeming; eg heve seð grundena kvikka veð honnjklokkon I've seen ground alive with nasicornous beetles kvikkrepp nm. misery, want, lack of the necessities kvikna vw. 1. to get the fire to blaze; 2. to begin to run quicker (tide), increase kvilling nm. 1. hermaphrodite, young non-prolific ram; 2. stunt, feeble wretch kvolka vw. to swallow quickly or greedily kvålv nm. calf kykin adj. all alive, animated and vivacious; livandi og kykin kynsked nm.(ON kyn + skaði) accident happening to oneself or to a relation, one of the same clan; gektu veð dinon kynskedi! du mynkanske få din kynsked ante! kyrkar nm. pl. scissors T kyrra vw. 1. to quieten; 2. to check; 3. to scare away kyrr! interj. hush! be quiet! kirrabaw - lullaby købnn.bargain, bargining; compensation kød, køð nn. well-developed half-grown fish, esp. coalfish køda vw. to become liquid, deposit oil (of fish livers) kødi nn. liver-oil; see also gøti køf nn. value, bargain; ikke vert køf køl nm. (cool) breath of air, fresh breeze; kølvind køla vw. (ON kylja, koela; past kuldi) 1. to cool; 2. to blow faintly køllja vw. to fondle; at køllja (um, øver) bånnj kølsin adj. 1. cold, chilly; hannj er mukkið kølsið uti; 2. susceptible to cold; kølsin i hanjdon cold about one's hands kørka vw. (ON kyrka; past kørkti) 1. to squeeze, pinch; 2. to take hold and shake (in fun); eg myn kørka dog I'll punish you (jokingly) kørra vw. to scare away kørrnørrinterj. keep quiet! be silent! køttikel nn. tough, difficult (work) kållj nm. man, old man kålljgrøt nn. lead with a rope attached for finding the deap of the sea < kaðal kårr adj. (ON kærr) small, lively, cheerful, quick; mit piri kårra ting!; kårri small fellow

L lagbørd nn. footboard lada vs. to be about to die, draw one's last breath (esp. of animals) lag nn. 1. layer, place, position; 2. usage, order, condition; 3. state of health; 4. frame of mind, mood, temper; at vara i lagi to be excited; at vara i illu [pørligu] lagi to be depressed or worried; 5. layer; 6. crowd, assembly, company; i gudu [pørligu] lagi;dað er pørligt lag å honon he's very slow (esp. grinding); 7. a push forward; 8. long voyage; 9. long time; 10. chat, long talk; hvat er ditt lag dagsens? What news do you bring today?

laga vw. 1. to move (a little); 2. to execute something piecemeal; 3. to draw a boat up; 4. to carry hay; at laga upp båt [hø, korn] laga vw. to chatter, gossip lagafer nf. (ON lakferð?) slow pace or performance; to mak' a l. ower a ting lagd nm. 1. tuft (of wool); 2. handful, esp. for corn or hay lagda adj. sluggish, lacking energy, listless lager adj. keen, eager, greedy lagman nm. chief judge lagretman nm. 1. member of public court; witness; 2. assessor, assistant of underfoud Vard-thing - district court lagting nn. the Law-ting lagd adj. destined by fate (pp. of legga); sjulagd, havlagd; fyrilagd thoroughly exhausted (Fær. firilagstur < leggjast fyri - to become exhausted) laks nm. salmon laksigerd nm. (ON laxagarðr) trap for catching salmon or trout in a stream lali nm. playing for a little child lamb nn. lamb; lamb mitt! my dear! lambarið nf. (ON lambahríð) bad weather in the spring during the lambing time lambatiindnf. "lamb's tithe": tithe paid in wool, kind of a clergy tithe lamin adj. lame, powerless land nn. land landa vw. to arrive at an ultimate place of destination; de horse landed me upo de braid o' my back; throw/let fall in cert. direction; landbrim nn. surf, breaking of waves landfell nn. "land current", tidal wave in shorewards landamøri nn. pl. boundary-line, -mark landlopernm. (ON -hlaupari) tramp, vagabond landseterkop nn. (landsetr(s)kaup) fee paid for leasehold of a farm landskap nm. landscape; landskapið er farið 'the lanfscape is moving', atmosphere is floating near the ground (summer) landskyld nf. landrent langdregenadj. 1. long, thin and slender; 2. long-drawn, tedious; 3. dilatory langlegg nm. (ON langleggr) shank, bone between thigh-bone and foot langsedi nn. (ON langsæti) "long-seat", resting chair, a broad wooden seat with arms and for the back langsom adj. slow, dilatory; long-drawn, tedious langspel nn. ancient kind of cithern, a stringed instrument langvordenadj. 1. long-shaped, extended; 2. long-drawn, slow lapp nm. (ON lappi) patch lappa vw. to patch, mend lappa vw. to walk heavily and clumsily lar nn. (ON leir) kind of hard clay; Larvik; see also lera last nf. 1. area of arable land; 2. certain measure lasta vw. to have an aversion to, unable to take food latsa vw. 1. to idle; 2. to walk lazily lav nm. (ON hleifr) piece of dough made into a thick cake; konglalaven lavenørd adj. (ON laf-eyrðr) having hanging ears

laverni nn. 1. life, living; 2. mode of life; 3. crowd, gathering lavi nn. (ON lag?) long story, nonsense lørited nm. (ON lýrittar-eiðr) oath taken by a man to prove his guiltlessness leanger, leðanger nm. tax lebek, lebbek nm. spoon led, låd nn. load, pile ledi nn. (ON leiti) outlook, point of view, height (point of vantage) ledli adj. indolent, lazy-looking lega nf. 1. lying;2. (fish.) interval, rest, stay; 3. distance between boats; at ligga legu to lie long in bed; hannj hever tekið sjer legu he has taken a good rest legga vw. 1. to lay; 2. to drift, be carried off (by the wind); 3. at leggast: to retire to rest, go to bed; at legga e-t i hugi to keep something in mind; eg lagdi aldri min hug efter di I never applied myself to learn [] it; at legga vinden frå jardeni to turn the wind into another quarter (with magic) legga af 1. to talk in verbose manner; 2. to desist from, cease; 3. to kill, slaughter legga at to push or press forcibly; at leggast at to lie down, be unwilling to rise legga efter to leave behind; at legga sin hug efter e-uto apply oneself to some task, study or learn something legga frå 1. to put aside; 2. to work speedily, make headaway legga inn 1. to unship the oars; 2. to enclose a piece of ground; 3. to rain finely; he is layin in legga ned 1. to calm an agitated sea (magic); 2. to kill, slaughter;l. doon de sea; hannj legger ned kava there's much snow falling (Fær. hann leggur kava) legga til 1. to add;2. to close (a door with a latch); at legga sog til to set eagerly about doing a task; at leggast til to lie down in a sleep; at legga sin hug til e-s to apply oneself to a subject trying to impress it upon one's mind: legge din hug til dess! legga upp 1. to load, put a load on a horse; 2. to build, raise; 3. to exhaust; at legga upp skiplag (pl) to build castles in the air; at legga upp goddek to put a riddle legga ut 1. to set off [out] to sea; 2. to interpet, explain legga veð 1. to exert efforts on the outcome of a matter; 2. to make a dictinct declaration; 3. to make a condition of something; at legga sog veð to work eagerly legga å 1. to increase force/violence (weather); 2. to make promise of alms legviser nm. (ON leiðvísari) com; at soina legviseren to look at the com leka vs. 1. to leak; 2. to be leaky lembi nn. (ON tvílembi) twin-lamb lemin adj. powerless, faint, sluggish lemm nm. 1. part of a loft-floor; 2. shelf len nf. row of houses under one roof lengi nf. strip or length lepel nm. small spoon, hornspoon lepp nm.1.part, piece, patch; 2. rag, flap lepp nn. 1. grain, small quantity; 2. something to lap or sip; telepp leppa vw. 1. to lap (with the tongue); 2. to sip slowly

leppa vw. to walk feebly or slowly, shuffle (aboot) ler nf. (Fær. læra) learning; instruction lera, lerka nf. clay, clayey soil lerdom nm. learning, knowledge lesna vw. to lower oneself lesning nm. stake for the line by which a man lowers himself; de lesninrep let nn. 1. little winsome thing; 2. endearment to children (my treasure!) lett nm. 1. part, quantity; 2. small quantity, particle lev nf. (ON leif) remnant lev nm. (ON hleifr) dough (from which a single loaf or cake is made); see also lav levingar nf. pl. leavings, what is left over lið nf. slope, mountain side lid nf. 1. reliance;2. eagerness, diligence; 3. zeal in executing a work lida vw. (ON hlíta) to have a confidence in, trust; eg led honon at koma veð, men twit uppå hans ben, jift hannj kom I trusted he would come, but shame upon him, he did not come lidfullj, lidsom adj. 1. confident; 2. eager, active liðen nf. (ON líðan) the decline of the day, evening twilight; cf. dagaliðen ligga vs. 1. to be subdue (of wind); 2. to repose, be at rest; 3. to lie in bed ligga fyri: dað ligger fyri mjer, dað ligger å minni tungu is on the tip of my tongue ligga efter to be left undone or neglected ligga ned 1. to be settled (wind); 2. to lie dormant ligga upp to lie up; båten ligger uppå ligga við 1. to appear close at hand (something in sight); 2. to be at stake, on certain condition; dað ligger veð (ON liggja við) ligga å 1. to be fixed or appointed; 2. to depend on; 3. to be essential or constant (weather) lik nn. 1. corpse, dead body; 2. burial district likisom adj. agreeable, amiable liklig adj. having a sound, healthy appearance likstigi, -ggi nm. protecting wall in a cemetry wall lilla vw. to make neat and tidy, brush up; at lilla upp to put in good order: at lilla upp husið lim nm. 1. limb of the body; 2. thigh of a slaughtered animal; 3. member lina vw. to decline, grow dusk (of a day); dagen linar linka vw. to make loose, relax linn adj. 1. soft to the touch; 2. somewhat loose; 3. mild inna vw. (ON linna; past linti) 1. to stop, cease; 2. to become softened, abate, calm;hannj linner upp; 3.to lean, incline; linn dog ned! sit down for a moment! at linna at to lean linnatið nf. 1. short cessation from the pain; 2. abatement of storm lispund nn.weight, orig.16 pounds lit nm. 1. colour;2. now mostly blue colour litel adj. little liv nn. 1. life; 2.living being (fish); 3. live coal for fire liv nf. (ON hlíf) 1. temporary state of rest, interval; 2. favourable occasion of doing something livd nf. (ON hlífð) 1. sort rest after hard work; 2. calming of bad weather

liver nm. 1. living being; 2. coll. small living creatures; 3. bacteria livandi nn. living;ikke i minu livandi livi! lið [liþ] nm. t (in the body) ljori, ljuri nm. opening in the roof, louver lju nn. mood, humour ljud nn. (ON ljóð) 1. sound; 2. sound of voices; eg hørdi ljud derra tunga, til då eg så de ljud adj. (ON ljótr) 1. ugly;2. hideous ljumet adj. 1. likewarm;2. close and damp ljus nn. 1. light;2. = ljori lodd nm. thick covering of hair or wool lodden adj. covered with sparse and coarse wool (on sheep) lofta vw. to ascend, rise log, ljog nm. 1. sea T; 2. piece of open sea; 3. strong current; faren i ljogenon lost overboard, gone to the bottom log, ljog nf. (ON lægð) hollow, depression in a landscape log, ljog nm. (ON lœkr) small stream of water loga, ljoga vw. (ON lauga) to bathe, wash loga, ljoga vw. (Fær. loka) to be broken (of somethingthin); at loka syndri logis adj. 1. lukewarm (of a liquid); 2. vapid in taste logjek, lodjek nm. filth, excrements lokka vw. 1. to allure, entice; 2. pet, fondle lomma vw. 1. to grow light; 2. to clear up; hannj lommar upp it´s clearing up lomål, lumål nn. (ON hljóðmæli, -*máli) 1. silence; 2. secrecy;at halda alt i lumåli lond nf. (ON lund) 1. sound;2. melody, song; 3. singing out; 4. noise; 5. complaining; 6. mood, spirits, humor londi nm. (ON lundi) puffin longa vw. 1. to listen; 2. to be undecided lonjdilag nn. 1. noisy complaint; 2. a long time spent in doing a thing; dað myn vara londilag til då hannj kemer åitte lonna vw. 1. to lurk, be on the watch; 2. to listen secretly; 3. to eavesdrop; 4. to be undecided lopa vs. (ON hlaupa) 1. to leap, jump (run); 2. to get into sudden violent ion; lopen mjølk lorg, lord nm. (Fær. lortur) heap, dirty mass lorga vw. to dirty, soil los adj. loose, free lu, lju nn. 1. good performing orexecuting, skill in handling; 2. fine appearance (thing) lu vw. 1. to hang loosely together; 2. to stick to, follow one�s heels; 3. to desire the opposite sex;at lu um [øver] e-n to stick to somebody; hunden luar um tikið luderhorn nn. fog-horn luget adj. 1. exhausted, enfeebled; 2. faint, limp lukk nf. fortune, good luck; at gånga uppå lukkarheved to go at haphazard lukkaborð nm. my treasure! (to child) lukket adj. lucky, fortunate; vel/illlukka nf. my dear! (to a woman) lukksom adj. lucky, fortunate luma vw.1.to clear up, lift;2. to over, cease (rain)

luma, ljuma vw. to warm up; at ljuma upp lungasott nf. lung-disease lunk nn. (ON logn) calming, clearing up in the weather lunka vw. to calm, clear up;hannj lunkar upp lura vw. (past lurdi) to sleep lightly;at lura øver to fall into a ligth slumber luraferði nf. 1. feigned illness; 2. disappointment; cf. ferdalek, -t lureli adv. indolently and slowly lus nf. louse luta vs. to stoop, bend forward; lute ned! stoop down! luts, lutsa nf. honey, sweet, darling lyfta vw. 1. to lift;2. to put in question, mention; 3. to set in circulation; du ert ikke at lyfta dað don't let it go any further lyfting nf. 1. lifting;2. small bite of food lyftmur nn. dense snowfall = mur, mur(a)kavi lyll nn. 1. monotonous song; 2. narrative, news; hvatna er lyll dagsens? lyng nn. heather lylla vw. 1. to sing monotonously; 2. to tell news lynn nm. (ON hlunnr) runner (1 of the wood pieces) lø vw. 1. to listen (also spying); 2. to whisper, hint at, mention slightly;at lø at; hannj lør at; lø aldri! keep your mouth shut! lø adj. slightly warm, lukewarm (esp. of liquid) lø nn. 1. sound, noise; 2. narrative, news; 3. tone; 4. manners; lø vw. 1. to give a hearing; 2. to be silent and still lø adj. 1. abundant; 2. great; we're gotten a lö corn lø nn. a warm drink lø nm. (ON lýðr) flock crowded together, esp. disparagingly lø vw. to warm up, make lukewarm løbergroinnjing nm. cod caught at the close of February løbersmess nf. leap day, 24 Feb.; Kertumess (2 Feb) løbing nm. small fish found in a stomach of a bigger one lød nn. 1. sound, tone, melody; 2. low singing; 3. whimpering; 4. humour, temper, mood; 5. news løda vw. (past løddi) 1. to emit a sound; 2. to whimper; 3. to talk, chat;4. to be quiet, silent lømet nm. small additional meal lødska nf.shouting and crying løf nm. 1. palm of the hand; 2. handful lølig, løleg, lølek adj. (ON hlœgiligr) 1. merry, playful; 2. lively; 3. with queerful temper lønhus nn. secret depository for keeping various things lør nn. pollack, gadus pollachius løsa vw. 1. to loose; 2. to break, burst, start (weather) låda vs. (hljóða) 1. to emit a sound; 2. to howl, whine, cry; 3. to talk;4. to flute; 5. to be silent lådament nn. 1. sound, noise; 2. crying, howling låder nm. clergyman T låda nf. corner in the living room for holding commodities, esp. potatoes; taatislåda lådi nn. 1. noisy sound; 2. load complaint; 3. poor circumstances; 4. miserable state of things; at halda lådi um e-t; dað er lådi veð honon; sikt lådi hannj var i! lådigråt nn. (ON látugrát) feigned weeping without reason låmek nm. 1. paw, big clumsy hand; 2. handful

långa nf. ling, gadus molva långafloga vw.small, long-shaped fly långalådnn. long-winded complaint långvi nn. (ON langve) guillemot, uria troile lår nn. thigh of a human or a large animal låtska nf. noisy talk, prating; at gera låtsku to make a noise in talking

M mag nn. damage, wear maga vw. 1. to gnaw, wear; 2. to damage by friction magdom nm. 1. shape, characteristic feature, form; 2. resemblance in features mager nn. 1. power, strength; substance; 2. good quality mager nm. starvation, misery mager adj. very lean, miserable magerlosadj. powerless, without substance mak nm. (ON mak) match, an equal; du ert ikke dess mak maklig adj. 1. easy to handle, manageable; 2. gentle, fair, suitable mallådska nf. (ON marglátska, marglæti) 1.loud, shrill; 2. noise mama nf. 1. wet-nurse; 2. woman acting as a mother to children in the mother's absence mami nm. subsoil of the ground mamma nf. mother mammgollja nf. 1. godmother; 2. midwife mana vw. to shake, tremble (esp. the head) owing to paralysis or weakness mana nn. (ON ma(g)nið?) land, mainland manjuggelti nm. 1. magic art; 2. juggling tricks manket adj. exhausted mann nm. 1. man; 2. married man; 3. master of the house manndomm,manndum nm. manhood manndyrð nf. 1. manliness; 2. doughtiness; 3. strength, bravery mannferdig adj. marriageable mannfolk nn. male, man mannsvit nn. human intellect Mansmessss nf. 19 Dec. (old style); 31 Dec. (new style) mar nm. 1. the sea, deep-sea; 2. mire, mud, clay; 3. desolation, great sorrow, depression; hannj lagdi mog i maren he laid me in the clay > he troubled me with bad news mara nf. nightmare mardestinkel nm. (ON -stökkva? 'to jump') 1. a great feverish haste; 2. a great excitement mareld nm. phosphorescent light in the sea marfloga nf. water-flea marg pron. much, many marglit adj. 1. variegated;2. having shades of differentcolours; 3. speckled, mottled Marimesss nf. Lady day, 25 March; Mar(i)messrið rough weather on M. mark nn. 1. mark; 2. ear-mark;3. matter of consequence; 4. reputation,esteem; 5. prominent person mark nn. mark (weight, land)

marka vw. 1. to mark; 2. to indicate; 3. to denote, notice; dað er ikke at marka drøm dreams don't signify anything (ON þat er ekki mark at draumum) marksten nm. stone forming a boundary-mark marsgum nm. (ON -gumi) angler marul nm. (ON mörulfr) angler marvit nm. 1. stunt,2. miserable creature mask nm. (ON möskvi) mesh, loop in plaiting maska nm. 1. to make meshes, loops; 2. to catch in a net mast nm. mast of a boat or ship matlo nf. common fly, also Ork. mattismess nf. St. Matthew's mess, 21 Sep. meg nn. unsuccessful execution or result megem, megom nf. light, a streak of daylight megerdomnm. illness, slight illness megg nn. 1. doubtless strength; 2. ability; 3. good condition; 4. welldeveloped state megin nn. 1. centre, central part; 2. the darkest time at midnight; uppå meginið av nåitteni mel nm. sand-bank mel nm. 1. certain weight; 2. measure for weight mellkavi nm. dense heavy snow-storm = mellmurin mello vw. to crash into small pieces melta vw. to injure, hurt men nn. 1. hurt, disease, pain; 2. injury mena vw. 1. to hurt; 2. to cause pain, injury; menga vw. to mix, mingle menget adj. mixed (with another colour) ment nf. (ON ment accomplihment; good quality) trial or feat of strength merd, merdj, mergj nf. (mergð) crowded mass of things or creatures mergi nf. (ON mergr f.) marrow (in bone) mergiben nn. 1. marrowbone; 2. breastbone (?) merki nn. mark, boundary-mark; esp. between 2 pieces of arable land; merkisten merkigårð nm.ridge or strip between 2 pieces ofarable land merkisdag nm.day of mar, 1 of the masses or saint days merkismet nm. abundant meal, much and reach food merkistið nf. the point of a time when a festival takes place merkol nm. a piece of wood to which the ploughshare (sokk) is fixed mesel nm. unsuccessful carying out of something, unsuccessful result mesi nm. an open straw-basket mester-treeeenn. plough met, mat- nn. 1. measure, boundary; 2. mark; 3. limit; 5. moderation; 6. print, impression meta vw. to make a mark or print; hans skugar metaði golvið his shoes left dirty marks on the floor meta vw. (past metti) 1. to feed; 2. to kernel, become ripe metla vw. to hurt, injury; hannj fellj og metlaði sog mid nn. 1. landmark;2. fishing-ground mida nn. to mark, locate, esp. in boat-fishing midrum nn. the midmost space in a boat mikkel, mukkel adj. great, much Mikkelsmess nf. Michaelmass 29 Sep (old), 12 Oct (new)

milda vw. to crush into small pieces, crumble; hannj mildaði kost inn i mjølk millja prep. G between milljablanjda vw. 1. mixed oat- or barley-meal; 2. untidy mixture or heap of things put together; tingen vuru i milljablanjdu the things were all flung together confusedly min pron. my mink nm. diminution minka vw. 1. to diminish; 2. tocause a visible decrease; 3. to grow less; at minka burt minki adj. diminutive minnamågi nm. foremost part of a stomach of a fish minnjet adj. minded, of a certain disposition miðnåd, minud nf. midnight mirr nn. slight vibration misbø vs. 1. to underbid; 2. to wrong; misboden underbid, wronged (ON misboðinn) misfør nf. 1. misfortune; 2. accident; 3. injury misføra vw. 1. to miscarry; 2. to be injured; 3. to meet with misfortune; dað misførdi it didn't succeed; 4. to perish at sea, capsize, wreck; misføren gone wrong misgenga vs. to miss each other, go different ways, each other without meeting;de misgingu annjehvaran misgløma vw. to neglect or forget to do a thing mishandla vw. to ill-treat, hurt by rough usage miskenna vw. 1. to mistake one person for another; 2. to undervalue, fail to appreciate mismand adj. (ON mismannaðr or mismenntr) weakened, exhausted by exertion miss nm. loss, loss by death of a person or animal missa vw. (ON misti) to lose (by death) missin nf. slackening, decreasing mistru nf. mistrust mistru vw. to mistrust, disbelieve mjappa vw. to lap, produce a sound when licking a milk mjava vw. to mew (cat) mjavi nm. cat T mjoget adj. yellowish-brown mjork nm. dense fog mjåget adj. lean, gaunt, sickly looking moder [mara, mora] nf. mother; moder alen adv. quite alone moggjek [dzj] nn. (ON mý) gnat moinjd nn. (ON mund) 1. period, long while; 2. spirits, temper; 3. excited state of mind moinjdi nn. feeling, sensation moinnj nm. mouth; monnlipp, monnmågi moinnjvik nn. corner of the mouth moinnjkast nn. good appetite mol nf. pebble-ridge molten adj. 1. decomposed; 2. coagulated mon nm. (ON munr) 1. marked influence upon something, marked change; 2. progress;3. difference; dað ger mon mona vw. 1. to move a little; 2.to bring about a changeor progress; vil du mona djer litið?

mona upp 1. to add; 2. to fill up; dað monar upp it's a good addition; it's filling (food) monali, munali adj. 1. considerable; 2. really good or large morkin adj. 1. somewhat spoiled or rotten; 2. misty; 3. wet; moskin(d) most nm. 1. vapour;2. mist mu nf. 1. weakening;2. wasting away mu nf. froth, saliva mu nm. kernel (esp. in a corn) mua vw. 1. to be weakened, waste away; 2. feel hungry mud, mød, mø nm. mood, temper mud nn. 1. indistinct shape of something; 2. likeness, shape, form mugga nf. soft drizzling rain mukkelevinm. (ON mikil afi 'big grandad' or nukkel afi < nykr) devil, seadevil mulig adj. diminutive mulikin nm. a sock reaching a little above the ankle mumla vw. 1. to munch, chew; 2. to mumble murod adj. (ON mórauðr) reddish-brown murkavi nm. dense snowfall, snow storm murt nm. small object or being, small coalfish (1st year) mus nf. mouse musker nn. whisper, murmur; eg hørdi aldri et musker um dað muskra vw. to whisper, murmur muskerod adj. 1. dark-grey with reddish-brown shade; 2. light brown musket adj. dark coloured (sheep) mutna vw. 1. to be decayed; 2. to be dried up; 3. to rot slowly muttel nm. small knife mynnji nn. 1. mouth, opening in a firth; 2. strait, sound, bay mynni: åmynni tomorrow (ON á *myrgni) mynt nf. something as ornament, distinction, honour; hon tinker dað vara mynt uppå sog mynta vw. to endeavour to form or shape of something mynveg nm. (ON myndvegr) 1. outline; 2. form; 3. outward marks of distinction (f.ex. in the dark) myrdin adj. 1. of un unusual circumference; 2. very tall and long; 3. huge myrk adj. dark myrkabrod nn.(ON mjörkvabrot) mist covering the hill-tops myrker nn. darkness myrki nn. deep, dark cave myrkna vw. 1. to grow dark; 2. to become evening myrkning nf. twilight møl nn. a sultry heat møld nf. earth-mould møli adj. wearied, languid mølk nn. the milt of a male fish; ON mjölkvi mølos adj. sluggish and weak, with slack unhandy hold mølos adj. 1. chary of words; 2. reserved; 3. weak-minded and dull møn nn. 1. might; 2. strength; 3. energy møna nf. spinal marrow mør nm. (ON mór) heath, moor, pasture in common mør, møri nf. (ON mýri) bog, swamp møratu(g) nf. (ON maurþúfa) 1. the ant; 2. ant-hill mørin nf. disagreeable pricking or tingling sensation in the body

måger nm. 1. poor, feeble physical condition; 2. bony miserable animal mågra vw. to become lean, emaciated mågi nm. stomach (fish) måjfåj nn. 1. absurd fun; 2. mad pranks; 3. little merry-making, party måin, måien nn. 1. power, display of energy; 2. activity of mind; 3. noise, confusion måinlos adj. week, feeble, having no energy mål nn. 1. voice, speech; 2. matter, case; in: lomål, umål; 3. limit;sommermål, sjurmål måliskop nn. certain land-measure måni nm. moon månnjskab nm.power, ability (esp. physical)

N nab adj. (ON hnappr, knappr) scant, stingy, that gives short measure nada, njada vw. to decay, waste away, moulder nadi, naddi adj. undeveloped, checked in growth (esp. corn) nagg, njagg nn. 1. importunity, troubling or teasing by reiterations; 2. nagging; 3. prop. gnawing nagga, njagga vw. to importune, trouble; at njagga burt at e-on nakket adj. immature (esp. of corn); pp. of nakka to check in growth nalta nf. grain, particle namngeden adj. (ON nafngitinn) well-known, famous namn nn. name Narulsa nunn, Nirelsa nønn nn. the name of an old fairy song or melody nasems nn. intercourse with women, esp. vulgar natig adj. (Nor. natig) 1. small and neat; 2. vivacious, energetic, active nava vw. to gnaw (off) navarbor nf. (ON -bora) a hole in a piece of wood naver nm. (ON nafarr) auger naversben, navarben nn. the uppermost vertebra of the neck naverd adj. necked, having a neck of certain description nebb nn. 1. beak or neb of a bird; projecting point (of a stone) nebbet adj. having a beak neðbord nm. (ON niðrburðr) 1. bait; 2. a fish cut into pieces T ned adv. down; set dog ned! nedfalljklokk nn. large species of beetle, klokk nedlag nn. heavy snowfall nedlega nf. couch, resting-place nedlop nn. heavy downpour of rain nedset nn. haunt, domicile nedtak nn. taunt, disparaging reference to a person nedra vw. 1. to lower; 2. to depreciate Nedra adj. the lower of two; vs. Øvra negga vw. to neigh (of a horse) neggt [neχt] nf. 1. rancour; 2. ill-will nei interj. no neppa vw. (past nepti) to together;at neppa hanjdena to clench the hand ner pron. inter. (ON nær) when?

nes nn. (D.pl. nesjon) ness, promontory neti adj. 1. (neat) comely; 2. quick and agile; 3. smart nettla vw. to triffle with one's work nev nn. 1. nose; 2. beak, point; 3. the handle of an oar nevi, njavi nm. 1. fist; 2. clenched fist; 3. fistful, handful; hannj kneppti [hneppti, sneppti] sin nev he clenched his fist nevatag nn. a fist-grip; at taka goitt nevatag never adj. (ON snæfr/snoefr; noefr) narrow and steep nevgrip nn. 1. as much as can be gripped or held in the closed hand; 2. fistful = nevlok, njevlok (ON hnefalok, Ork. (Hoy) knevslok) niba vw. 1. to stand or sit in bent position; at sita nibandi øver eldenon; 2. to hang the head nibeldis adj. 1. niggardly;2. avaricious nid nn. shooting pain in the body from straining or spraining nida vw. 1. to ache; 2. to strain, sprain nidra vw. 1. to lower, check; 2. to disregard; 3. to waste away, diminish; bånnjið er nidrað ned; de animal es nidrað burt nidderd adj. checked in growth, poor, not having reached its full size nidderet adj. 1. wasted away; 2. miserable nidi adj. 1. stingy;2. avaricious; 3. greedy niga vw. (ON niða) to ache, pain;a nigin pain nigda nf. wife T nigga vw. 1. to trouble smb with repeated inquires; 2. to annoy; 3. to worry niggel, njiggel nm. 1. hard substance; 2.hard, tough matter, tough soil nigla vw.1.to gnaw; 2. to chew; 3. to work without progress nigli adj. hard, tough (of soil) nikk nn. 1. jerk, snatching; 2. sudden pain nilda vw. 1. to beat, thrash with the hand; 2. to buffet; 3. to keep one down; 4. to take advantage nilda vw. 1. to bite, chill; 2.metaph: to ache, smart nilda vw. 1. to press, squeeze; 2. to knead (dough) niu-mødra-met nm. popular belief about food, collected from nine mothers whose first-born were sons, and used as a remedy for a very sick child; sonamors-met nip nm. 1. a steep overhanging crag; 2. a steep mountain top nirl nm. a cold biting wind nirla vw. to rub; at nirla (burt) at gønni to scrape away at the fiddle nirlig adj. bitter, cold nirt nm. 1. closeness;2. stinginess nisa vw. to sneeze nisek nm. porpoise, dolphine nist nm. (ON (g)neisti) 1. spark of fire; 2. morsel of something nistra vw. to creak, produce a loud penetrating sound nivla vw. 1. to squueze, pinch; 2. to press; 3. to seize and shake somebody, knuckle njad nn.hard wearisome work, drudgery njoga vw. to whine and complain, moan njuggel nm. water-nixie - supernatural being njuling nm. fool, simpleton nokki nm. hook, fish-hook nombrastobbnm. (ON -stubbr, -stubbi) a quiet place, esp. at the sea nombrastom nf. 1. very thick mist; 2. deep pondering

norden adj. 1. from the north; 2. belonging to the northern part of Shetland nori nm. 1. puffin;2. barnacle; Tommi nori norn nf. Norn language norn adj. (ON norroenn) Norn, of Norn or Old Norwegian origin; norn visek a Norn song or ballad; norna tungan nos nf. 1. rocky point, tongue of land; 2. prop. a nose nosskerð nf, nosskerding nm. deep cut or mark on a sheep not nn. pl.? use, benefit; neg. dað eru ingen not i di not nn. 1. cow T; 2. blockhead novnf. high point of land, promontory nov, njov adj. smart, clever, active nu adv. now; dað er nu og so it's neither good nor bad; nu, nu! stop that! keep quiet! nukki nm. 1. twisting, tangle; 2. knot null nn. cipher 0 numskoljt nm. stupid fellow, numskull nunna vw. to hum a tune nup nm. a steep crag nurtrus adj. cold, disagreeable, inclement nust nn. boat's shed nut nn. 1. cow T; 2. cattle; 3. stupid person; nutfot cow-bone < ON nautfótr nuv nm. (ON hnúfr) steep promontory nyr nn. (ON nýra) kidney nø nf. (ON nægð/nauð) excessive fatness; at vara i nø nøda vw. 1. to whimper, complain; 2. to desire, long for; at nøda og krimpa nønna vw. to hum, sing low to himself = nunna nønn nn. song, tune nøtskel(t) nn. (ON knýtill + L.Sc. knitchell) bundle, parcel nåla vw. to sew firmly nåma vw. (past nåmdi) to touch or take food nåmen adj. quick of apprehension, intelligent, shrewd and capable nåni nm. dwarfish person, boy too small for his age nåralegg nm. big needle with broken eye

O oba vw. to open; oba dønnar! obadalig, obadjalig adj. 1. incapable, weakly; 2. useless obder nn. (ON uppdyri or ofdyri) 1. wooden lintel or shelf above a door; 2. penthouse obo nn. 1. appearance, pretence; 2. something done for the sake of appearances oddi nm. point, tongue of land ogelsku nm. old, worn-out shoe; at gånga i ogelsku ogga vw. 1. to satisfy; 2. to give one good and dainty food ohoitt, uhoitt nm. (ON ótti) sudden owerhelming fear of the supernatural ok- adj. prefix (ON auka-) additional okenli adv. often, frequently

oknamn nn. nickname, (mocking) epithet okra vw. (ON okra, auka) 1. to augment, increase; 2. to raise old nf. 1. hazy, sultry weather; 2. oppressive heat olg nf. (ON ólga) heavy commotion in the sea olg nn. poppressive heat olljapluck nn. (ON ullar- + L.Sc. pluck) remains of wool olljastu nm. (ON -stúfr) sheep's carcass found in the outfield ollemos adj. poor, wretched, bony olmø nm. (ON almúgi/-múgr) large assembly of people, gathered crowd ombod nn. (ON umboð) 1. factorship;2. vicar's tithe ombodsland nn. crown property, national property omgordinn adj. surrounding omgording nm. (ON umgyrðingr) border, thick rope around the mouth of a basket ompastobb nn. 1. confusion; 2. disorder; 3. untidiness omujjem pron. 1. two objects of the same kind; 2. nothing else onjd nf. heat (sun, atmospheric); see also ønn onjdali adj. 1. strange, doubtful, mysterious; 2. wicked, evil; 3. forebodding bad weather onjdelokk nf. accident, misfortune; dað er onjdelokk falljen uppå de they've met with an accident onjder nn. 1. small porch; 2. penthouse; 3. wooden shelf onjder prep. and adv. under onjdergjud nf. (ON undirgjót) under-current in the sea onjdergrå, -gru nm. (ON -gróði/græði?) swell in the sea, indicating storm onjderhvigg, underhvigg nn. under-current in the sea onderstenn nm. 1. 'under-stone', stone forming a base; 2. metaph. author, esp. of something bad onjgdi nm. (ON andi) 1. stink; 2. strong and disagreeable smell onglabiter nm. ling biting the line onnj nf. (ON önn) eagerness, love of work opantil adv. above, on the heights ord nf. (ON urð) 1. a heap of fragments of rock; 2. big boulder orm nm. 1. vermin;2. swarm; 3. dense shoal of small fish orma vw. to creep, crawl ormel nn. pl. (ON ørmul) remnant, particle, fragment ornaskap, -skepp nn. form of ear-mark orta adj. (ON úrtak?) rare, occurring at long intervals; uttakin taking out; selected osta vw. 1. to waste, disappear; 2. to melt, cause to disappear ostmjølk nf. ost-milk ousa vs. 1. to bale; 2. to pour down; 3. to lift feet high in walking ousmål nn. quantity of water in the bottom of a boat ousterrumm nn. well-room of a boat overgengen adj. 1. imperious, tyrannical; 2. violent; intractable overgeng vs. 1. to exceed the right measure; 2. to become overfilled overgeng nm. 1. excess of measure; 2. violence, arrogance; 3. aggression overgrip nn. 1. the upper hand (in wrestling); 2. sprain overgripa vs. to sprain; hannj overgrep sina hanjd overi(n), øveri nn. 1. the last cake; 2. something left over overli adv. excessively

overlig adj. 1. excessive, too big; 2. exaggerated overskodd nn. 1. rebound of a wave; 2. too great haste overteken adj. overwhelmed overtak nn. the upper hand

P pada vw. to tell somethingsecretly, in a few words padd nf. (ON padda) toad pakk nm. (ON pakki) certain quantity of val, pack pakki nm. collection of lines (fishing) pallj adj. smooth and flat; legge fisken palljt inn i fadið! pallj nn. head (jok.) pallj nm. rocky ledge pannjabrod nn. a piece of broken pot pansjad nn. excitement, confused hurry parl nn. gritty excrement (esp. of sheep) patla, paitla vw. to push, poke, rake in something pengar nm.pl. money, coin perskit adj. 1. very accurate, punctual; 2. very formal, polished, ceremonious in behaviour pillj nm. (ON píll) buoy T pilk nm. (ON piltr) little child pina vw. to pin, fasten pinka vw. to decorate, trim; at pinka upp pinket adj. stiff and dressed up, affectedly neat pinnast vw. to suffer distress (starvation, cold) pintlek nm. short petticoat piri adj.indecl. (Nor. pirre) small; also Ork, Caith. pirket adj. 1. shrunk; 2. shrivelled; 3. very thin and lean pirket adj. 1. curly; fizzly; 2. bristly pirla vw. to void excrement (mice) pirmin adj. very angry, furious pirna vw. to shrivel, waste away; at pirna upp pirrena nf. 1. a little ailing creature, sickly child; 2. girl pistra vw. 1. to utter a faint sound; 2. to squeak, screech; 3. to whimper; eg kan nømen pistra I can hardly speak for exhaustion pisterliti nn. (ON -læti) person who constantly complains pita nf. tiny, fragile creation, poor thing pja nn. pulsation of life, breath; dað er ikke pja i honon he is exhausted pja vw. 1. to stir faintly, show signs of life; 2. to breathe faintly; hannj pjadi aldri mere he never never breathed anymore pjag nn. 1. breath of life; 2. vital power; 3. capacity for work pjaga vw. 1. to move faintly; 2. to breathe (faintly) pjagin adj. 1. upon the point of expiring; 2. quite exhausted pjakk nm. physically weak but active in work person pjakket adj. 1. small, undevelopped; 2. weakly, having little physicalstrength pjarki adj. small, unsignificant pjolet adj. ragged pju nn. faint pulsation of life, breath; dað er ikke lengre pju i honon pjurem nm. (ON rjómi) perfectly calm weather and sea

plagg nn. garment (= bad) plakk adv. entirely planka vw. to measure land, divide into planks plinga vw. to produce a tinkling sound (violin); at plinga å gønni plousi nn. halibut T plu nm. (ON plógr) plough; (also ar, er(d), ård- < arðr) pludisom adj. persevering in efforts, plodding poki, pjoki nm. 1. bag, poke; 2. small paper-bag pollj nm. 1. a small roundish land-locked bay or creek; 2. pool poittabrod nn.piece of broken pot poittek nm. pot for holding train-oil poitti nm. 1. pot; 2. tea-pot poittskerð nn.piece of broken pot porta vw. to get to burn pos nm. (ON posi) bag, esp. money-bag posi, pusi, pudj nm. swamp, morass pottisidna nf. swine, pig T pramm nn. gruel of milk and meal pramm nm. small flat-bottomed boat, pram, esp. Norwegian-build; Norva-pramm pramma vw. 1. to squeeze, press; 2. to stuff, cram predikanter nm. clergyman T prestengolva nf. clergyman T prett nm. 1. a mean trick, mischievous act; 2. iron. a good example; 3. trial of strength; 4. rogue prigga vw. 1. to poke, prod; 2. to irritate, tease proggja, prodja vw. 1. to prod with a pointed stuff; 2. to try to coax something out of a person proggjek nm. great feat of strength; hannj var uppi fyri proggjek i nåitt prud adj. 1. stately;2. magnificent; 3. of the best kind prummek nm. 1. nipple (fem.); 2. round flatcake; 3. prummekar: female breasts prunk, prunket adj. 1. shining; 2. fine and smart; 3. splendid and strutting prunka vw. 1. to shine; 2. to give a fine appearance; eg myn prunka mog upp I'll put on fine clothes prus interj. shout used in driving cows and horses prå nn. (ON bragð/brá?) somethingremarkably good, excellent thing pråg nf. 1. oil from melted fish-livers; 2. fish and potatoes served with melted liver-oil puka vw. to push, strike puki nm. infant dying unbaptized (according to an old Shetlandic belief, salvation only can be obtained by baptism) pultri adj. 1. very restless; 2.unruly, wind pund nn. pound punder nm. steel-yard pung, pong nm. testicle purlkildi nm. a person easily teased or offended purt nm. stagnant pool, dirty puddle purta vw. 1. to part, divide; 2. to fall into two or more parts, suffice for dividing purt nm. part, share purtning nf. insufficient quantity of any kind of food pusk nm. great anger, excitement

puster nm. 1. violent wind, storm; hannj kom veð pustri a storm arose; i pustri og gustri; 2. great anger, excitement; 3. vital power, capacity for work; dað er ikke (mukkil) puster i honon putta vw. to push, nudge with the elbow pyrr nm. breath of wind pytti nn. small broken pot pøla vw. to make fun of somebody påbi nm. 1. foster-father; 2. head of a family; 3. old man; 4. pope; 5. evil spirit, devil pån nm. piece of green turf for thatching

R ra nn. (ON röð) 1. a rank, row; 2. a certain length; 3. furrow ra vw. (ON raða) to shorten animal's tether by a certain length rab nn. 1. precipitation, fall (of a mass of rock); 2. crashing sound raba vw. 1. to tumble down (rocks); 2. to pour down; 3. to speak incoherently rabl nn. 1. scrapings, refuse; 2. unsuccessful attempt rad nn. (ON ráð, röð) 1. order, tidiness; 2. (good) management, good execution; at hava goitt [ilt] rad veð e-t; du hever ikke rad veð dað; hannj hever rad uppå sina vinnu rada vw. (ON raða, ráða) 1. to arrange/execute things in some order; 2. to be thrifty, save; at rada upp husið; hannj kenner ikke um radin he has no sense of economy, lets things go anyhow; midið var ikke rett radað the situation of the fishing-ground was not rightly determined raff nn. boast, nonsense rag adj. lean, wretched (animal) rag nn. low fellow, loose in habits or character rag nn. 1. wandering about, walk; 2. idle aimless strolling; 3. vagrant; 4. something that drifts, driftwood rag nn.1.disorder, untidy state; 2. untidy person raga vw. (ON hrekja) to ill-treat, bully; raget, ill-raget raga vw. (Sw. raga) to wander, stroll idly about = ragast um raga vw. (ON raka) to scrape or scratch over a surface raga nf. 1. scrapings;2. refuse; 3. wreckage; 4. confusion; 5. ruin; 6. misfortune;7. skeleton; dað er ikke efter men ragan; faren i ragu ruined; raga vw. woman ragabet adj. 1. very talkative; 2. long-winded ragi adj. slight, ing rakki nm. dog T; skitirakki rallja vw. to chat in a long-winded, noisy way ralli nn. 1. a quick turning; 2. sudden faltering or reeling; hannj gerdi ralli uppå sog he lost his balance, reeled suddenly ram nm. paw, provided with claws (esp. that of a cat); kattiramar, see also krammek rama vw. to scratch, tear; grab ramaklagg nn. screaming, shouting, clamour ramist adj. (LSc ramish + No. romsen) 1. out of sorts; 2. peevish; 3. fretful ramsekka vw. (ON rannsaka) to ransack, search thoroughly ramsk adj. 1. sharp, rancis; 2. sour; a r. taste ramska nf. fit of merriment or wantonness

ranjd nf. 1. margin, border; 2. stripe, strip randra vw. to spread around, scatter randra vw. to rob, plunder rang nm. roe, spawn rang adj. 1. wrong, crooked; 2. incorrect rangsida nf. wrong side rank adj. 1. crank, apt to heel over; 2. brittle, fragile Rann nf. sea goddess ransla vw. (ON rannsaka) to search house in order to find stolen goods ranselmann nm. investigator rasa vw. to walk undsteadily;rasin veð søgu [megerdomi] rasa vw. to eat off (about cattle leaving no grass) raska vw. to grow very rapidly and lusuriantly rats nm. buttock, posteriors ratska nf. long-winded story (esp. in telling news) rebdiskit nm. worthless fish red nm. boundary line of fishing-ground at sea red nm. (ON reiði) 1. order, tidiness; 2. implements reda vw. (ON greiða; past reddi) 1. to put in order, make clear; 2. to manage, pay one's way; at reda sina hanjd 1) to manage, pay one's way; 2. to extricate oneself; hannj reddi sina hanjd veð di redskab nm. (ON reiðskapr) fishing-line or -tackle rega, raga (ON reka) vs.1. to drive, chase (of clouds, wind); 2. to blow hardor full on rega nf. driving, drifting; at søka e-t ut av regu to search in all possible places regenvista, -vosta nf. 1. an open place greatly exposed to wind or rain; 2. wind blowing on an open place reget adj. streaked reka vw. (ON reika) to saunter about; at reka um; hvarna reikar du til? reka vw. (ON rekja) to unwind, unfold rekka vw. (Nor. rekkja, Dan. række) to reach, stretch (hand for something) reksa vw. 1. to stretch out, lengthen; 2. to stretch the limbs; 3. to hand, ; at reksa uppå sog rekster nm. 1. rapid growth; 2. exageration in counting; 3. pulling by the ears rekster nm. 1. driving, chasing (after); 2. long journey; haste, speed; hannj gerdi pørlan rekster he didn't gain much rem nf. 1. strap, strip; 2. streak (of light); 3. thin, narrow board rena vw. (Fær. rena (eyguni)) to let one's eyes rove reng nf. 1. knee-timber in a boat; 2. seat for the steersman renga vw. (ON rengja) to distort, wring rennaviti nn. vagrant rep nn. (ON reip) rope, line (esp. clothes) repa vw. to fasten with a rope repibandvw. rope or band to which to fasten the mouth of a basket resa vw. (ON reisa; past resti) to pile up resa vw. (ON ræsa; past resti) to set off at a run rett nm. enclosure for cattle rið nf. (ON hríð) 1. spell of bad weather; 2. attack of pain or illness; lambarið riða vs. to ride rib nn. 1. strip (of ground); 2. a thin piece of wood

ribbek nm. extensive fisning-ground ridl nn. long story ridla vw. to exaggerate or intersperse a story with falsehoods ridli pebble on the shore rift nf. 1. rift (in a landscape); 2. fissure in a rock rifta vw. to belch rikla vw. to cut a herring into pieces rimska vw. to set bad rumours afloat, talk scandal rimska nf. noisy mirth rina vs. (ON rhína) to shriek, squeal (ofswine, pigs) rinjd nf. 1. setting off a run; 2. sudden start, jump ring nm. ring rinna vs. (ON renna) 1. to run; 2. to be able to stand: at rinna veteren; at rinna at to run up tightly (of a knot) rinna vw. (ON renna; past rinjdi) to let run, to set off at a run; at rinna i boittn to run the line to the bottom (Fær. renna í botn) riska vw. to cause a scratch rispa vw. 1. to strip; 2. to scratch; 3. to cut rist nf. 1. instep; 2. wrist riv nf. (G.pl rivja) reef riva vs. to tear, pull rivek nm. cleft, fissure in a rock rivet adj. careless and negligent in work ro vw. (ON róa) to remain at rest in one place rod nm. (ON roti) crowd rod nm. (ON hroði) refuse, waste rof nn. damage, destruction, confusion; rof og spøli (spoil) damage, destruction, confusion rogg nm. bog, stout and strong person rogga vw. to raise or shrug one's shoulders rogget adj. big, stout, strong (person) roggisomadj. well developed and strong rolli nm. mackerel T ronalent nn. 1. liquid manure from cattle; 2. gutter; 3. mire, mud roni nm. boar ronnek nm. 1. small watercourse; 2. channel ronzji nn. an urging on; at geva e-on ronzji 1. to urge one on [to] drive; 2. to chase away rora vw. to injure the health rossajoga nn. horse's eye rotta nf. rat T rovek nm. cleft between the buttocks rovek nm. 1. rump (of an animal); 2. tail ru vw. to hurry with one's work ru nf. rest, quiet; uru rug nf. (ON hrúfa, hrúga) 1. a heap, pile; 2. crowd rugget adj. hard, stiff (tide, wind) ruglet adj. insecure, rocking ruk nn. spoondrift rukka nf. 1. good while, short period (longer than riid - ??); fairly long way ruksnaviti nn. fool, simpleton rum nn. 1. room;2. space between 2 thwarts in a boat;3. allotment, small holding

rum adj. roomy; rum vind following wind, opp. to krapp vind rumla vw. rumble rummelfat nn. depository for all kinds of trifles rummelhaljd nn. 1. muddle; 2. confusion rummikel nm. (ON -karl) rude, boisterous person rums nn. 1. stirring, sudden movement; 2. tumult, swell in the sea rumsa vw. 1. to stir, turn round; 2. to root (of swine) rund adj. round rungklovarnm.pl. tongs rus nn. 1. onrush, hurry; 2. strong wind rusk nm. (ON röskr adj.) 1. stour, strong person (boy, young); 2. active energetic person ruskalig adj. strong, healthy, well developed russa nf. mare russ nn. 1. horse; 2. hardy child running running bear-headed in all weathers rust nf. iron-rust rust nf. strong tidal current; (in Ork. saga current = röstin) rusta vw. to rust; rustet rustju, ruskju nn. 1. great disorder; 2.great confused haste ruta vw. to bellow loudly ruth nm. (róðr) 1. a rowing;2. a rowlock in a boat rygg nm. 1. the back; 2. ridge ryggagitel nm. high curved part of a swine's back near the neck ryggben nm. backbone rygget adj. having a different colour on the back (svart-, røð- etc.) ryggriva vs. to tear (scratch) ryn(n)a vw. (ON hrynja) to fall, slide (earth, rocks) rød, rø adj. red; weak forms: rødi 1. red stallion [bull]; 2. fire (in a riddle); røda red mare [cow] røda vw. to build up hurriedly and temporarily; at røda upp [samen] rødastabbb nm. (ON reyðrastabbi, reyðr - whale) block of wood rødelek adj. foreboding the fine rain (weather); hannj er rødelek there's a prospect of rainy weather rødret adj. reddish (white) røllet adj. in heat rømi, remi nm. (ON rjómi) a dead calm weather at sea røni nn. (ON hraun) 1. stony hill; 2. stone-heap røs nn. (ON hrós) 1. praise; 2. recommendation røsa vw. 1. to commend highly; 2. to boast røslet adj. 1. impetuous; 2. hasty; 3. heedless røta vw. to root røvaskerri nn. 1. a worthless thing; 2. worthless objects rå nn. (ON hræ) carcass (of an animal) rå nf. (ON hræða) bugbear, scarecrow råð nn. advice; goitt at taka gamla manna råð råða vs. (ON ráða) to desire the boar (male), of a sow rågi nm. (ON ráð) kind of evil spirit rånga vw. (ON hrang) to rign, resound rånka vw. to clear up (storm, bad weather) råra nf. (ON hræða) bogey, esp. a scarecrow råsa vw. (ON ræsa, past råsti) to run the fishing-line down the bottom råsigat, råsihol nn.pl. limber-holes in a boat råss nn. (ON ræxn) knot on an animal's tether in order to short it

råth nn. (ON ræði) rights or authority (over a property); ryt and roith(t) [råð] rights råthman nm. man with full rights over his property, odaller råvilt adj. (ON ráðvilltr) 1. puzzled, vacilating; 2. in a dilemma; 3. utterly mad

S sabba vw. to saturate (esp. with water) saga nf. 1. tale, narrative; dað er ikke at gera sagu um; 2. saying; dað er komið til minnar sagu it happened just as I said it would (ON þat er komit til sögu minnar) saga vw. to slacken, cease (tide) sagda adv. (Fær. saktans) indeed, certainly sagg, sjagg nn. close, drizzling rain sagta, sakta [-xt] nf. 1. easy gait, gentle rowing; 2. ease, gentleness sagta adv. gently, slowly sagtna vw. to slacken, abate, cease (of wind, tide) sallja vw. 1. to move, sail; 2. to creep along sallj nn. ocean current saklos adj. blameless, guiltless salhå nm. large full-grown shark = blå(ga)hå salt nn. salt salt adj. salt sambord nm. place of ing together = samfast(in) samkenn adv. interj. (ON sannkenna v.)certainly! truly! sand nm. sand sanjda vw. to say yes continually; at sanjda veð sandvarpet vw. thrown together in a heap and mixed with sand sang nm. 1. song;2. singing sangster nm. cake made of barley-meal kneaded with fish-livers sann interj. assertive exclamation, truth! uppå min sann! upon my word! (Fær. (uppá) mín sann!) sannja vw. to prove true, accuse justly sarablind nn. a large spider with very long legs sarasløb nf. abig jelly-fish, medusa saren adj. not able to walk steadily sed nm. full-grown fish; sillek, murt, piltek, hol(-piltek), drølin (droljen), stivin, beli, benki, welsi, kegga-piltek, kød, sjaper sedek nm. seat sedek nm. a fishing-ground near the coast sedel nm. saddle sedesup nn. (ON -súpa/saup) sediment of butter-milk sedviti nn. sheep (Low) segel nn. sail segla vw. (ON segldi) to sail; segle burt til strandar! sekk nm. sack seksering nm. six-oared boat sel nf. (ON sæla) happiness selihu nf. (ON sæluhúfa) caul enclosing a child's head at birth sem nm. nair, iron nail sema vw. (ON seyma) to nail down;to s. a boat

semek nm. sewing-needle T semla vw. 1. to fit, suit; 2. to return to a normal state, regain equilibrium; 3. to smooth; 4. to collect, gather; at semla seng send nf. 1. a gift sent to one (far away) < sending; 2. slight kick seppalama interj. (ON søta lambit 'sweet kid') address exclamation ser adv. south, to the south; his son guid s. serinsten nm. (ON sigrsteinn) victory-stone, brings a happiness, talisman seta vw. (ON setja; past setti) 1. to set; 2. to plant; 3. to put to rights; 4. to arrange, place; 5. to receive in a certain condition; at seta dør opna to leave the door open; 6. to treat, entertain (goitt, ilt); 7. to ferry over; 8. to head, steer in a settle in a place; 9. at setast to take a seat; sete dog ned; sete dog inn til eldsens; at seta sin fud til eldsens 1. to make oneself at home; 2. decide to remain: sete din fud inn til eldsens! make yourself at home! hannj setti sin fud til eldsins og vildi ikke rumsa he settled himself down comfortably and would not stir; at seta inn sin fud 1. to withdraw, set aside; 2. break a promise: du hever set inn din fud; at seta ut fuden at gera e-t to undertake a performance of a piece of work; seta at 1. to set oneself comfortably; 2. to exert oneself, push on; set at djer! seta efter to pursue seta frå sjer: to take vigorous pills seta in to pledge seta over to ferry over; set mog øver sundið! seta til to raise a young animal to a winter = seta å seta samen to put together, compose seta upp 1. to drive a boat ashore; 2. pull freash peats on the fire; at seta upp birtek seta ut 1. to move farther out; 2. to compose (a book); 3. to translate; at seta ut buk seta å 1. to raise a young animal to winter; 2. to strain; 3. to fix, appoint a time or day seter nn. (ON setr) homestead, farm seter nn. (ON sætr) pasture for cattle setning nm. a year-old lamb reared at home in the winter si vw. (ON sía) to clear by straining sid adj. (ON síðr) long, reaching low down; sid jakki; dað er øver sitt siderep nn. one of two ropes by which a harrow is drawn sigg nn. piece of hard skin; lean, tough meat sigga vw. 1. to press together; 2. to twoobjects together sigga vw. to incite a dog sigget adj. hard and tough signavw. 1. to make the sign of the cross; 2. to bless; 3. to practice witchcraft siggra vw. 1. to press twoobjects into one; 2. to heal (wound) sija vw. (past sagdi) to say, tell; at sija frå (ON segja frá); at sija til to give instructions; sannjsagd (ON sannsagðr, -mæltr) sil nn. small fry (esp. of herring) sila vw. 1. to strain; 2. to ooze, leak; hesten silar vatnið um sin monnj sild nf. herring silek nm. young sow silek nm. young coalfish, first year sill nn. 1. the milt in male fish; 2. fry (esp. of herring) sillaland nn. (ON síðlent land?) small piece of field difficult to plough

sima vw. to heed, notice; aldri sima dað! hannj simaði mog aldri he pretended not to see [hear] me simm nm. 1. a trace, indication of something; 2. a faint suspicion; 3. a hint, vague report; 4. morsel; eg hevdi simm av di simma vw. to hint, mention vaguely; eg simmaði aldri at eg kendi um dað I never gave a hint that I knew anything about the matter simmi nm. plaited straw-band sin nn. sinew sinna nf. long old and tough grass sinter nn. small quantity, particle sirpin badly prepared sita vs. 1. to sit; 2. to remain (at rest); 3. to reside, live in place;eg hevi sitið mitt hela liv å esu landi; at sita inn under e-on 1. to have one sitting on a knee; 2. show one greatest life affection; jift de kundu hava sitið inn under honon; at seta ut elden to sit (talking) without heeding the fire on the hearth and letting it go out siverka nf. 1. ahard disagreeable work, toil; 2. soil prepared for planting of potatoes sjafer nm. a large marine animal sjaga vw. 1. to gnaw, chew; 2. to talk incessantly sjaga vw. to worry, fatigue with hard work; sjaget, sjaget ut - knocked up, entirely exhausted sjageri nn. hard, wearing work sjagla vw. to cut unevenly with a blunt knife sjald nm. oyster-catcher sjalti nm. (ON hjalti, hjaltr = hjaltlendingr) 1. water-flea < springer?; 2. horse, Shetland pony sjamma vw. 1. to make faces, showing the teeth; 2. to mutter, speak undistinctly; 3. to stutter sjaphus nn. small porch, penthouse sjara vw. to creak (door) sjask nn. 1. trouble;2. toil and moil sjasket adj. 1. troubled, worried; 2. exhausted, worn out sjava vw. to gnaw sjela vw. to fall (frost, dew); at sjela ned, upp, av sjela vw. 1. slight frost, hoar-frost; 2. dew on the ground; 3. dense mist; 4. dark colour sjera vs. (ON skera) to cut, reap corn sjiner nm. sun T sjodd, sjødd nn. 1. loud humming or rushing sound; 2. noise of many footsteps sjogg nm. close drizzling or misty rain sjogg adj. (ON þjukkr) thick, luxuriant growth (grass) sjoggersten nm. hard stone, kinf of quartz sjoggisom adj. exhausting, laborious, very tiring sjol nf. (ON sál) 1. soul; 2. address to a cow during milking; sjolin sjota sweet soul < ON sálin soeta sjoljåga, -låga nf. mist laying over the sea sjonn, sjønn nf. 1. small lake, tarn; 2. pond, pool, swamp sjorg nm. (ON saurr, saurga) wet gravel-soil, esp. sub-soil sjorgig adj. gravelly; s. land sju nm. 1. the sea; 2. waves sjugeng nm. heavy surf sju vs. (ON skjóta?) to bark the oars in rowing

sjukka vw. (ON *þjukka) to become filled with dense mist sjukkola nf. (ON þjukk-kúla) cod, "thick-head" T sjukni nf. thick atmosphere, dense mist sjupilti nm. 1. sea-demon, water-nixie; 2. triton sjurmål nn. (ON sjófarmál) high-water mark, edge of the foreshore sjuski nm. (ON þjófskr) 1. a dog (nickname); 2. an unruly boy; 3. devil;4. clergyman T sjøni nn. (ON sýni) queer individual, poor person sjønibøsn nn. (ON sjónar-býsn) a queer, odd-looking person Sjålma nf. (ON Hjálma) name for a white-headed (dark-coloured) cow sjålmarket adj. born with a mark in the ear (of a calf) sjåna vw. (ON skjána) 1. to dwinddle; 2. to shrink; 3. to waste away sjånin nf. shrinking = sjonament nn. skaplag nn. (ON skiplag, skaplag) plan (unmatured), castle in the air; at legga upp skaplag [skiplag] skad nn. 1. a great haste; 2. excitement; 3. noise and disturbance skag, skegi nn. (ON skagi) point or tongue of land skal vpp. shall skal, skelli nf. (ON skel) rock-moss, esp. of korki skalljet adj. 1. bald; 2. losing hair; 3.imopure, mixed (colour) skallji nm. 1. a bald head; 2. a bald person; 3. a bare hill-top skalv nn. (ON skafl) 1. wet snow; 2. large wet snowflakes skalva vw. to fall (wet snow) skam nn. a small cloud skamlos adj. shameless, insolent skammjok, -jukk nn. 1. a yoke carried by the two middle oxen; 2. a shorter yoke (opp. to utjok) skanta vw. to probe with a measuring staff skatt nm. tax, tribute, esp. to the Crown skatta vw. 1. to impose tax; 2. to pay tax skattald nn. (ON skatthald) 1. hill-pasture, out-field; 2. land taxed for its use skavlos adj. unshapely, ugly ske vw. to happen; hvatna er sked djer? skedru vw. (ON skaða-rýja?) to pluck the wool from a sheep far too early skef, skev adj. oblique, askew skegi nm. 1. sail T; 2. small quantity of wool skekel nm. 1. bogey, fabulous monster; 2. masquerader skekla vw. to disguise oneself on a dress of straw skel nn. (ON skjall + Eng. scale) film growing over the eye, impairing the sight skela vw. to squint skelk nm. loud mocking laughter, guffaw skelka vw. to laugh loud and mockingly skellj nm. 1. crash, cracking sound of something hard falling or breaking; 2. roar of laughter skelter nm. (ON skjálfti) (great) commotion in the sea skena vw. to cut or picka shell-fish out of the shell skepta nf. 1. something shaken; 2. a porridge-like substance skepting nm. razor-fish skerpa vw. to make hard and dry; skerpet skerping nm. wind-dried fish (sillek, piltek) skerra vw. to frighten, startle

skerr adj. 1. shy, apt to be startled; 2. loose, slack (of a rope); a s. horse ski nm. (ON skí(r), Fær. skíggi) adipose membrane in intestines of an animal ski nn. (ON) wooden plough skiba vw. (ON skipa) 1. to bring to light, disclose; at skiba e-n (upp) sen sjuv; 2. to introduce a subject; 3. to strip a debtor skift nn. (ONskipti) sharing out; at gera skift to divide equally skikk nn. 1. order, state of things; 2. good management, economy, thrift; at hava goitt skikk (veð e-t) 1. to manage well; 2. to be economical, save skikka vw. 1.to keep in order; at skikka husið, mjølk; 2. to manage well; 3. to be economical (esp. food) skilm nn. 1.a film of milk; 2. a slime scraped from fish skilseta vw. to separate, part (from a companion/flock) skilter nm. 1. dispersion;2. scattering; 3. spreading skiltet adj. changeable, wavering skiltra vw. to saunter about skimpa vw. to mock, jest, make fun skimper nm. a mocker, teaser, jesting person skimpsomadj. good-humoured mocking, jesting skindoger nm. 1. a slight peal of thunder; 2. a supernatural vision skink nf. (ON skinka) ham, loin (anim.) skinkben nn. shank of an animal skinnalepp nm. 1. a strip, remnant of skin; 2. remains skinnraga vw. to backbite skipa vw. to steer (esp. a boat) skiplaga vw. to make plans or arrangements out of season, build aircastles skir adj. pure, holy; skirfursdag shire Thursday (ON skírþórsdagr) skit nm. 1. dirt, filth; 2. excrement of clothes skita vw. 1. to evacuate; 2. toeject liquid skita vw. (ON skjóta + Eng. sheet) to play duck and drake skiva nf. 1. slice (bread); skivek: 1. thick slice; 2. a dry piece of turf; also skivrin/skivrik skjag nn. something loosely built up, f.ex. a fence, as a shelter against bad weather skjag nn. pen, esp. for geese; see also stjag skjoget adj. (ON skýjóttr) greyish, muddy-grey skjogla vw. 1. to make askew, twist out of shape; 2. to walk crookedly skjol nm. a broad discolouring streak (red, black etc) skjona vw. (ON skynja) to examine by touch whether hens are about to lay eggs skjons nn. (ON skyn) eye accuracy in performing work skjonsin adj. 1. oblique, slanting; 2. obliquely, aslant skjotta vw. to peer, peep; see skotta skjul nn. (ON skjól) shelter skjut, skjud nm. (ON skjótr) horse T skjåldra nf. (ON *skjaldra, skjöldr) hoar-frost, layer of hoar-frost skjårt nm. (ON stjartr) tail; see stjårt sko nf. turf from the greensward sko vw. (ON skoða) to examine skodler nm. 1. master or pilot of the skuda boat; 2. master of ceremonies or festivals; 3. leader skog nm. shoe

skoitt nn. peeping, look-out, sight, view skoitta vw. to peer, peep, steal a glance skoitt nn. 1. peering, glancing; 2. look-out; sight, view; at taka skoitt to steal a glance at; at standa å skoittenu to be on the look-out; i skoitt in sight [view]: at koma i skoitt skolp nn. jelly-fish, medusa skolt nm. 1. skull;2. head skolta vw. to strike one on theh head skonjda, skoinjda vw. to make haste, put on speed; skonjd dog! skonzja vw. 1. to thrust, push; 2. to chase, drive away or out; 3. to scrub, scour; 4. to run quickly skor nn. 1. score, crevice; 2. fishing-ground close to the shore; 3. mood, temper skord nf. great number, swarm skord, skjord adj. having sharp edges, notched (of ram's horn) skord nf?. stay, prop, shore < skorða skorda vw. 1. to prop, ; 2. to shore up a boat; 3. to keep somebody upright by ing him skorkna vw. to shrink, get a hard crust, dry quickly; skorknin, see also skorpnskorm nf. egg-shell skorn nf. very small quantity, scrap skornfullj adj. slippery with frost skorpi adj. shrunken, dried up skorping nm. very lean, thin creature (< shrunken, dried up) skorpna vw. 1. to shrink, dry up;2. to bake too hard skot nn. a great speed, hurry skothår nn. pl. 1. short, soft, downy hairs; 2. hair beginning to glow skotnaruth nm. (ON skottanar-róðr?) special kind of rowing (< rowing by backing) skot nn. liking, inclination skottel nm. movable board in a boat skre nf. (ON skreið) large flock in motion skre nf. (ON skriða) a slide in a mountain side, landslip skreling nm. small, feeble and insignificant person skri vs. (ON skríða) 1. to manage with difficulty; at skri å to get on; 2. to be just able to keep alive; 3. to be barely sufficient; dað myn skri øver hellina it will last over Sunday (from Saturday evening till Monday morning) skrib nn. 1. a mark, left by scratching; 2. a slender object; 3. a lean creature skrid, skrig nm. a flock (crowd, shoal) in motion skrida vw. 1. to move in a dense crowd; 2. to shoal; 3. to teem with maggots or vermins skrift nf. 1. a crack, fissure; 2. a thin object skrima vw. 1. barely to distinguish; 2. to peer, see with half-closed eyes skriva vs. to write skrivl nn. scribbling, esp. poor handwriting = skrutl skrivla vw. 1. to scrape, scratch; 2. to grope about; 3. to write very badly skrog nn. (Etym. uncertain) a large, flat wooden spoon, a skimmer skrogtjadd nn. (Etym. uncertain) kitchen skrå nf. 1. a dry piece of skin; 2. an itching part of the skin; 3. sensation of itching

skrå vw. to become (far) too dry; at skrå upp skråfla nf. itching sensation in the skin skuda nf. (ON skutla) a 12-oared boat, see skodler skuggalig adj. 1. spying; 2. subst. sneaking, stealthy person who watches from a hiding place skugga vw. 1. to shade, cast a shadow; 2. to give a shelter skuggi, skjuggi nm. (ON skuggi) 1. a shade; 2. dimness;3. shelter, hiding-place, ambush skulding nn. (ON skuldaþing) thing for civil debts = meeting at which men settle their mutual debts Skundi nm. name for a dog Smart, Swift, Quick < skundi �speed� skur nf. 1. squall of wind; 2. rare a heavy shower of rain skurdebogi nm. a jocular term for the youngest member of a family skuta vw. 1. to jut out, project (rock, foot); 2. to stick out (foot); at skuta ut; at skuta ut øver to beetle, project; hvatna skutar du ut din fud fyri? skutek nm. 1. a piece of wood in a boat; 2. prop. added piece skuta nf. a small flat-bottomed boat (ship's boat); Norvaskuta skygga vw. to startle, frigthen skyl nn. (ON skýli) 1. covering; 2. boat's sail T skyl nn. a slight surf, wash of waves skyla vw. (ON skýla) 1. to place a cover; 2. to shade one's eyes with the hand skyla vw. to lap, wash (of waves) skylling nm. coin worth nearly a half penny skødilepp nm.old, worn-out shoe skøla vw. (ON skýla) to shade one's eyes with one's hand skølbrugg nf. (ON skjól-brekka) shelter, place (esp. a bank, slope) affording shelter skøn nn. (Gael. sgian) knife T skøna vw. to cut up (bait, worms in trout fishing) skørd nf. great number, swarm; skorr skørra vw. to frighten, scare away; see skerra skøv nn. tail (anim., large flat-fish) skål nf. big wooden bowl skåld nn. 1. scalding; 2. intense heat of the sun skålda vw. 1. to scald, burn on the outside; 2. to prepare something hastily and badly; 3. to scorch one skård nn. (ON skarð) deep depression in the ridge of a hill slag nm. 1. a slovenly, negligent state; 2. an untidy, loose dress slag nn. 1. a flock, swarm; 2. indefinite quality slag nn. beating, drubbing slaget adj. (ON slakr?) 1. slack, loose, flapping; 2. shapeless and too long owing to long use slagi nf. hollow in the ground sleb nn. slackness sled nf. (ON sleðja) sledge slefset adj. 1. careless;2. slovenly; 3. untidy slemet adj. 1. smooth, ingratiating; 2. prop. slimy slep nn. rough, smacking kiss slepa vw. 1. to lap, lick with a smacking sound; 2. to kiss in a rough way sleppa vw. to let slip, leave hold of; at sleppa anjdena to loose one's breath

slett adj. (ON sléttr) flat, smooth; he is s. i' de ljog - the sea is smooth and calm sletta, skletta nf. level field slettbak nm. the Greenland whale sleva nf. 1. salive from the mouth; 2. slush, mire; 3. foolish talk, nonsense sleva vw. 1. to slaver; 2. to twaddle sliddra vw. to slip, slither slidri adj. slippery slobret adj. soft and slimy, glutinous slod nn. 1. a lull or interval in rough weather; 2. sweetheart < chance sweetheart (more recent) sloder nn. great quantity; båten hever fingið sloder slogg nf. (ON sloka) a full draught sloinjda vw. to incline, slant slokka vw. (ON slokkna) to be extinguished, go out (fire); at slokka ut; birteken slokkar ut; utslokket slokka vw. (ON slökkva) 1. to extinguish light or fire; at slokka elden (ut); 2. to thicken water or soup with meal; at slokka upp, at slokka vatnið; dað er syrpa, til då de slokka dað upp veð meti slokking nf. 1. extinction; 2. heavy rain sloinjda vw. 1. a long rigmarole; 2. a great deal, considerable portion; 3. multitude slu nf. (ON slóð) 1. track made by footprints; 2. a spread layer; 3. a strip of arable land sluga, sljuga vw. (ON slóka?) 1. to slip, hang to far down; 2. to slant gradually; 3. to lounge about; 4. to slink, steal slui nm. (ON slóði) contrivance (basket weighted with a ground) slumet adj. 1. slow, shy; 2. retiring; 3. suspicious-looking;4. sly, cunning; 5. lean and poor slumin adj. 1. having sloping shoulders; 2. sneaking; 3. slimy; 4. difficultto get hold of slunket adj. lank, empty, flabby sluta vw. to incline, slant; grunden er slutað fyri hulenon slå vs. to strike, kick (horse, mare) smakka vw. to taste; at smakka uppå e-t smal adj. narrow, thin, slender; ikke dað smalasta not the least smali adj. slender and fragile sme vw. (ON smeygja) 1. to ingratiate oneself; 2. to sneak about smed adj. cunning, unreliable smi nn. small things, a collection of such; a lock o' s. (heap of small potatoes) smið nf. (ON smiðja) smithy smid, smig nn. 1. a furtive smile; 2.smirk; 3. mocking smile smida vw. to smile furtively or mockingly, smirk smiket adj. half-drunk (person) smitt nf. (ON smitta) infection smitt adj. infectious; smitt sott smitta vw. to infect; smittin smjongni nm. (ON hinn smeygni) eel T smjuga vs. 1. to slip (burt/å/av); 2. to hide away; 3. to steal away; at smjuga seg av/burt smoga nf. 1. a narrow age; 2. a small sheepfold smoiljta nf. dense stifling smoke (inside) smoiljta vw. to melt (in the mouth)

smoitti nm. woolen night-cup smoitti adj. very small; piri smoitti diminutive smornalta nf. a small lump of butter smuti adj. 1. hidden, secret; 2. cunning smu adj. (ON smár) small, far too small or short smyrr, smorr nn. (ON smjör, smoerr) butter; krump og smortek buttered cheese-cake smøra vw. 1. to smear; 2. to grease; at smøra jogen to smear the eyes with a miraclous ointment giving the power of seeing hidden things (fairy tales) småli adv. slowly, piece by piece, by degrees; so lunka vi so småli so we trudge slowly on (Swed. Så lunka vi så småningom) småra nf. a (white) clover snagg nm. 1. wooden pin or bolt; 2. projecting point; 3. metaph. obstacle snapp nm. (ON hnappr) small heap of sheaves of corn snapp nm. (ON knappr) knob, round top snapp adj. (ON knappr) short in speach, answering in few evasive words snara vw. 1. to twist; 2. to turn about rapidly or quickly sne vw. (ON sneiða, sníða) to cut; he snid his finger; at sne av snegga vw. (ON hneggja) 1. to neigh, whinny (horse); 2. to snigger snell, snill adj. 1. pure, clean (esp. white); 2. keen and biting (cold); 3.sharp, shrill, piercing snell, snill adv. hastily sneppa vw. (ON hneppa, kneppa) 1. to tie, clench; 2. to span, reach (round, over); at sneppa hanjdenar; at sneppa mesan snevra vw. 1. to poke nose into, be bent upon getting something; 2. to ingratiate oneself sni nn. 1. a cut; 2. correct mode or usage snibba vw. 1. to snipp off, cut right off; 2. to cut hair too close snibbet adj. stumpy, too short snika vs. (ON sníkja) 1. to sneak; 2. to sponge on, continue aksing for something: at snika uppå e-n to sponge upon one, esp. for food snikka vw. to cut out, chip snikkel nm. wooden hook snikla vw. to cut (with a single cut) snild nf. 1. correct behaviour, tact, courtesy; 2. ingenuity; 3. shrewdness, innate sense; hannj havdi ikke so mukla snild, at... he had not so much innate sense, that... snit nn. 1. a morsel or piece of bread; 2. child with a good appetite; 3. cusk snita vw. (ON snæða, Swd. snäjta) 1. to eat (with small appetite); 2. to poke or root in the food or fodder snittra vw. to contract, wrinkle (the nose in snappishness) snjag nn. 1. (animal's) sniffing; 2. appetite (neg.); 3. snack, light meal snjaga vw. (ON snaka) to sniff at the fodder without eating for the lack of appetite snjaga vw. (ON gnaga) 1. to nag, grumble; 2. to taunt snjalder nn. loud yelping, barking snjaldra vw. to yelp, bark (of a dog) snjuful nm. (ON snjófugl) snow-bird

snjug nf. (ON knjúkr, Icel. hnjúkr) 1. a mountain top; 2. projecting height; 3. slope of a hill-top; 4. crag snjug nn. 1. offence;2. insult; 3. aversion (at) snjuga vw. to get ready for attack (esp. cows) snjuger nm. 1. disagreeable odour; 2. ill-smelling vapour or smoke snjukavi nm. heavy snow-storm, dense spoondrift snjuket adj. malicious and cunning snjørga vw. 1. to grumble; 2. to complain constantly snjårga, snjarga vw. (ON *knarka) 1. to nar, grumble; 2. to scold snogg adj. 1. smooth, short-haired; 2. scanty, short; 3. stingy, niggardly snogga vw. to make tidy and neat;at snogga upp husið snoggin ??? derisive term in addressing or mentioning a person snoljk nn. a lump between the eyebrows; at seta snoljk to brown, be angry [offended]; hannj havdi snoljk å sjer he was angry [offended, fretful] snoljket adj. 1. turning up the nose; 2. hurt; 3. offended; 4. sulky snora, snura vw. (ON snoðra) to have a bad cold snort, snork nn. rheum snoska vw. 1. to sniff; 2. to be displeased and peevish snoittel nm. (ON knútr) a lump between the eyebrows snoittla vw. to frown, make a lump between the eyebrows snott nm. (ON knöttr, hnöttr) a wooden button, small wooden pin snutt nm. (ON knútr) slip-knot (fish.) snygg nf. (Swd. snugga) bite, snack, light meal snypret adj. contracted, pinched snyps adj. short, brusque snyta vw. (ON snýta) 1. to blow the nose; 2. to snuff a candle snødi adj. 1. agile, dexterous; 2. smart, active; 3. sly; 4. offended; 5. touchy snødli adv. (ON snúðliga) hurriedly, suddenly snålda nf. a high, narrow, detached rock sob nn.(ONsaup) buttermilk soba vw. 1. to sleep lightly; 2. to doze, rest sodden adj. 1. boiled; 2. sodden sodiskrøvedek nm. (ON sauðskró-) a stone fence built out from a sheepfold sogga nf. 1. sow;2. a fat animal or fish soggi nm. sucking-disk of a testaceous animal soina vw. (ON sýna; past soindi) 1. to see, look at; 2. to peep; 3. to like, 4. to take pleasure in; hannj soinded um sog; eg soindi dað I've caught a sign of it; at soina landið; at soina legviseren (com); eg soindi hannj ikke; de soindi hannj ikke mukkið vel they didn't care well for him soinjd nf. (ON sjón [sýn], sjónd [sýnd]) 1. a sight, view; 2. pleasure, good will; landið fer ut av soinjd(eni); at koma i soinjd.; eg hevi ikke soinjd fyri honon; 3. legal investigation by thingmen < inspection of property soinjda vw. 1. to see, look at; 2. to like soinjdelek, *soinjdek nm. eye, prop. a small eye soinjdis adj. that which is lucky to see or meet Soinjdla nf. a woman with a poor eyesight < who strains her eyes to see sokk nm. sock, stockings sola vw. to sole: tread on the earth = recover after illness; hann/hun myn aldri s. jard atter solji adj. warm and damp (waether)

soljtadikk nm. a kind of medicinal drink, given to an animal sommer nn. summer sommermål nn. beginning of the summer, 14 April sommisa vw. to confise, overwhelm, render speechless son nm. son song nm. 1. a song; 2. favourite topic, hobby; dað hever varið min song i tvø år I've talked about it constantly for 2 years songi nm. 1. hermaphrodite;2. non-prolific male sonnj nn. (Gael. sorn) kiln, esp. at the end of a barn sorar nm.pl. (ON saurr) scaly pieces of skin when it's plicked off the sheep sorna vw. to become a firm mass, form a crustation on the bottom of a pot sostring nm. (ON systrungr) a relative, esp. in pl. sotskin nn.pl. 1. brother(s) and sister(s), 1st cousins; 2. a near relative; 3. of the same church: sotskin i kirkeni sott nf. sickness sova vs. 1. to sleep; 2. to sink into a stupor, swoon spadi nm. an old worn-out spade spann nn. 1. a water-pail;2. form. measure for dry goods (= Ork. lispund); 3. a measure with the hand, span spanna vw. to measure with the hand spe nm. (ON at speja, v.) 1. a scout, spy; 2. an inquisitive, prying person spe, spje nn. 1. derision;2. fool sperra vw. 1. to sprain, exert muscular force;2. to stride; at sperra å to hasten, set off (at full speed) speviti nn. a person who is an object of derision spi vw. (Dan.dial. spi) to make fool of, to mock spila vw. (ON spila, Fær. spíla) to stretch out spilla vw. (past spilti) 1. to spill; 2. to slacken spilt adj. leprous spirda vw. 1. to kick; 2. to stride, take great leaps in running spjala vw. to sprawl, struggle spjaler nm. cat,occ. dog T < sprawler, player spje nn. 1. a scorn, disparaging talk of a person; 2. fool spjel(l)a vw. to thrust out arms and legs spjelmann nm. (Dan. spillemand) a fiddler, violin-player spjeskab nm. a person exposing himself to derision spjetak nn. 1. a fool;2. spectacle, absurd, foolish person spong nf. a metal plate or band spord nm. 1. a tail;2. the top of a fish-hook; 3. edge of something sprag nn. strutting, gesticulation in one's walk spraga vw. 1. to stretch out the legs; 2. to sprawl; 3. to spread, extend; 4. to strut, swagger spretta vw. 1. to rip up; 2. to loosen; 3. to become loosened, come undone (seams in clothes) spretta, spritta vw. 1. to leap, jump, run lightly; 2. to sprout, grow; at spretta um spri nn. a spray spri vw. to spray; vatnið spriddi øver mog springa vw. 1. to burst, cause to break; 2. to cause injury springa vs. to burst, break språn nn. ejected liquid, esp. excrement språna vw. to eject liquid, esp. liquid excrement (birds)

spunda vw. to run fast, gallop spundikrabb nm. (ON -krabbi) a heart-shaped crab < spoon-crab spun nm. (ON spónn) spoon spyt nf. (ON spýta) a tod, spit spøra vw. 1. to ask, consult; 2. to ask a young girl's hand of her parents; evasive reply when one does not wish to answer: hvarna fer du i mynni? Spør! spørner nf.pl. (ON spurn + L.Sc. speirins) information, news; at få spørner av e-on [til e-s] to get news about one spå vw. 1. to forebode, foretell; 2. to have intercourse with a girl before marriage spånga vw. 1. to put a metal plate or band on something; 2. to rivet sta nm. (ON staðr) domicile, farm, now only as a place-name stab nm. (ON stapi) an insulated rock or hill, sea-rock stabb nm. (ON stabbi) 1. a stub, block of wood to sit on; 2. a small bank, elevation; 3. a grassy clod staga vw. to stagger stak nm. (ON staki) a wooden stake stakk nm. a high rock in the sea stakka vw. to build up in stacks stamron, -reng? nf. (ON stafnröng) a knee-timber in the stem of a boat; -reng, ring stand nn. 1. erect or vertical position; 2. set, number of objects standa vs. 1. to stand; 2. to last; ita veder myn ikke standa långt; 3. to take place, be held; 4. to be decided; 5. to be constituted; 6. to head; imper. ståitt vw. stand still! standa at sjer to move (aside) a little standa efter 1. to remain, be left behind; 2. to aspire for; 3. to strive for standa fyri 1. to manage, have a charge of; 2. to stand for, balance; 3. to make a strong impression; dað stuð fyri mjer it made a great impression upon me standa i 1. to be occupied with something; 2. to be engaged in something standa til 1. to give expectation of; 2. to be entitled to something; 3. to depend on standa veð 1. to stick fast; 2. to keep one's point of view; 3. to it, acknowledge; 4. to wait, stand waiting; 5. to hesitate, have a misgiving; dað stendur veð dað røða or hvita red or white is the main colour; 6. to feel a strong disgust to something; 7. to approach nearly; hannj stender veð skuri i nordvesti there's a shower is threatening from north-west; standa å 1. to head, steer, make a good headway; 2. to be contrary; 3. to stand firm, insist; 4. to persevere; 5. to be very exhausting; 6. to be imperative, necessary; 7. depend on stanga vw. 1. to sting; 2. to ache, sting (pain) stansa vw. 1. to stop, stand still; 2. to stop, cease star nn. cataract (disease of the eye) stara vw. (past stardi) to stare, gaze staragoit nn. a poor, lean cod stark adj. 1. strong, vigorous; 2. clever stav nm. 1. a staff, stick; 2. a streak of light from the sun; stavar ned frå suleni;at fallja [gånga] i stava øver e-u 1. to fall into pieces; 2. become

confused, speechless; dað lagdi mog i stava - it made me quite confused [speechless]; stavalu nf. quivering motion in the atmosphere due to heated ground stedi nm. anvil stedja vw. (ON steðja) 1. to lay the foundation; 2. to gather in a dense flock or shoal stedet adj. stationary stemnbod nn. (ON stefnuboð) fiery-cross sten nm. 1. a stone; 2. rock, large stone; 3. sea-rocks; 4. sinker of a fishing line; dað er ikke sillek or piltek i sjunon stenbiter nm. wolf-fish stenblind adj. stone-blind steng nf. mast T < pole; see stong stenga vw. (ON stanga) 1. to sew together, stitch; 2. to plait stengl, stingl nn. a (high) boot, water-proof boot stengla, stingla vw. (Nor. stangla, stingla) 1. to close, shut up (door); 2. to shut up (grice) sterna nf. 1. star; 2. blaze on the forehead of an animal; Sterna name of a cow with a star on the forehead sterti nm. tail of a large fish (esp. halibut) stett nf. a steep path with small ledges stev nn. refrain (in an old song) stid, stið nf. (ON staða, stǫð + L.Sc. steed) 1. foundation, basis; 2. a place where a boat is drawn along or to the shed; 3. shoal stidna vw. (ON staðna) to stand fast, get foothold; at stidna veð to stop, stand still, get caught stig(g), stiggi nm. (ON stígr) a path, neck of land connecting a small piece with a large one stig nn. (ON stig) a (visible) mark, track stiggi nm. (ON stigi) 1. stile;2. steps leading over a fence; 3. a small ledge; 4. metaph. stand, stopping stikka vw. to (construct a) dam (across a stream) stilli nn. enclosure, (sheep)fold stiltra vw. to stand still, stop, halt stinga vs. 1. to slaughter, kill by sticking; 2. to insert, put into stinta vw. to live in extreme economy, barely to life stirna vw. (ON stirðna) to become stiff stiva vw. to steady; at stiva båten to keep the boat steady on a straight course stiv adj. stiff, firm; steady; at gånga stiv to be having a rigid bearing stivaler, stavaler nm.pl. (ON styfill) (sea-)boot, T boot stivla nf. dam, milldam stivli adj. 1. strong, durable; 2. of good, fundamental quality stivna vw. 1. to stiffen, become stiff or rigid; 2. to make stiff; stivnandi met too heavy meal stjag nn. 1. a pen (for geese); 2. assembled crowd (of children) stjaga vw. (ON staka) to stagger < to push stjaga vw. (ON stía, *stíga) to pen (esp. geese); at stjaga gåsenar but at bøla sodena stjagi nm. 1. a rod; 2. fence stjura vw. (Dan. styr, Sw. störa) 1. to stir, turn upside down; 2. to search for a thing in disorderly manner; at stjura um e-t (through) stjurla vw. (ON sturla) 1. to stir, rummage; 2. to turn upside down in searching

stjurma vw. (ON styrma?) to rake up, rummage stjøda vw. (ON steyta) to walk indolently, trudge stjårt nm. the tail of a large fish T stobb adv. (Dan. rub og stub, L.Sc. stoup and roup): stobb og robb completely stodig adj. (ON stǫðugr) 1. steady, (standing) firm; 2. stationary, motionless; stodigt veder settled weather (No. stödugt veder, Fær. stöðuveður) stodja vw. (On styðja, also steðja, stöðva) 1. to begin to walk; 2. to carry a burden; 3. to build up loosely stokk nm. 1. piece of timber, log; 2. standard (in the old spinning wheel) stokkstov nf. (Fær. stokkastova) 1. log-room/house; 2. house with timber frameworks stokkstovavw. to build up the frameworks stol, stul, støl nm. chair stol nn. (Gæl. sgeul??) saga, legend stoljka nf. (ON stúlka) a young girl, esp. as a pet name stomna, stimna nf. (ON stofn) 1. strength, ability; 2. essential quality in somebody or something stonjd nf. (ON stund) certain length of time, moment stong nf. mast of a boat T stonga vw. to set a mast in a boat; at stonga båten stonra, stunra vw. to , prop up; at stonra (upp) kessa, båt storkna vw. (ON storkna) to coagulate, become thick (of liquid) storr nm. (ON styr) stir, disturbance storra vw. to make a stir storta vw. to set in motion, push, shake, exert stoittek nm. 1. a short stout person; 2. small stack straks adv. (L.Germ ) at once stranjd nf. sea-shore, coast stred nn. (ON stræti) streat, age strekka vw. (Nor. strekkja) to stretch strind nf. 1. edge;2. streak; 3. vein, dispisition, temper; dað er illj strind å honon 1. he has a bad temper; 2. there is something wrong with him strinka vw. to heed, notice, mind; hannj strinkaði aldri 1. he never minded; 2. it made no effect on him strogg nn. (Nor. strok) 1. dilemma, difficulty; 2. difficult laborous work; 3. a moving croud of people strogga vw. (ON strjúka + Nor. strok) to struggle through a piece of work strom nm. (ON straumr) stream, current strud nn. (ON skrúð) suit or outfit of new clothes < *skrud strø vw. (ON streyja) to drop, strew (esp. in raping the corn) strødiment nn. great hurry and agitation stubb nm. (ON stubbr, stubbi) stub, stump stuggisomadj. loathsome, repulsive, disgusting stuk nf. (ON stúka) a piece of churchland stuka nf. (ON stúka) 1. jacket; 2. fence stukki nn. 1. stub, block of wood; 2. half-grown cod stumpi nm. 1. churn; 2. bottle (Edm.) stums nn. 1. perplexity; 2. speechlessness; 3. musing; 4. intense pondering; 5. hesitation

stumsa vw. 1. to be perplexed, speechless (from surprise); 2. to be silent, stop speaking; 3. to muse, ponder; 4. to hesitate; 5. to consider; 6. to confuse stund nf. a while, moment; ill stund til hans! stupa vw. (ON stúpa) to fall forward; hun stupaði i elden stur adj. (ON stórr) 1. big; 2. tall stura vw. (ON stúra) 1. to be sad, sit dejected; 2. to doze (with stooped head); 3. to gaze in absent-minded manner stuts nn. show, ostentation; hannj hever stuts veð sjer stutset adj. 1. abrupt; sulky; 2. unwilling stygg nf. (ON styggð, Nor. stygg) loathing, disgust; at få stygg at e-u stygga vw. 1. to disgust, nauseate; 2. to feel loathing; stykki nn. point of a cape, holm; anarticle of dress styver nn. strength, durability styving nm. 1. a half-grown coalfish (piltek - 3 or 4 years old); 2. a child, boy (endearment); 3. stocking T stø nn?. wind T; cf. ongastø contrary wind støb nn. 1. a place of road trampled by animals; 2. drinking-vessel (glas?) støbadorro nf. (ON *steypidorg) 1. short hand-line (inshore fishing); 2. sinker on a short line støda vw. (ON styðja) to steady, (by staying) støl nm. (ON stöðull) 1. resting-place for cattle; 2. milking-place; 3. dairy land; 4. enclosure støra vw. (ON stýra) to steer a boat støri nm. (ON staurr) one of the thick bands stå vs. (Dan. stå) to stand; only in the phrase: hannj hverki står or går ståbi nn. (Dan. stå bi, bi-stå) 1. resource; 2. refuge; 3. a person who can de depended on stånjd nn. standing or upright position stånga vw. to stitch, sew stånga vw. to fill, stuff < prick, goad stånger vw. sting-ray stånka vw. 1. to breathe heavily; 2. to sigh deeply; 3. to complain; 4.to carry a burden su nf. (ON sýr, acc. sú) 1. sow;2. wrasse; 3. large mussel sud nn., adv. 1. south; 2. in the south, southwards sudin nn. southern part; nordin suk nn. 1. sucking, suction; 2. draught of wind; suk inn under kava dry wind preceding snowfall; suk upp inn under under-current going against the wind; 3. small marine creatures; dað er goitt suk å linonon suka vw. 1. to suck; 2. to blow through, to dry (wind) sukka vs. to sink; pp. sukken sunk sukkraborð nm. sweet little child, darling sukn nf. 1. drag;2. a big iron hook; 3. a large gathering of creatures; occasionally of people: kirkasukn(i) sul nf. the sun sula nf. (ON súla) a cleft wooden implement sulbrigða nf. basking shark sulbørð nn. (ON sólborð, sólbyrði) a board in a boat's side sulpa vw. to put out of order, ravel sulpatjen nm.def. (ON sjópiltr) sea-demon, water-nixie sulsittandi adj. not fresh, too much exposed to the sun sulta nf. salt liquid kneaded from butter

sum nn. 1. swimming; 2. inundation; 3. air-bladder; jarden er i sumi the earth is quite flooded with water suma vw. to swim, float sund nn. air-bladder in fish, sound sund nn. 1. a narow sound; 2. inlet, narrow bay supa vw. to sweep sur adj. 1. sour; 2. in the first stage of decomposition surna vw. 1.to turn sour; 2. tomake sour suselmann nm. (ON sýslumaðr) estate-agent svager nm. 1. brother-in-law; 2. swagers, men married to sisters (Edm.) svagja vw. (ON svelgja?) 1. to swallow; 2. to gorge oneself; 3. to digest svak nn. shaking svaki adj. shaking, tottering, undteady sval nn. slight motion in the sea sval, svar nn. the dimmest part of midsummer night svalta vw. 1. to hunger, starve; 2. to suffer from thirst svamm nm. (ON hvammr) depression, round hollow svapa vw. to wrap up svar adj. (ON svarr) heavy, stoutly-built (boat) svara nf. 1. thick, soft worsted; 2. thick woollen underclothing svarf nn. small shallow bay, head of a bay svarma vw. to swing, turn (pot half way round over a fire); to s. de kettle; to s. upo de kettle svart adj. 1. black; 2. misplaced svarta nf. blackness, something dark and black, esp. extinguished fire svartatið nf. 1. evil time or hour (oath); 2. in an evil hour; svartatið fylgi [lui] djer! bad luck to you! svartbak nn. black-backed gull svarva vw. to turn hay on the field svarva vw. 1. to turn, swing; 2. to pull off; 3. to eat greedily; 4. to perform work carelessly svel nf. (ON svæla) thick smoke (rare) svela vw. (ON svæla) to belch forth (of smoke) svela vw. (ON skvæla?) to cry loudly svelt nm. lean poor fish (cod) svelta vw. (ON svelgja) to swallow greedily; at svelta inn svelting nm. a starved creature svenga vw. to become hungry svi vs. (ON svíða) 1. to singe, scorch; 2. to sting, smart; 3. to suffer; 4. to keep close to the fire; pp. svidden svi nm. (ON sviði) 1. a smarting or stinging pain; 2. something that stings, esp. a strong drink; svi i monnjenon svifta vw. (ON svipta) to reef a (boat's) sail sviga vw. 1. to ooze; 2. to let liquid ooze or leak out; at sviga ut vatnið sviga vw. to give way under pressure svim nn. (ON svimi �swoon, unconciousness�) (giddiness) indisposition sviml, swumbl, hwuml nf. (ON sveifla) eddy, swirl, place where two branches meet svimmer nn. swoon; svimmer kom øver mog svimmra vw. 1. to swoon; 2. to become giddy svin nn. swine, pig svipta vw. (past svipti) 1. to snatch; 2. to pull; 3. to remove quickly; svipte av djer! (clothes) svird nn. small longish object

svird nm. 1. grassy piece of ground, greensward; 2. poor soil svirta vw. 1. to snatch; 2. to pull; 3. to remove quickly svisterkaster, hvisterkaster nm. thrashing, defeat, fall (in a contest, esp. wrestling) svivl nn. 1.whirlwind; 2. gust of wind svivla vw. to swing round, whirl svumra vw. 1. to keep balance with difficulty;2. to swim or float heavily; svumrandi fullj 1. full to the top; 2. heavily laden, just floating synamor(s)met nm. (ON *sonarmóðursmatr) food given to a woman after a birth synjd nf. 1. a sin; 2. injury, harm; 3. something to be regretted; at tinka synjd fyri [um] e-n to think that one has to be pitied syndra vw. to sunder, separate, disperse syndog exclam. (ON synd og dauði ('sin and death')?), esp. in swearing; = dorgan doga! søga, søgi nf. (ON sýki, Fær. sjúka) 1. epidemic; 2. severe cold, illness caused by cold søka vw. (ON sœkja; past. søkti) to trouble, overwhelm; søkandi exhausting, heavy søl nf. (ON sœla, sœli) intense heat of the sun sølfeng nn. (ON suflfang 'store of meat') butter T sør adv. 1. south; 2. in or towards the south søt adj. sweet, dear søtskin [søtshkin] nn.pl. 1. brothers and sisters; 2. first cousins, near relatives så vs. to see, look; såndi part. pres./adj. worth seeing, splendid så efter to look after (sjá eptir) så til 1. to see to; 2. to look at [listen to] så vs. (ON sá) 1. to spit or throw out half-boiled; 2. to sow; spread såd nf. 1. rock on the sea-shore; 2. "rocky seat" såda nf. (ON sáta �heystack�) a big stout woman sådi nn. (ON sæti) 1. seat; 2. a big piece of sod or turf; 3. a big peat sålja [soλa] nf. (ON sæla, forsæla) a brilliant transient sunshine sånfiddel interj. (ON sann-) slight oath: upon my words sångra vw. to begin to boil, rise up, seethe at edges sånkra vw. to boil slightly sår adj. (ON sárr) sore, that feels pain sick and sare såta vw. to drive (cattle) slowly såva vw. (ON svæfa; past såvdi) 1. to stun (with a blow); 2. to injure såvd adj.1. stunned, senseless, unconscious; 2. exhausted and sleepy

T taggoda nf. inner lower gable-edge of a house tahellja nf. (ON þakhella) flat stone tak nn. 1. grip, pull, push; 2. taking up, catch (fish) taka vs. 1. to take; 2. to fetch or catch fish; 3. to reach, hand; 4. to take effect; 5. to attack (also pain to fight (esp. animals) taka at to pull up (boat); take at båtenon!; take at djer! taka av to abate (of storm, wind) taka efter to imitate, learn from others taka frå 1. to take from; 2. to except taka inn to take in, shorten an animal's tether

taka inn under 1. to take hold underneath (to lift); 2. to be obedient; take inn under! taka til: teken til 1. much spoken of, known for something; 2. excellent, above others, clever; 3. pretty < favourably mentioned, famous for something? taka sog til: 1. to begin with energy, resume; 2. to set to work eagerly; hannj tuk sog til; hannj teker ikke sog til vinnenar taka upp to apprehend, understand; teken upp 1. having appearance of certain kind; 2. dressed in a certain way taka upp efterer 1. to repeat one's words; 2. to imitate, follow one's example taka upp frå sjer: to pull harder (oars); hannj tuk upp frå sjer; take upp frå djer veð di! taka upp inn under to pay attention to, learn taka upp veð 1. to take up with, take charge of; 2. to attach oneself to taka uppå 1. to affect one; 2. sog: to take a burden on one's back taka ut 1. to take out, select; 2. to point out taka veð 1. to receive somebody or something; de vuru vel [ilt] veðteken they were well [ill] received; 2. to assist (in burden) taka å 1. to take hold of; 2. to continue in certain manner; 3. to begin to blow = at taka (sog) upp (of wind) tamminori, tomminori nm. puffin tana (ON þenja) to stretch, extend tang nn. (ON þang) seaweed tannjek nm. tooth, esp. newly-grown in a child tanngroinning nm. slender cod with sharp teeth tant adj. (ON þandr?) too high and steep (house, roof, boat) tanta vw. to refuse food (of cattle) < show teeth?? tantfelling nf. shedding of teeth (young animals) tantfelling nm. a young animal, shedding its teeth tantfysen(d), tantføst adj. 1. disinclined to take food; 2. fickle, wavering tantjek nm. a newly grown tooth taragrep nf. (ON þaragreip) dungfork < fork for gathering seaweed tari nm. (ON þari) seaweed, tang tartfysen adj. (ON tart-fýsinn) 1. particular, nice, affectedly reserved, selfwilled and shy; 2. having independentfancies teja vw. (ON þegja) to be silent teg nm. strip of field tekk nf. (ON þekja) heather mingled with coarse grass (lobba) tekka vw. (ON þekja; past takti) to thatch a house with dried heather or straw; at tekka hus tekn nn. (ON teikn) 1. token, mark; 2. queer person telja vw. 1. to count; 2. to tell; at telja frå 1. to tell, relate, repeat gossip; 2. to become evident, be establish temba nf. prop. (ON þemba) tension; uppå tembu1. in a dangerous position on the very edge; 2. on the tiptoe of expectation; 3. on one's guard; a t sita [standa] å tembu to wait anxiously; be on one's guard teng, teing, tångi, tjångi nm. 1. tang of a knife; 2. a (low, narrow) tongue of land tennjemav nn. (ON þernu-) species of small-gull tepin (ON tæpr) scarce, occurring in very small quantities

tið nf. (ON tíð) 1. lucky time, short period of good fortune; 2. occas. good luck; 3. sudden fit; a t. is ta'en him - fortune skmiles upon him for once; he's got a fit of activity; of activity tiðli adv. (ON tíðliga) early tiðlig adj. 1. in time, opportune; 2. convenient; 3. lucky, indicating good luck, comely; 4. successful; 5. early; ikke tiðligt impracticable; ita er ikke tiðligt this is a bad sign; hannj er ikke tiðlig he's not pleasant to meet with tigga vs. (ON þiggja) to receive alms, to beg, ask for tik nn. 1. a bitch (also of a woman); 2. otter T; 3. a big animal tiksa nf. dispute, quarrel til prep. to, till; at vara til to exist, to be found; dað er ikke til there's nothing left tila vw. (ON tila, tilja) to make headway (of a boat) tilberdskatt nm. 1. small tax; 2. small share tilfer nn. (ON þilfar) movable bottom boards tilja, tillja nf. (ON þilja) movable board in the bottom of a boat tillag nn. 1. taking hold pull; 2. supplement, addition tillaga nf. 1. (adding) patching; 2. short time tiltak nn. 1. taking hold, (good) start; 2. remedy, useful thing; 3. person much spoken of tilvid nn. substitute tilvik nn. helping hand tinda nf. (ON þíðna 'to thaw') thawy snow ting nn. 1. court, assize; 2. jurisdiction, district tingvoll nm. place of assize tinna vw. (ON tína) to pick, pluck tinni nn. (ON *þilni?) a wooden partition wall in a house tinsket adj. 1. offended;2. displeased; 3. peevish tirma vw. to tremble, shake titt nn. (ON tíðr, neu. títt 'that is happening; usual, frequent') news, tidings; hvat er dit titt? hvat titt er i dinon monnje? (Ísl. hvað segirðu títt?) titta vw. to tell news tittra vw. to shiver, esp. with cold tivli adj. 1. strong, firm, durable; 2. of good fundamental quality < stivli? tjo adv. (ON já?) certainly! tjog nn. (ON tog) 1. draught, gulp (in drinking); hannj tuk goitt tjog (av mjølk, vatni); 2. a band tied round a cow's head tjoga vw. (ON toga) 1. to draw, pull, haul; 2. to work eagerly without success; 3. to keep on asking; he tjoged at me - with repeated questions tjoga, tjogga nf. species of sea-bird: guillemot; razorbill tjogi, tjuggi nn. (ON *tygi, tog?) small rope, band tjordin nn. (Dan. torden) thunder tjub nn. the deep; see djub tjug nn. (ON þjó) thigh todseta vw. (ON *þotsetja < sitja í þót 'to be in dread of being attacked', þjóta á 'to attack one') to pursue, surround and catch an animal being attacked toft nf. thwart, former site of a house togemø nf. (ON þoku-mói/móði/móða?) 1. mist, thick haze; 2. a dense swarm of insects; sen togemø which gets on well (of a work) toilkekast nn. (ON tiltœki?) 1. art of carrying out something; 2. odd behaviour

toitlig adj. comely, neat tokkihå nm. small shark, smooth dogfish tola vw. to endure, suffer tolbit nf. (ON tilbót 'addition') 1. by-piece of anything; 2. extra meal; 3. a gift tolem nn. (ON þolinmœði f.) patience; at hava tolem veð e-on tolin adj. 1. patient, perservering; 2. steady and somewhat slow Tolljegsmess nf.the day [eve] before the St. Thorlak's day (22. Dec.); Tolljegsdag - 23. Dec Tomasmess, Tammasmess nf. St. Thomas day, 21. Dec; Tammasmessapta - 20. Dec torket adj. 1. constipated;2. dried up torvkrø nf. small enclosure for the piling up of peats torvsker nm. narrow spade, used in peat-cutting trakk nn. (ON traðk) 1.tramping, stamping; 2. oath (esp. one trampled by cattle) trakka vw. (ON traðka) to (tread) tramp, stamp; hvat du trakkar! trang adj. 1. close-fitting, tight; 2. restricted, limited; 3. laborious, difficult trapp nn. (ON þrep) 1. ledge, step; 2. ladder tre nn. 1. wooden materials; 2. mast treksa vw. (Dan. trække + Nor. dragsa) 1. to trail something behind; 2. to drag oneself along; 3. to set out (jockingly) trel nm. person who executes menial or durty work trelfangi nm. (ON þrælfangi) odd-looking, undersized person < thrallprisoner trenel nm. wooden nail trett adv., interj. (ON þrátt) well! < to return to the subject, as we were saying tretti num. thirty trettin num. thirteen trettind num. thirteenth; trettind dag 13th day after Christmass, Epiphany trid num. the third; trids o' kyn relatives in the 3d generation tridjek nm. the third landmark which is brought in line with teo other marks; tvar komu upp til tridjeken trift nf. 1. activity, enterprise; 2. manufacture of wool trifter nm. capable worker with wool trink adj. narrow (cleft, fissure); a t. gjo trista vw. 1. to press, squeeze; 2. to wring, twist; 3. fig. to pinch, gripe tritla vw. to trip, step lightly triva vs. to catch hold; triv(e) i! catch hold! trivl nm. (ON trefill) rag, tatter trod nn. (ON troð) 1. trail, track; 2. remains of a carcass troga vw. (ON þráka) to have a great desire for, strive for troitt adv. and interj. (ON þrátt) used to intensify a statement or exclamation, especially negatively: na, troitt, ser krabbi no, certainly not, says the crab troitti nm. (ON þróttr �strength�): pikka inn i troittan! keep up! get along! trokka vw. (ON þráka, *þrákka) to desire, long for trokkin nf. (ON þrákkan) desire, longing trollj nn. (ON tröll) troll trolljamist nm. very thick, dense mist = trolljet mist trolljamog nm. (ON -mögr) insignificant little person

trolljanåitt nf.the night before Christmass-eve = trolljavitanåitt trolljaskod nn. 1. person bewitched by trolls; 2. a witch-like woman trolljamann nm. wizard, sorcerer; trolljamann, trolljamann, tak vara! troll-man, beware! trolljhåitted adj. troll-like, like a troll in gait and behaviour trollkålling nf. (ON tröllkerling) hermaphrodite: non-prolific animal, esp. a sheep trolljslaget adj. queer, bad-looking trolset adj. careless, slovenly trolsket adj. 1. indisposed; unwell; 2. drowsy; 3. displeased; 4. peevish; 5. offended trotska nf. (ON þrjózka) 1. obstinacy;2. bad temper, peevishness; hannj kastaðist upp i trotsku he became peevish trotska vw. (ON þrjózkask) 1. to be obstinate, unwilling to do what one is told; 2. to sulk, be peevish tru nf. (ON þró) a small oblong wooden box for fish-bait; = kilpek? tru nf. faith, trust tru vw. to believe in somebody or something; trudu mjer! trur du di? trubelt nn. (ON trufla?) rubbish truna vw. (ON þrána, þrö'na) to have a great desire (for animals) trusti adj. substantial, firm and close, lasting well trøba nf. (ON úthreppa?) 1. small piece of land not included in the division; 2. surplus of seaweed trøg adj. (ON þrekr) rude, coarse trøni nn. (ON trýni) muzzle, snout trå nf. (ON þrá) 1. desire, great longing;at hava trå efter e-u; dað var mukkel trå å honon; 2. a place where profit may be expected; båten er faren uppå (ena) adra trå trå vw. 1. to have a great desire for; 2. long for; kuen trår efter henni! (kål); tråð nm. (ON þráðr) thread tråitt adv., interj. (ON þrátt) certainly not, to intensify a statement or exclamation tråittfallj interj. upon my word! tu nn. (ON tó) wool, worsted, coarse wool, thick worsted tudelep nm. (ON *tǫðulaupr) closely-plaited basket, bödi or small kessi tufi nf. (ON tófi + Eng. dial. tuff) 1. a large long tuft or tassel of hair or grass; 2. head of hair tu(g) nf. (ON þúfa) mound tum nm. (ON þumi) 1. thumb;2. glandulous lump adhering to the liver tun nn. 1. a homefield belonging to a farm; 2. a farm-house with the home-field tunga nf. 1.tongue; 2. tongue-shaped cake tungefallj nn. a palsy of the tongue tungekramp, -krapp nm.disease (cramp, palsy) of the tongue = tungefallj tungesøtt nf. (ON tungusótt) = tungefall and tungekramp tunkel nn.pl. (ON tálkn) 1. the gills of fish; 2. gill-arches tunki nm. 1. (thought for) desire, inclination; 2. favour, kind disposition tunvel, tunmel nm. piece of pasture near the house turkasott nf. disease in cattle, drying the skin tussi nm. (ON þurs) wry-mouthed animal; see also trussibelt tutsom adj. 1. sensitive;2. easily offended tvar adj. (ON þvar) placed crosswise, running athwart

tvargård nm. old fence, remains tvart adv., tvart en (ON um þvert): across, opposite, contrary to common sense; = tvart fyri; see dwars twartra (L.Sc. thwarter) to oppose, thwart tvispora vw. (ON tví + L.Sc. twa) 1. to run at full speed, gallop; 2. to hasten; at gånga tvisporandi tveitla vw. (ON *þvætla) to wet, soil tvit interj. (ON tví) fie! tvit se djer! fie upon you! (ON tví sé þér); tviti var(g)i djer! (ON tvítt ver(ð)i þér!) tvivl nn. 1. twisting, tangle; 2. disagreeable position; 3. irresulotion, uncertainty tvo interj. shout by which horses and esp. cows are driven away ty nf. (Nor. tya) strong and healthy constitution, thriving state tynder, tand nn. spark, small piece of red peat for kindling a fire tynna, tynnja vw. (ON þynna) to disperse, clear, lift (of clouds, mist) tyrel nm. (ON þyrill) the trundle of a water-mill tyrl nn. 1. whorling round, rotation; 2. excited state of mind tyrla vw. to whirl round, turn; at tyrla øver tyser nm. (ON þysja?) strong, capable and energetic person="heeler" tyvla nf. (Nor. tovla, tavla) dorsal vertebra; eg kenni vara tivlu hans ryggsI know him through and through = eg kenni varn lid [lið] hans ryggs tø nn. (ON tó + Eng. toe?) fleece, thin soft wool tøa nf. (ON taða) old, long and withered grass tød nm. (ON þytr) slight gust of wind tøl nn. tool tøm adj. (ON tómr) empty tøma vw. to empty; pour down; at tøma ned tøvakoddi nm.(ON þœf (þœfðar)-koddi) rounded rock by the seashore tøvd nf. (ON þœfð) foolish talk, nonsense tå nf. small, low point or tongue of land tåitt nm. (ON þáttr) tuft, lock of hair tångi nm. tongue of land, point

U ub nn. (ON óp) plainitive sound, howl uba vw. to emit plainitive sounds, howl, moan ubadalig, ubjadalig adj. (ON úbataligr) 1. incapable, weakly; 2. useless ubregð nn. additional earmark udal nn. (ON óðal) allodial, immovable property udalborenadj. odal-born udalland nn. old allodial property udalmann nm. tenant of udal property, udaller udalred nm. (ON óðalréttr; hardly óðalræði) allodial right, right to freehold tenure udømilig adj. 1. unexampled, extraordinary; 2. dreadful uðvilt adj. (ON óðvilltr) wild and frolicsome, unruly; du is turned u. ufiskalig adj. 1. unsuitable or unlucky for fishing; 2. that does not become a fisherman, heedle, inattentive ufjomlettadj. ill-shapen, ungraceful

ufsahellja nf. (ON upsarhella) flat, stoping stone ugga vw. to satisfy (esp. with food) ugjåv adj. (ON úgæfr) incapable, weakly, useless = ubjadalig uhagali adj. 1. untidy; awkward, clumsy; 2. immoderate; 3. uneconomical ukjodadj. incapable, weakly, useless ukonn adj. unknown, strange ula vw. 1. to spoil one's appearance; 2. to bully; 3. to worry; 4. to persecute; (ON: ef maðr sker hár af höfðe manne eða úlar honum nökkur til háðungar eða rífr hann klæði af honum) ula vw. (ON úla, ýla) to cry, wail, bleat, weep loudly (children) ulet nn. (ON úlæti) 1. a peevish person; 2. a quiet, gentle and lonely person ulid nf. (ON úhlít) 1. unreliability;2. unreliable person ulltigger nm. beggar of wool; ull- is obscure, see ollja- instead umbodsmann nm. factor, steward umgeng, umgong n. 1. border; 2. band. umgenger nm. (ON genger um) vagrant umgongen adj. running round (of weather): umgongen wind umkast nn. change, alternation umond nf. slight feeling, sensation umåitt nm. (ON úmáttr 'swoon, faintness'): ilt umåitt se i dinon hanjdon! a plague upon you! umål nm. silence; at halda e-t i umåli to keep anything secret [one´s mouth shut on a subject] un nn. small piece of field or meadow undalig adj. (ON undarligr) strange, queer under prep. under; under land near the land; at gånga under 1. to dive; 2. to subject oneself to one underdrag nn. undercurrent; = -gjud, -hwigg, -shot, -suk underland nn. land situated at the foot of a mountain or below a promontory or high coast undermannnm. subordinate ungadreng nm. young unmarried man upp adv. (ON upp) up; at blåsa upp to begin to blow, increase; at vara upp (veð fiski) to be finished upp å, uppå : at høra uppå to listen to; at tinka uppå to think upon;at vara uppå hennji to be out fishing upp at up towards the north, northerly (wind); vinden er faren upp at upp øver adj. impetuous, too pressing and eager upp veð northerly or westerly, veering from south to west or north uppadågað adj. (ON uppidagaðr) 1. very uneasy in mind, anxious; 2. unwell; 3. unsuccessful; 4. early to work; at vara uppadågað um e-t 1. to be on the lookout for something (to see one);2. to be bent on something uppastju nn. (ON stú + Nor. uppstyr) great disorder, confusion uppatil, opantil adv. put aside secretly uppbrak nn. (ON uppbragð?) fear, anxiety; at tinka uppbrak to be afraid that some misfortune may have happened to one uppdrag nn. apprehension, understanding uppdraga vs. 1. to overtake, come up with; 2. understand uppdraget adj. educated uppdroitt adj. (ON uppþreyttr) 1. tired, exhausted; 2. laid up, not quite well; 3. suffering from an imagined ilness

uppeta vs. 1. to eat up; 2. to make one angry uppfostra vw. to rear, foster uppger nf. (ON uppgerð) change for the worse in the weather uppge(f)ster nm. odal-born person who surrenders his property to another uppgiven adj. given up as hopeless uppglopenen adj. 1. hasty; 2. choleric; 3. aggressive upphald nn. , maintenance upphalda vw. to , maintain, esp. with food; = halda upp (= to cease, of rain) upphelli nf. (ON upphelgr, upphelgi) the 5th day before Christmass upphellidag nm. Upphelli-A', the 24th day after Christmass = Antonmass uppi adv. (ON uppi) above; at vara uppi to be alive; dað er ingen uppi at kan sija uppilagst adj. (Fær. uppilagstur) ill, unwell uppkast nn. 1. bringing into discussion, putting forward an opinionor proposal; 2. a reproach also coming to light uppkomin nf. appearance, coming to light upplopen, -lupen adj. 1. that easily flares up; 2. impetuous uppløsa vw. 1. to bring forward; 2. to reveal somethingsecret uppumjora, -øra adv. (ON upp um eyra) up around the ear; at halda e-t uppumjorato have something kept aside or hidden (prop. behind the ear); at legga uppumjora to put aside;at ligga uppumjora to lie hidden uppset nn. 1. spring (of water); 2. setting up, raising; 3. ; 4. assistance; 5.enrichment, embellishment; 6. good catch; 7. iron. sweetheart uppskod nn. place where sea-bottom rises (shoots up) uppslag nn. 1. sudden thaw; 2. great disturbance; 3. end of a difficult journey uppspre(i)tta nf. 1. a spring (of water), which suddenly spings up; 2. disturbance in a house uppstander nm. one or something standing erect uppstiklet adj. stiff, naughty in manners uppstø nf. (ON uppstöð?) fishing buoy attached to the end of a lone upptak nn. 1. change for the worse (in the weather); 2. an ability to understand; hannj hever ikke upptak i sjer; gud at upptaki; glegg i upptakenu; 3. pl. s, expenses ura nn. (ON eyra) hillock < ear; flitandi uppå hvart ura moving about from hill to hill (of a sheep) uram nm. (ON hárhamr, hö�rhamr) grain of leather, hairy side of skin urd nf. 1. a heap of fragments of rock; 2. a big boulder urek nm. (ON ør-) a very small creature or thing urek nm. (ON úr) bolge-water urekura vw. (ON órakúra) 1. to doze, be half-asleep; 2. to be unwell and dispirited urt nf. (ON *urpt, vurpt) casting, laying of eggs uru nf. (ON úró) commotion in the sea us nm. (ON áss, ǫ'ss) 1. extensove bank or elevation in the sea-bottom us nm. (Nor. os) place in the sea where the tide runs swiftly usjuna nf. (ON Nor. utjona) insufferable or unwelcome people uskablig adj. unshapely, deformed; ugly in shape uskepta nf. 1. progress; 2. successful performance of a work uskjoggalig adj. carelessly and improperly performed

usoinjdalig adj. 1. that is unlucky to see or meet; 2. unsightly, repulsive usoindig = 1. usoindalig; 2. unpleasant uster nm. (ON austr) 1. bailing out water; bilge-water in a boat; 2. check, discipline, authority ustra vw. to act with (too great) authoritativeness ut adv. out, out from land or to sea (= fram); ut efter; at få ut inn under to recover from illness; hannj fekk vel ut inn under it he got well after it; ut inn under! gently! go easy! utå 1. later; 2. gradually; ut å dagenon later in the day; ut til to the very last; ut til helljar the last of a series of Sundays; vinden er faren ut til the wind is gone outward; ut veð 1. south-easterly or southerly (wind); 2. outwards, alongside; du ert ut av minon jogon you're so changed that I can't recognize you utavedeks adv. (ON utangarðs + Shet. Sc. uta-dike's) outside the fenced home-field; innavedeks utavidd adj. (ON útvídd) odd-looking utbord nm. row of peats uterlig adj. outer utfallj nn. outward tide from the shore at the setting in of ebb utful nm. (ON útfugl) 1. a wild bird; utfulegg utgeng nm. 1. setting out, departure; 2. exit; 3. end, termination; utgeng årsens uthaf nn. fishing-grounds on the high seas = framhaf uthus nn. outhouse uti adv. ouside; mitt heved er uti my head is aching; at vara uti after eu to meet with bad luck; dað var uti fyri honon he had bad luck all the time utið adv. (ON útíð) untimely utiða(r) adj.indecl. (ON útíðar) 1. that comes or does his works at the wrong time; 2.slow, indolent utiðlig adj. (ON útíðligr) 1. that usually comes too late; 2. untimely; unlucky; 3. harsh, unpleasant; 4. dull utlandisk adj. (ON útlenzkr) 1. foreign; 2. not born in Fetlar (Fe.); 3. ugly, repulsive-looking utmaga, -mjaga, -måga vw. 1. to exhaust; 2. to weaken, tire out utmanket adj. utterly exhausted, weakened utnes nn. projecting ness, point utoitlig adj. (ON úþyðligr) 1. uncomely in appearance, bad-looking and undersized; 2.peevish, fretful utråg nn. (ON útrák) 1. backwash of the waves; 2. offshore tide; 3. row of something spread out (peats) utrollet adj. 1. untidy, careless about dress; 2. sulky, peevish utset nn. extension of a cultivated allotment, new land bought utskattalernm. one who is outside skattald utsk(j)umpet adj.: fishing-ground too much exploited > bare of fish; utskjumpet grund =båren grund utslokket adj. extinguished (of fire); utslokket eld, birtek uttak nn. 1. taking out (things bought on a credit); 2. expense(s); 3. durability utvidd adj. strange, peculiar; see utavidd utvinna vs. 1. to accomplish (work); 2. to cultivate soil in spring utø adj. (ON úþýðr) uncomely, bad-looking uvar adj. 1. unnoticed; 2. not fished for a long time; uvar grund - opp. to båren [reket, utskjumpet] grund uvara adv. unaware(s), sudden(ly)

uvard adj. 1. unaware, heedless, headlong; 2. unawares, having too great speed; 3. unnoticed, not exploited, not visited (place) uvedrevatsgarð nm. (ON úveðr(a)-vatnsgarðr) 1. halo round the moon; 2. heavy rain uvild nf. close, drizzling rain uvirpalig adj. (ON úvǫrpuligr) hard-handed, rough and careless

V vað nn. 1. ford in a stream; 2. small mill-dam; holevað - ON holuvað? vadel nm. (ON vaðill) shallow place in water vel nn. (ON vaðmál) thick woollen, home-vowen stuff vaga vw. to waddle vaga vw. interj. swim on top, cake! Oh vaga piddi! vagdum nm. 1. shape, form (esp. of a person or thing ing); 2. glimpse of a person or thing vaitem nn. (ON vatn?) slimy fluid, thin matter vakavw. to be awake vakhus nn. watchhouse vakna vw. 1. to awake; 2. to stir, come to motion; 3. to loosen (peats); hannj er vaknað åitte the wind has begun to blow vakt nf. watch-hill vallja vw. (ON valla) to wander about valska, vjalska nf. loquacity, noisy talk, fluent chatter full of fun; dað er vjalska å djer you're merry and talkative valska, vjalska vw. 1. to talk indistinctively and imperfectly; 2. babble vam nn. mysterious, magic or hypnotyzing influence from a person; hannj hever vam veð sjer; at kasta vam(ið) øver e-on to cast spell, hypnotize vama vw. to bewitch, unnerve Vama nf. name for a big-bellied cow or sheep vamd adj. 1. strange, queer; 2. unattractive, disagreeable = illvamd vamgert, vaim- nm. (ON vǫmb?) belly-band, saddle-girth (of a packhorse) vamp nm. (ON hvammr; cf. skump < skum) hollow, depression van- prefix: lack, unsufficiency; vanvun, vantru van adj. lacking, destitute of something; eg kom van af fiski I had a fish on the hook, but lost it van nm. (ON vani) 1. habit, custom; 2. usage vana vw. to deprive one of something vanførdig adj. (ON vanfœrr) infirm, unable vand nm. (ON vǫndr + L.Sc. wand) fishing-rod vanga nf. noisy and troublesome flock vanhjolsanf. (ON vanheilsa) delicate health vanhulig adj. (ON vanhófligr) forbidden, not allowable vanjd nm. (ON vandr adj.) 1. care and ability in working; 2. shape, form vanjda vw. 1. to form, shape; 2. to put in order, arrange; 3. to to take shape; 4. to adapt, fit vanjdet adj. (ON vandaðr) 1. having a certain shape or form; velvanjdet; 2. of certain kind or nature

vanjdlos adj. 1. having no ability to execute fine work; 2. lacking handiness, awkward vanjdlosi nf. (ON vandleysi) awkwardness, lack of judgement and handiness vanlig adj. 1. promising, helpful; 2. that makes good impression; 3. convenient, agreeable;hannj er meri vanlig [vanligere] I value him more, like him better; dað er meri vanlig [vanligere]I like that better vanlos adj. 1. hopeless; 2. lonely, friendless vanlukk nf. ill-luck, misfortune vantrivenn adj.ill-thriven vantru nf. unbelief, mistrust = mistru vanvird nn. (ON vanvirði) 1. thing of little value; 2. poor creature, orphan; hannj fekk dað fyri vanvirdi; pørligt vanvirdi vanvirdig adj. worthless vanvorden adj. 1. slightly deformed;2. sad-looking; 3. exhausted; 4. unwell var nf. (ON vǫr) 1. lip; 2. edge of the lip of a fish var nn. the first observation or perception of something var adj. 1. aware, attentive; 2. wary, cautious; at vara var av e-u; sjuen er var av honon [di] the commotion in the sea indicates rough weather vara vw. (ON vara(sk)) 1. to be careful, wary, attentive; 2. to beware of; 3. to show one attention, to care; at taka sog varan; take dog vara(n)!; 4. to have a suspicion of something; vara hana! vara hannj aldri! have nothing to do with her! don't mind him! vara vw. (Nor. vara) 1. to row the boat a short way on or back; 2. to drift a little to one side vara, varga vs. (ON vera 'to be', verða 'to become') 1. to be; 2. to become (future of 'to be'); ve vare djer! woe to you! shame upon you! (ON vé verði þér!) tvit varge djer! (ON tvít verði þér!) varbak nm. (ON varmaðkr?) species of larva varg nm. 1. unruly animal; 2. greedy person; 3. large and ungraceful object varga vw. 1. to soil, defile; 2. to perform dirty work vari nm. heed, attention, taking heed of something; at taka vara to heed, pay attention to a warning or reminder varigad nm. (ON L.Sc. ware-)small cod varisa vw. to be doubtful, hesitate varp nn. cast, throw varpa vw. (ON verpa vs., varpa vw.) 1. to cast, throw; 2. to make a stroke with the oar; 3. to cast out seed, sow varsna vw. (ON versna) to get worse varla vw. (ON varðlokka?) to take away the profit of a piece of land by witchcraft varlin nf. (ON varlína) spare line (in fish.) varlos adj. 1. unaware, inattentive; 2. careless; 3. awkward varnagl nm. (ON varnagli) wooden nail or pin vatl nf. (ON veizla) kind of a tax vatn nn. 1. water; 2. lake; 3. sea, wave vatnsdollja nf. water-pail; vatnsdudla (Foula) vatnsferð [vatshfer] nf.: fyri vatnsferð = temporarily, quickly and loosely; du hever lagt dað burt fyri vatnsferð you have put it aside for a meantime vatnsgarð, -gårð nm. halo round the sun or moon, indicating rain vaittaband nn. (ON vǫttr �mitten�) woollen band < mitten-band

vav nn. worsted tied round soft bait vava vw. (ON vefja) to tie worsted round soft bait vavra vw. (ON vafra �to roam�) 1. to shake (from weakness or cold); 2. to move with a slow gait vavla vw. to cause to tangle ve interj. (ON vei) to invoke evil upon somebody;ve vari woe betide; ve vari djer! woe to you! veda nf. (ON veita) wet, water T vedek nm. 1. ditch for draining water; 2. narrow stream; 3. stripe vederbiter nm. mock-sun vederdag nm. day of (fine) weather veð prep. 1. with;2. along; 3. in a line with; upp veð to west/north-west; ut veð to south/south-east, prop. along the outward side (Nor. utmed); fram veð in a line with something farther off; inn veð in a line with something farther in; litli helljer fram veð [in veð] a little cave in a line with something farther in veg nm. (ON viðr) crooced piece of wood vegavw. (ON veikjast?) to fal into swoon, faint veggvol nm. (ON veggvölr) wooden post stuck into the byre-wall vek adj. (ON veikr) weak; vek ok vanvørdig vel nn. choice, selection velavirdi (ON vel verði (þér)) thanks God! velja vw. (ON valjdi) to choose, select veljta nf. strip of field prepared with spade or ploughed; see also attavelta, attivelt veljta nf. 1. overturned position; 2. mire, mud, morass veljta vw. to trudge laboriously through mire and mud vell nn. rain of moderate force and density vellin nn. (ON vélendi) oesophagus velsi nm. (ON vǫlsi) large cylindrical figure velvilljet adj. (ON velviljaðr) obliging vemba nf. (ON *vemba) stomach of a ling ven adj. (ON vænn) fine, bright and calm (of weather); hannj er mukkið ven i nåitt; ven nåitt vender nn. turning venjda vw. to turn; at venjda sog to turn oneself; venjde dog! 1. turn around! (Da. vend dig!); 2. move a little to one side!; 3. make room (in the boat)! = veð venjd dog! (ON við vend þér!) venjdra vw. to turn in a certain direction venlig adj. fairly good, not bad (weather) vept nm. woof veptaslu nf. anything useless and of poor quality ver nn. (ON ver) skerry where sea-birds breed verdi, virdi nn. (ON varðlokka?) superstitious formulaor custom versmoja nf. sister-in-law vestren adj. (ON vestroenn) western vetring nm. a one years old cow-calf vev nn. wooden bolt of a door vid nm. 1. wood, timber; 2. growth of trees vidja [dzh] nf. (ON viðja) 1. crooked piece of wood; 2. withy, small tree; 3. tall cabbage-stalk viga vs. (ON víkja) 1. to move, stir, wag; 2. to answer, reply viggelju adj. (ON *viðguligr?) noisy, troublesome vik nf. inlet, small and mostly open bay

vik nn. 1. inclination, deflexion, spirits, disposition (for evil); 2. curve, corner; vik monnjsens vika, vikka vs. (ON víkja, Fær, Nor. vika) 1. to move (a little); 2. to get to move, drive; 3. to entice, seduce; 4. to answer; 5. to fit, suit vill nm. (ON bylr?) squall of wind vill nf. (ON villa) the state of having lost one's way vill adj. (ON villr) having lost one's way villa vw. (ON villask) to lose one's way, go astray villarø nn. foolish talk, nonsense villi nm. (ON veðrlamb?) male lamb vil nn.pl. small intestines villsom adj. misleading, that leads one astray vindli nm. wisp, bundle (of straw) vindog nn. window vingsnju nm. (ON væng-knúi) the wing t < wing-knuckle vinna vs. (past vann) 1. to perform a laborious work; at vinna vårið to perform the spring work; 2. to earn profitor wages; 3. to manage to do something; eg kann ikke vinna at di I can't manage to get it done this time vir nn. (ON veðr 'weather') scent, feeling vir nm. excelent person (animal, thing); virin (def.) the best or most prominent; hannj var virin av sinni ø; 2. a great beauty (Edm.) virda vw. (ON virða) to value, estimate virdek nm. small cairn, pile of peats virdi nn. (ON virði 'value') 1. good essential quality, strength; 2. strong taste of something; dað er ikke virdi i di; 3. calculated quantity of hay virdlos adj. incapable, feeble and awkward virka vw. (ON virka) to knit virma vw. (ON hverfa) to break; at virma årana virna vw. (ON verða?) to become; hvat er virnað av di? what has become of it? virpa nf. very sour milk or bland < something that cast its proper taste virpa vw. 1. to cast; 2. to throw up, vomit; hannj virpaði upp sinn måga virpet adj. acrid, sour virsammoder nf. (ON Fær. vágsmóðir + L.Sc. wirsam) "boil-mother", core of a boil virslin adj. 1. poor, loose worsted; 2. feeble; 3. languid;4. powerless virt nf. infusion of malt, wort visa vw. (ON vísa) 1. to show out; 2. totry to get rid of something with tricks; at visa burt/fram; give honon sikket at visa honon burt visek nm. (ON vísa) folk-song, ballad visna vw. 1. to wither, shrivel; 2. starve; 3. plague, annoy, worry vister nf.pl.: illar vister: slight oath, wish for something vita vpp. 1. to know; 2. to keep to one's opinion, insist; 3. to express, utter; hon mundi ikke vita she wouldn't insist upon anything else vitra vw. (ON vitra) to inform (one of something) vitsja vw. 1. to visit; 2. to go from house to house gathering gossips; at gånga vitsjandi (um) = at gånga millja husa vitsjferð, vitjferð nf.: fyri vitsfer: for a short time, temporarily, loosely vjoget adj. (ON Nor. bogen) 1. somewhat sour, half-sour; 2. half-rotten, spoiled voga vw. (ON vika) week; santa voga 1st week in June, the holy week; pasavoga Easter-week, ions-week (L.Sc. pase, pays) voksen adj. grown-up

vokster nm. (ON vǫxtr) 1. growth, thriving; gud i vokstri; dað er vokster å honon; hannj hever fengið voksteren he grows faster than boys usually do; 2. physical form; 3. deportment, (right) mode of bearing; 4. enterprise, energy; hon kleddi sog veð vokstri she dressed herself quickly vol nm. (ON vǫlr) piece of wood, stick, post; see veggvol vollj nm. (ON vǫllr; Dat.sg. velli, Nom.pl. vellir) flat, low-lying piece of ground vorda vw. (ON forða?): vorda sog to move aboot feebly and wearily; eg kann ikke vorda mog ut vorden adj. (ON vorðinn, pp. of verða) 1. of a certain form or kind; 2. in a certain state; 3. conditioned voss nn. (ON Da. os) 1. juice; 2. lye, water in which somthing is bioled vun nf. hope, expectation; at hava i vun to have in prospect vunavw. to hope, expect vyrr nf. (ON vǫrr, varar) wharf, paved landing-place; båten kom øver vyrrena vyvdi nm. (ON vǫðvi) 1. muscle; 2. wind-dried meat vyvdet adj. wind-dried vå nm. (ON vágr; Dat.sg vå) bay, creek (somewhat more indented than vik) våd nf. (ON vaða) shoal of fish on the surface of the water våga vw. (ON vaka) 1. to wake; 2. to stay long on oneplace, be out very late våga vw. (ON vágen < Germ. wagen) 1. to dare, venture; 2. to venture to go from 1 place to another; at våga (sog) ut; hannj kann ikke våga seg ut frå eljdenon; ingen båt kundi hava vågað ut til Estramynnis våker adj. (ON vakr) 1. brisk, active, strong; 2. in good condition, wellfed and healthy våla vw. to howl, wail (esp. of the cat) vålin adj. 1. insipid; 2. stale; 3. nauseous;4. too fresh (fish) vålhard nm. (ON allharðr adj.) sea-bottom T, fishing-ground vålka nf. (ON álka) auk, alca vålmenn adj. common (subst.) vålmenning nm. a common vålmø nm. (ON almúgi) 1. large assembly of people; 2. great number of things våmd adj. 1. sourish (fish); 2. half-rotten vång nm. piece of pasture for a cow vår nn. 1. spring; 2. digging of the soil in spring vård nm. (ON varði) mountain-top; large prominent hill våring nm. seal < håring vårlek nm. small oar < år vårmø nn. (ON vármœði?) great weariness, exhaustion våsta nf. (ON vasta) unsheltered place

Y ymper nn. low sound, murmur ympra vw. 1. to make a slight remark; 2. hint at something;3. murmur; 4. to venture, attempt; de kundi aldri ympra at gånga til havsens å so pørligon [illjon] dagi

Ø ø nf. island; also heon ø vw. to mutter inarticulate sounds ød adj. 1. large and good in quality; 2. exaggerated øda vw. (ONœðask?) to long for, wait impatiently (of cattle) ødlør adj. medium, middling; Vuru hestarne feter [sjogger]? Bara ødlører. ødna nf. (Nor. øydnad) waste, dissipation øf nn. (ON ofhiti?) intense heat, hot current øg, jog nf. (ON aða) horse-mussel øja nf. (ON iða) whirlpool, receding tide øja nf. (ON eyja) island, stretch of fertile land øl, ul nm. (ON ylr) 1. great heat; 2. hot vapour, moist heat, warm vapour øla vw. (ON ylja) to evaporate øljd great heat outdoors øma vw. to smoke, steam ømta vw. (ON ymta, œmta) to hint, mention ønjd nf. corner, nook øni adj. warm, sultry ønnj nf. (ON ǫnd?) oppressive or sultry heat ørða vw. (ON ǫrðga) to raise, lift up; ørða dað upp åitte!; at ørða upp djurið to revive an animal øter(li) adj. (ON ytri) outer; øterli gamelt ord one exceedingly old øtna nf. destruction; at legga e-t i øtnu to destroy, lay waste øver prep., adj. over, upper øverhand nf. (ON yfirhǫnd) upperhand, power over another

Å å, vå nf. (Gen.sg år) stream ål nm. (ON ál) eel åbregd nn. additional mark in a sheep's ear åbrigda nf. basking shark < håbrigda åd nn. (ON vað) a shoal of fish; åd silleka; silleksåd ådborð nm. 1. mode of behaviour; 2. strange conduct åga vs. 1. to creep, crawl; 2. to move slowly; 3. to be infested with vermin ågagot nn. a little child (weak, ill-thriven); piri ågagot ågedu nm. vapour rising from and lying low down over the earth ågedu nn. weeds growing among the corn ågemuld nf. mould (of fiellds) åger nm. sea-foam åita adv. (ON aptr) at the back of, behind åkregård nm. . fence around fields; 2. pasture-land inside the fence (utbet); at sleppa åkregårðenon to open [let go] the fence ål nm. 1. a strip of meadow or field; 2. a channel in the sea-bottom ålament adj. (ON háleikmegnðr?, háleikr 'height') situated high up; ålamenta loften 1. the highrer strata of air; 2. the zenith region; sulen er i ålementari loftthe sun is very high up in the sky; du hever bygt skruna

upp i ålamentu loftena you've built that cornstack to high; ketlen er uppi i ålamentu lofteni the plot is hanging far too high up over the fire ållek nm. small ling ålmenn, ålmark nm. a common; see vålmenning ånjd nf. (ON önd) warm current of airor breeze ånda vw. 1. to breathe; 2. to produce a faint, warm breeze ånjdi adj. small T ånjdibit nn. small piece of bait ångastø nf. (ON and-ga-staða?) contrary wind åkast nn. attack of illness (caused by witchcraft) ålup nn. (ON áhlaup) downpoor of rain, deluge åset nn. 1. great pressure; working hard at something; 2. metaph. pressure, necessity åtak nn. 1. effort, exertion; 2. taking on, scolding; at vara i åtaki to be excited åp nn. (ON aptann) eve of a feast, day before a holiday;jølop, Toljegsåp; Tammasmessåp årdedoit nn. morning nap, heavy sleep till late in the forenoon årdiklov nm. (ON klovi) ancient Shetl. wooden plough årlið nf. (ON árhlíð) opening in the base of a stone wall where a burn runs årn nm. hearth, hearthstone åsøker nm. animal breaking into tje home-field åtterskodd nn.1. great haste, speed; 2. backwash of breakers (waves) åvedek nm. dam by which water is lead in another direction åveljter adj.indecl., adv. fallen or turned over and unable to rise; kuen er falljen åveljter åvi nm. pieces of wood laid between or across the laths (de langbands) in a roof åvi nm. (ON áviðr?) punishment Åvik nm. he or she whom you know; cf. Døt, haipernor, hanjdi, hannister, hannepaa