Pd Mishra 5j5v56

132 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

profession.4 Cogan5 in an attempt to categorize the

concept of a profession, distinguishes three main approaches to definition; Persuasive definition use to argue the case for or against the inclusion of a specified occupation in the ranks of the professions; operational definition used when looking at the organization or practice of a particular occupational group or groups; and logistic definition, which draws verbal boundaries round historical material and customary usage. Profession is a special organization for the application of specialized knowledge and skills for the welfare of the human beings. Millerson after surveying twenty-one writers who have written on profession; found the following most frequently concerned traits in a profession: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Skills based on theoretical knowledge, Provision of training and occupation, Tests of the competence of , Organization, Adherence to a professional code of conduct, Altruistic service.

Elliott has given the following criteria to differentiate between non-professional and professional.

~_r Non-professional Technical, Craft, Skill Routine Programmed Ends decided by society (of other institution)

Knowledg -e Task Decision Authority making

Professional - Broad, theoretical - knowledge Non-routine used in. to situations - Unprogrammed reach decisions - Ends (derived according to from knowledge) decided for society (or institution within it) and ed by

Other or non-work

Occupation Identit group SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION y because work 133 and occupation are

Non-professional Professional

Technical, Craft, Skill

- Knowledge

Means to non-work ends - Work - Career Occupational/class advancement Limited

- Education Specific

•Role - Broad, theoretical knowledge used in. - Central life interest and are also the basis for - Individual achievement which involves meeting initial entry qualifications through - Extensive education, showing skill and meeting other latent

status requirements . involved in the - Total role (that is expectations extend beyond expertize and work situation

Professionalization Professionalization may be viewed on the socialization process by which individuals are drawn *into the institutional context of ¦ St • particular occupations. Wilensky proposes the following steps in the process of professionalization in a particular occupation: 1. 2. 3. 4.

6. 7. Full time activity at the task; The establishment of university training, The formation of a national professional organization Redefinition of the core task, so as to give 'dirty work' to subordinates; Conflict between the old timers and the new men who seek

to upgrade job;

Competition between the new occupation and related ones;

Political pressure to gain legal protection; A code of ethics. 134 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS The jobs of the professional is technical. The professional man adheres to a set of professional norms. The degree to which an occupation fits the criteria is the degree of its professionalization. II. PROFESSIONAL TRAITS IN SOCIAL WORK Systematic and Scientific Knowledge Social work is based on scientific knowledge. It views man as a biological, social and psychological entity and his behaviour can be adequately explained in of certain 'needs', natural or acquired, which originate in the somatic, social and psychic aspects of his personality. The role of social worker is mainly to set a process of interaction which sets at the social and psychological levels into motion. His methodology relates to ways by which individuals and groups/societies can be made sclfrcliant and self-dependent. The area of knowledge covered in social work can be grouped as follows: 1. Hitman behaviour and social environment : personality factors, theories, social aspects, psychiatric aspects, human relations, groups, social institutions, socialization, social control, environment, technology, etc. 2. Methods and techniques of social work : case work, group work, community organization, social istration, social action and research. 3. Fields of social work : Medical, psychiatric, child guidance, health, correctional, family, youth, labour, rural development, etc. 4. Social problems : crime, delinquency, alcoholism, drug addiction, gambling, beggary, prostitution, unemployment, casteism, communalism, corruption, National integration, eta Social work has developed certain well defined principles which guide its practice. The worker accepts the' client' as he is but does not approve the client's actions. Social work believes in individuals worth and dignity and integrity. Its goal is to promote full growth of human potential by helping the client to help themselves.

The client has the he would like to pursue.

right

to

determine

for

himself

the

goals

and

means

Skills, Techniques and Tools Skill is the worker's capacity to apply knowledge and understanding SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION

to a given situation. Skills in social teaching and training. Social worker through

135

workers

are

developed

through

the skill of programming arrives at satisfactory and fruitful relationships. He is skilful in analysing the social situation, individual groups' feelings, using agency and community resources, serving the client for self dependent, and diagnosing and treatment. The particular skill of the social worker lies in his ability to use his relationship constructively. In rendering his services the social worker applies three important tools, i.e. the use of himself, the programme; planning and his relationship with the client. His relationship ischaracterized by objectivity and confidentiality on the one hand and sensitivity and warmth on the other. Social work has in its command.: the techniques of individual conscientisation, group conscientisation, organization and planning, building and maintaining counter-system and istrative techniques. ' Social Work Education Social work has a separate identity in the realm of education. In most of the countries there are provisions for graduate and post-graduate level of education in the universities and other teaching institutions. Students are directed to implement their classroom knowledge into the fieldwork agencies. They are placed in various types of social welfare agencies like hospitals, beggar homes, aftercare homes, placement centres, labour welfare centres, schools, slums, community centres, etc. v Professional Organizations There are a number of professional organizations on international and national levels. The most important organizations are: American . Association of Social Workers, British Association of Social Workers, National Association of Social Workers. Association of American Schools of Social Work, International Schools of Social Work, etc. Social Approval '¦' ,' f Social work as a profession has been accepted governments. Both governmental and organizations employ trained social workers on various posts. 136

by

the respective non-governmental

SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

Code of Ethics

A social worker operates in of certain basic assumptions: (1) respect for human personality, (2) dignity of each human being, be he a prince or a pauper, (3) matching resources with needs; (4) stimulating change calculated to enhance democratic values; (5) accomplishing change through co-operation on both

intellectual and emotional levels; and (6) serving as a "change-agent" from behind the scene, so that the individual or the group of the community may emotionally feel that the change was not imposed from the outside but was autonomously sought by the

individual, groups or community. The social worker gives respect to each client and believes in his creative power. He has full faith in the client's freedom of expression and self-judgement. He always operates on the democratic principles and values. He does not believe in any type of discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, religion etc. Thus, it can be said that social work is a profession because all the essential characteristics are found in it. But this assumption is based on theoretical plane, reality is different from it. Even today people do not accept social work as a profession because of the following drawbacks in social work:

¦

1. Social work is not concerned with a specific work which may be called the field of social work. 2. The behaviour and the skills of social workers are not unique and specific. 3. There is no difference in behaviour of a trained social worker and an untrained one. 4. The work of helping cannot be called profession because this work can be performed by any person. 5. Training has not much impact in creating an attitude or motivational attitude of worker for help as it is mainly influenced by family background and psychological make-up. 6. Social workers have failed in developing self-image as professionals. 7. Though social work has systematic and scientific knowledge but all this have been derived from other sciences. Workers most of the time, feel helplessness in using this knowledge into practice. SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION

137

8. Professional organizations are not performing their roles effectively. 9. Social approval is not upto the mark. Recent studies indicate that social work as a profession does not have full acceptance by the community. The social worker does not enjoy a level of remuneration commensurate with related professions, nor does he enjoy a prestige comparable to even low-paid related professions and the social worker does not reveal the type of self-image which reflects personal satisfaction. HI. SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION IN INDIA Social work as a profession is of recent origin in India. The year 1936 marks a watershed in the history of professional social' work training in this country. Professional education for social work in India was started with the founding of the Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social Work in Bombay in 1936. Since then, social work is gaining momentum gradually and gradually. It has achieved all the essential

traits of a a profession.

profession.

Let

us

examine

the

socfal

work

in

India

as

Systematic and Scientific Knowledge There is continuous increase of knowledge in social work in India. Researches are in progress suited to the Indian conditions. Every school of social work provides the knowledge of human behaviour environment, culture, urbanization, industrialization, social development, etc. to its students. In India not much work has been done in the development of systematic empirical knowledge relating to typical problem situations and ways of handling them. The specialized knowledge of social work in Indian situation is still somewhat limited. r Professional Education The first School of Social Work was established in 1936 in the name of Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social Work in Bombay. This school worked in the field of Social Service istration in the begining and Diploma in Social Service istration was awarded. Later on it included other specialized fields of social work. Till 1947 it was the only institution providing professional training of social 138

SOCIAL WORK - PI HLOSOPHY AND METIIODS

work. After Independence, Kashi Vidyapeeth, Varanasi, and College of Social Service, Gujarat Vidyapeeth, Ahmedabad were established in 1947. Delhi School of Social Work came into existence in 1948 as the first school as a part of the University. Baroda School of Social Work was established in 1949-50 and Department of Social Work, Lucknow University was established in 1949. The Social Work education was started in Agra in 1955 and in Waltaire in 1957. Today the training and education of social work is imparted in Bombay, Agra, Madras, Patna, Lucknow, Varanasi, Jamshedpur, Calcutta, Waltaire, Udaipur, Bhagalpur, Bangalore, Mangalore, Indore, Dharwar, etc. At present the number of professional training institutions is more than 60. Some of them provide Bachelor's degree and some Certificate in Social Work. Some of them are awarding Diploma/Master's Degree in Social Work. About one-third of these institutions are having Ph.D. courses. Code of Ethics

The Association of Schools of Social Work in India was established in 1960 to work for the promotion of social work education. The association is concerned with (i) laying down and maintaining proper standards in professional social work education and promoting the profession on scientific lines, (ii) providing opportunity to faculty to meet and exchange their ideas, (iii) arranging seminars and refresher courses for faculty ; (iv) encouraging and coordinating researches and promoting publication of literature on

different subjects relating to social work; (v) information pertaining to social work education, and (vi) a national forum on all matters concerning

disseminating working as

social work Inspite of the best efforts by the association, a code social worker has not been developed so far. There is definition of role of, social work in many fields and workers find themselves in great difficulty in justifying in agencies and organizations. There is a confusion in most people about the meaning of the term social work.

education.11 of ethics for no clear cut hence social their presence the minds of

Social Approval Social work is gaining approval very slowly both on the government and non-government organizations. Except field, there are hardly any jobs exclusively in social work. Inspite of SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION

part in

of the labour

139

this, social work is spreading in the Geld of medical welfare, family welfare, women welfare and rural development.

and

health,

chUd

Professional Organizations >ii: tl The Indian Association of the Alumini of the Schools of Social Work was formed in 1951. Its name was changed in 3964 and now it is known as Indian Association of Trained Social Workers. î;hag;ifs branches at Bombay, Chandigarh, Coimbatore, Delhi, Dfcarwar, Hyderabad, Indore, Jamshedpur, Madras, Nagpur, Trivandrum, Udaipur, Varanasi, Waltair and Lucknow. The Association' of Schools of Social Work in India was established in 1960 to act as a non-official organization for the promotion of social work education. Association of Medical and Psychiatric Social Work is also giving input to the profession. There are several organizations functioning at the level of Schools of Social Work. It is, thus, self-evident that we have been gradually heading towards professionalization in Social Work. IV. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR TI IE SLOW PROCESS OF PROFESSIONALIZATION OF SOCIAL WORK IN INDIA Social work as a profession is of recent origin in India. Its professional character has not been yet fully developed. There is a basic doubt in the minds of many persons as to whether there is distinct body of theoretical concepts and knowledge which can claim social work as its own. Besides, people who traditionally entered in the social work field were characterized more by the qualities of heart (self-motivation) rather than by a discipline. The new concept of social work has brought a confusion even in the minds of social workers.

It is unfortunate that social work as a wrong start in India. Modern philosophy of in the more professional-minded schools is

profession got on the social work as accepted clearly of alien origin,

mainly American. As in America, here too, it has been quite needlessly made the raison d'etre for the academic survival of social work. In America there were socio-economic factors that logically

led to the inidvidual-centred approach in social work, but such type of factors are not found in India, Most or all Schools or University Departments of Social Work in India have tacitly accepted the individual approach but there have been varying degrees of emphasis on it depending largely on how much it had been diluted with Indian

140

SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

background: consideration in the process of adaptation.13 There is much confusion about the meaning of social work. Social work is often regarded as a selfless, non-remunerative, character-building, or religious activity. Some think that social work is a charitable task which is done mostly by wealthy persons in the society. Sometimes social work is thought of as disaster-relief activity. Voluntary manual labour is frequently known as social work. So far * the term social work has not been clearly understood, the term social worker is also ambiguous. There are at least four-five different types of functionaries that are generally called social workers. These are philanthropist, social reformer, leader, voluntary worker etc. This has created a lot of hurdles in gaining the real form of social work. The lack of teaching material based on Indian case studies is one of the major factors in the slow process of professionalization of social work. Dr. Wright points out that the failure to relate to the Indian culture and the wrong emphasis and assumptions for India, these are two major defects of American writings. The principles to be used in the helping process may be the same, but the Indian brings to his ideas of the solution of the problem a different set of values which call sometimes for a different use of the basic principles. There is a lot of difference between theory and practice. The teaching in classroom is based upon principles which have been borrowed. These are not often the principles which imbue social work practice in India. For example, American books are written on the assumption that a client feels the need and himself comes to the agency for help. But in India the students have to develop the skills to motivate people in need to make use of services of the agencies. The students, therefore, often feel highly frustrated when they see that classroom teachings are hardly ever attained in practice. The area of specialized knowledge in social work is still somewhat limited. Little attempts have been made to develop systematic empirical knowledge relating to typical problems, situations and ways of handling them. Unlike in professions based upon physical and biological sciences such as medicine, engineering etc, the knowledge gained in other societies is not easily transferable in the case of social work. This adds another problem to the process

of professionalization of social work.

The

professional

organizations

like

Indian

Association

of

Trained Social Workers, Association of Schools of Social Work,

SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION 141 organized for the promotion of standard of social work, are not performing their job satisfactorily. The functions of these organizations are so limited that even most of the social workers do not know the existence of such organizations. The last and not the least factor is lack of sincere devotion and dedication on the part of the social workers. They are lacking in sincere devotion and dedication to the cause of suffering humanity, forgetting their professional ethics, running too much after money and keeping self-interest even above the service which is the basis of their existence. In such a situation a danger has developed that the profession may degenerate into an occupation and widespread distrust regarding its utility may develop in the minds of the people. REFERENCES 1. Fricdlander, A.W: Introduction to Social Welfare, Prentice Hall, Inc., New York, 1955, p. 4. 2. Ranade, S.N: 'Trends in Social Work'in Social Work in India by Khinduka, S.K., Sarvodaya Sahitya Samaj, Jaipur, (India) 1962, pp. 206-207. 3. Jones, Kathican, Brown, John, and Bradshaw, Jonathan: Issues In Social Policy, Rout ledge and Kcgan Paul, London, 1978, p. 60. * 4. Gore, M.S : Social Work and Social Work Education, Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1965, p. 86. 5. Cogan, M.L: Quoted in P. Elliott, The Sociology of the Professions, Macmillan, 1972, p. 8. 6. Millerson, G: 77ie Qualifying Association, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1964 7. Elliott, P : The Sociology of Professions, Macmillan Company, London, 1972, p. 96. 8. Wilensky, H : The Professionalization of every one, American Journal of Sociology, 70,1964, pp. 142-46. 9. Wilensky, H : The Dynamics of Professionalism : The case of Hospital istration. Hospital istration, Vol. 7. No. 2,1962, p. 9. 10. Cohen, N.E: Social Work in the American Tradition, The Diyden Press, New York, 1958, p. 339. 11. Singh Surendra : History of Social Work in India in Horizons of Social Work {ed), by Singh, S. and Soodan, KB., op. cit p. 36. 12. Ibidp.yj * 13. Khinduka, S.K. op. cit. p. 31. 14. Wright, H: "Similarities and Differences in Social Work Education as seen in

India and North America" International Social Work, Jan. 1959, Quoted by Khinduka, S.K. op. cit. p. 168. 15. Singh, S: History of Social Work in India, op. cit p. 37. 1. 10

SOCIAL CASE WORK

Social case work, a primary method with the adjustment and development of the

of

social

work,

is

concerned

individual towards more satisfying human relations. Better family life, improved schools, better housing, more hospitals and medical care facilities, protected economic conditions and better relations between religious groups help the individual in his adjustment and development. But his adjustment and development depend on the use of these resources by him. Sometimes due to certain factors, internal or external, he fails to avail existing facilities. In such situations, social case worker helps him. Thus, social case work is one to one relationship which works in helping the individual for his adjustment and development. DEFINITIONS RICHMOND (1915) Social case work may be defined as the art of doing for and with different people by cooperating with them one and the same time their own and society's betterment.1

different things to achieve at

RICHMOND (1917) Social case work is the art of bringing about the in the social relationship of individual men, or women or children.2

better

adjustments

which develop individual by

personality individual,

RICHMOND (1922) Social case work means, "those processes through adjustment consciously affected, 3 between men and their social environment". SOCIAL CASE WORK 143 JARRETT{1919) Social case work is "the art of condition of social disorder into parts of ms environment.

bringing an individual who is b a the best possible relation with all

TAFT(1920) Social case work means "Social treatment of a maladjusted individual involving an attempt to understand his personality, behaviour, and social relationships, and to assist him in working out a better social and personal adjustment.5 WATSON (1922) Social case work is 'the art of untangling and reconstructing the twisted personality in such a manner that the individual can adjust himself to his environment'. QUEEN (1922) Social case work is 'the art of adjusting personal relationship'.

LEE (1923) Social case work is the' art of changing human attitudes'. TAYLOR (1926) Social case work is'a process concerned with the understanding of individuals as whole personalities and with the adjustment of these individuals to socially healthy lives'. RAYNOLDS0932)

Social case work is the process of counselling with the client on a problem which is essentially his own, involving some difficulty in his social relationship'. REYNOLDS (1935) Social case work is 'that form of social work which assists individual which he struggles to relate himself to his family, natural groups, his community'.1 KLEIN(1938)

the his

¦

Social case work is "a technical method in social work adjusting the client to his personal problems".

a way of

144 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS SWIFT(1939) Social case work is the art of assisting the individual in developing and making use of his personal capacity to deal with problems which he faces in his social environment. DE SCHWEINITZ (1939) Case work means 'those processes involved in giving service, financial assistance, or personal counsel to individuals by representatives of social agencies, according to policies established and with consideration of individual need. STRODE (1948) Social case work is the process of assisting the individual possible social adjustment through the use of social social resources, and knowledge from relative fields of learning.

to the best case study,

TOWLE(1947) ' Social case work is one method ... services are made available in areas of unmet needs.

by

which

certain

special

DOWERS (1949) Social case work is an art in which knowledge of the science of human relations, and skill in relationship are used to mobilize capacities in the individual and resources in the community appropriate for better adjustment between the client and all or any part of his total environment. , ^-HOLLIS (1954) Social case work is a method employed by social workers to help individuals find solution to problems of social adjustment which they are unable to handle in a satisfactory way by their own efforts.18 HAMILTON (1956) In

social

case

work

the

client

is

stimulated

to

participate

in

the

study

of his situation, to share plans, his problems, using his own resources are available and appropriate.

to make resources

an active efforts to solve and whatever community

MOLLIS (1957) Social case work is a method employed by social workers to help SOCIAL CASE WORK

145

individuals find solution to problems of social adjustment which they are unabje to handle in a satisfactory way by their own efforts.20 / PERLMAN(1957) " Social case work is process used by certain human welfare agencies i/' to help individuals to cope more effectively with their problems in social functioning. l The credit goes to Mary Richmond for defining the social case work scientifically. In 1915 she said that social case work is an art through which help is provided to people for their betterment as well as for the betterment of society. It means that social case work is essential if any country wants to improve and develop society and community. But this definition was not clear and therefore, she defines again in 1917 in which she emphasized the specific purpose i.e. better adjustment in the social relationships. Again in 1922 she told that social case work is for change of the personality of the individual for proper social adjustment. The position of social maladjustment, disorder, even failure, with which case work is concerned, entered the definition of Jarrett. The same was repeated byTaft.

Watson opposed the psycho-social model of treatment and emphasized an ego psychology. Total personality appears on the scene of social case work for consideration to social workers. Porter Lee also emphasized that the goal of social case work is to change human personality. Taylor stressed upon the need for understanding the total personality of the individual for bringing healthy adjustment in social life. «A counselling function was introduced into the case work definition by Reynolds in 1932. Klein also suggested that the social case work is for helping the client for adjustment. Swifts talks of developing the strength and capacity in the individual to solve his problems himself. De Schweinitz in ?939 advanced definitions containing the functional activity. She linked the social case work with representatives of social agencies and established policies. The work which is done through the social agencies by the social case worker comes in the purview of social case work. Strode expresses his view by saying that social case work uses social resources for helping the individual to obtain adjustment in social life. Towle made very simple definition by saying that case work is for unmet needs of the individual. Bowers told two instruments of social case work,

i.e. knowledge of the science of

146


human relations and skill in relationship; which are used to strengthen his capacity for gaining purposeful adjustment. Hollis talks of finding a solution to problems for the Individual client. According to Pcrlman, the case worker's task is to restore or reinforce the client's ability to deal with the problem rather than to deal with the problem for or with him. Pcrlman while defining the social case work process has indicated the four essential components of social case work in their relationships to one another. A person with a problem comes to a place where social worker helps him through a well defined process. The person is a man, women or child, anyone who finds himself, or is found to be, in need of help in some aspect of his social emotional living, whether the need be for tangible provisions or counsel. As he begins to receive such help, he is called a client."" The problem arises from some need or obstacle or accumulation of frustrations or maladjustments, and sometimes all of these together, which threaten or has already attacked the adequacy of the person's living situation or the effectiveness of his efforts to deal with it."J The place is a social service agency or a social service department of another kind of human welfare agency. It is a particular kind of social agency and department, in that it is set up to deal not with social problems at large but with human beings who are experiencing such problems in the management of their own personal lives. Its purpose is to help individuals with the particular social handicaps which hamper good personal or family living and with the problems created by faulty person to person, person to group, or person to situation relationships." The process, named 'social case work' to denote its centre of attention and its individualized aspect, is a progressive transaction between the professional helper (the case worker) and the client. It consists of series of problem-solving operations carried on within a meaningful relationship. The end of this process is contained in its means to so influence the client-person tnat he develops effectiveness in coping with his problem and/or to so influence the problem as to resolve it or vitiate its effects. PURPOSE OF SOCIAL CASEWORK The basic purpose of social work is to enable the client some degree of permanency, more satisfying, effective and

to

enjoy with

SOCIAL CASE WORK 147

acceptable experiences in the himself. To achieve this goal efforts

social

situation

in

which

he

finds

are made to bring effective changes in the client's environment or social living situation, through clarifying the client's possibly distorted perception of it or strengthening his capacities for coping with it.26 Its essential task is the facilitation of social relationship. According to Witmer 'the chief aim of social case work is that of helping people to mobilize their capacities for the solution of the problems that brought them to the attention of social agencies.27 The purpose of social case work is not only to help those troubled in their immediate present but to help in such a way that each client will, from the experience, be better able to meet future difficulties with a more effectively, organized personal strength.28 Most of the writers of social work like Moffett, Hollis, have emphasized that one of the main objectives of social case work is to bring about an adjustment between the individual client and his situation or environment. Towle has proposed both a remote and more proximate purpose of social case work. According to her the ultimate and is the promotion of the welfare of the individual in the interest of society, the proximate and is the making available of certain special services in the areas of unmet needs. Bowers32 mentioned two basic objectives : better adjustment in the social relationships of the individual, and the development of individual personality. According to Perlman, within the boundaries of what the client's wants, his capacities, and the resources of skill and material means of the agency (and community), the specific goal is to help him achieve his previous level of functioning and/pr to promote the most effective functioning of which he is capable at this time. In general, the purpose of social case work is to help an individual client to solve his psycho-social problems in such a way so that he finds himself capable of dealing with these problems at present and also may solve in future if such problems arise. Thus social case work has the following objectives: 1. To understand and- solve the internal problems of the individual. 2. To strengthen his ego power. 3. Remediation of problems in social functioning. 4. Prevention of problems in social functioning. 5. Development of resources to enhance social functioning. 1. 148 SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS CLIENT CASE WORKER RELATIONSHIP The term 'relationship' in social case work was used for the first time by Miss Virginia Robinson in her book. 'A Changing Psychology in Social Case Work' in 1939. Relationship is the case worker's responsible and disciplined use of himself in working with

a client. The relationship is the

channel

through which the , mobilization of the capacities of the client is made possible. The relationship is the medium through which the client is enabled to state his problem and through which attention can be focused on reality problems, which may be as full of conflict as emotional problems. A case work relationship is the professional meeting of two persons for the purpose of assisting one of them, the client, to make a better, a more acceptable adjustment to a personal problem/ Within the democratic frame of reference the professional relationship involves a mutual process of shared responsibilities, recognition of other's rights, acceptance of difference, with the goal, not of isolation, but of socialized attitudes and behaviour stimulating growth through interaction. The essence of relationship has been called an interplay, a mutual emotional exchange, an attitude, a dynamic interaction, a medium, a connection between two persons, a professional meeting and a mutual process. > Mollis distinguishes two types of relationship, the the special. The worker brings to all relationships in his help and function as a worker. This type of relationship is many ways with some social relationships. Special relationship has therapeutic element. It professional relationship. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROFESSIONAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS There are five ways in which the professional relationship may differ from customary social relationships. Social Relationship

1. Duration Open-ended problem is solved

Professional Relationship Ends when the

SOCIAL CASE WORK 149 Social Relationship _

Professional Relationship

2. Time Not limited Limited, according to the problem 3. Place Home, club, invitation, Office or institution cinema, etc. 4. Focus Mutual satisfaction of Focus on client's range of needs — needs problem emotional, social, solving work intellectual, aesthetics etc.

basic and ability to similar in is

called

5. Role

Mutual

Helper and helped

relationship CHARACTERISTICS OF CASE WORKER-CLIENT RELATIONSHIP Perlman has described the following characteristics of case worker-client relationship: 1. Vital relationship between people arise out of shared and emotionally charged situations. 2. All growth producing relationships, of which the case work relationship is one, contain elements of acceptance and expectation, and stimulation. 3. The identifying mark of professional relationship is its conscious purposiveness .growing out of the knowledge of what must go into achieving the goal. 4. The case work relationship begins as and when the client shares some part of his problem and the worker demonstrates what he feels with the client and at the same time he has professional competence to bring for dealing with the problem. 5. The case worker relationship may have several therapeutic values. 6. Relationship needs and difficulties from outside the case work situation may intrude into and complicate the case work relationship and may have to be dealt with. 7. The case worker, too, has relationship reactions, and part of his professional skill in their management. ' 1. 150 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METIIODS ASSESSMENT OF THE RELATIONSHtP Despite the general concern with relationship, we find great difficulty in specifying just what is meant by the term 'relationship. Rapport explains this problem thus that 'Relationship is a rather fuzzy concept since we cannot state with clarity what aspect of relationship, what kind, what symbolic value, what degree of intensity and so on arc essential ingredients of treatment. The pertinent question is whether there are components of relationship that can be identified ... These components are accurate empathy, non-possessive warmth and genuineness. Accurate Empathy It refers to the ability of the case worker to perceive communicate accurately and with sensitivity both feeling experiences of client and their meaning and significance. worker should be sensitive to express feelings of the client as as that may only he hinted by voice, posture and content ones. Non-possessive Warmth

and and The well

It refers to the workers communication of

respect, acceptance, liking, caring, and concern for the client in a non-dominating way. When this component is at low level the worker evaluates the client and expresses likes, dislikes, approval, disapproval in a highly conditional way. At high level, the worker warmly accepts the client's experience as a part of his personality. Genuineness It refers to worker's being himself, being real. He should in his approach, Whatever he reveals should be real himself. These components can be measured and on that basis closeness of relationship may be explored.

be honest aspect of

PURPOSE OF RELATIONSHIP The case work relationship is the dynamic interaction of attitudes and emotions between the case worker and the client, with the purpose of helping the client achieve a better adjustment between himself and his environment. Thus the purpose of establishing SOCIAL CASE WORK 151 relationship is to help the problems. Other purposes are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

client

with

his

psycho-social

needs

and

Better solution of client's problem, Exploitation of means for solving problem, Stating reality and emotional problems, Solution of the personal problem, Development of personality.

THEPR1NC1PLES OF CASE WORK RELATIONSHIP Biestek44 has described seven principles of case work These are:

relationship.

1. Individualization Individualization is the recognition and understanding of each client's unique qualities and the differential use of principles and methods *m assisting each toward a better adjustment. Individualization is based upon the right of human beings to be individuals and to be treated not just as a'human being but as this human being with his personal differences. 2. Purposeful Expression of Feelings Purposeful expression of feelings is the recognition of the client's need to express his feelings freely, especially his negative feelings. The case worker listens purposefully, neither discouraging nor condemning the expression of these feelings, sometimes even

actively stimulating and encouraging them therapeutically useful as a part of'the case work service.

when

they

are

3.Controlled Emotionallnvolvement

The controlled emotional involvement is the case worker's sensitivity to the client's feelings, an understanding of their meaning, and purposeful, appropriate

response feelings.

to

the

client's

4. Acceptance Acceptance is a principle of action where in the perceives and deals with the client as he really is, strengths and weaknesses, his congenial and uncongenial qualities, 152

case worker including his

SOCIAL WORK-PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

his positive and negative feelings, his constructive and destructive attitudes and behaviour, maintaining all the while a sense of the client's innate dignity and personal worth . . . The purpose of acceptance is therapeutic; to aid the case worker in understanding the client as he really is, thus making case work more effective, and to help the client free himself from undesirable defences, so that he feels safe to reveal himself and look at himself as he really is, and thus to deal with his problem and himself in a more realistic way. 5. The Non-judgmental Attitude The non-judgmental attitude is a quality of the case work relationship. It is based on a conviction that the case work function excludes asg guilt or innocence, or degree of client responsibility for causation of the problems or needs, but does include making evaluative judgments about the attitudes, standards, or action of the client. The attitude which involves both thought and feeling elements is transmitted to the client. 6. Client Self-determination The principle of client self-determination is the practical recognition of the right and need of clients to freedom in making their own choice and decisions in the case work process. Case workers have a corresponding duty to respect that right, recognize that need, stimulate and help to activate that potential for self direction by helping the client to see and use the available and appropriate resources of the community and of his own personality. The client's right to self-determination, however, is limited by the client's capacity for positive and constructive decision making, by the framework of civil and moral law, and by the function of the agency. 7. Confidentiality Confidentiality is the preservation of secret information concerning the client which is disclosed in the professional relationship. Confidentiality is based upon a basic right of the client; it is an ethical obligation of the case worker and is necessary for effective case work service. The client's right, however, is not absolute. Moreover, the client's secret is often shared with other

SOCIAL CASE WORK 153

professional persons within the agency and obligation then binds all equally. Friedlander has mentioned two types of principles.

in

other

agencies;

the

a. Generic Principles 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

The principle of acceptance The principle of communication The principle of individualization The principle of participation The principle of client self-determination The principle of confidentiality The principle of case Worker self-awareness

h. Differential Principles 1. In a stressful situation, involving a client who presents evidence of inadequacies in current role functions, whose current mode of adaptation to this lo%s seems appropriate (not markedly regressive) and who demonstrated the possession of a clear perception of the problems and what may be needed for their solution—which is an evidence of effective ego functioning—the goal and techniques of environmental modification and ego are applicable. 2. In a stressful situation, involving a client who presents evidence of inadequacies in current role functions, and whose mode of adaptation, seems either (a) appropriate (not -. markedly regressive) or else, at the other extreme, (b) markedly inappropriate and regressive, and who. demonstrates the possession of either (a) a clear perception of the problems and what may be needed for their solution evidence of effective ego-functioning or (b) markedly inaccurate or distorted perception of the. problems evidence of grossly ineffective ego-functioning — the goals and techniques of environmental modification and ego- are applicable. 3. With a diagnosis of relatively strong ego-functibning, of some but not marked regressive modes of adaptation, and of rather satisfying and effective performance in key social roles, the case worker may engage himself with clients in 1. 154 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

the goals and techniques of clarifying the meaning of the client's 4. When problems in role fulfilment are based

effects and behaviour. primarily on

intrapsychic hindrances to effective and satisfying modes of adaptation and the client's potential level of ego-functioning is a high one, the goals and techniques of uncovering the "forgotten causes" of behaviour are

applicable. SOCIAL CASE WORK PROCESS There are three phases of social case work investigation or psycho-social study, diagnosis and treatment or management.

practice:

Social

SOCIAL INVESTIGATION (PSYCHO-SOCIAL STUDY) Nothing happens on this earth without any reason. In other words, every happening has definite cause. Definite cause does not exist in vacuum rather a natural phenomenon. It is very interesting to note that today man is not just considered the creature, rather a creator as well. This particular change in the status of man has tempted him to quench his thirst of knowledge not only about the natural phenomena but today's man is much interested to understand human behaviours in a very scientific and precise way. Social case worker is also interested in gaining this knowledge for its successful functioning. Before conceiving the term "social investigation," Mary Richmond herself toyed with such, as "Social-evidence", "learned seeking", "Social inquiry" and ultimately shifted her choice upon the term "social investigation." Social investigation is the foundation upon which the various helping processes, actions and treatment techniques are built. For every social work activity, whether it is at individual level or family level or community and societal level, the social investigation is indispensable. Social investigations help to find out the social realities of the clients and their families, to identify the problem area and to formulate treatment, rehabilitation and aftercare strategies. It is rightly pointed out by Hamilton that social investigation is a psycho-social process. It transcends much beyond the assessment of the individual client or family. The intra-psychic forces are inseparably linked with social forces. To understand, the individual as psycho-social entity, the analysis of his relationship with others and others related with him is equally important. SOCIAL CASE WORK 155 CONTENTS OF THE SOCIAL INVESTIGATION Perlman has given the following contents of the case work study in the beginning phase: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The nature of the presenting problem, The significance of this problem, The cause(s), onset and precipitants of the problem, The efforts made to cope with problem-solving, The nature of the solution or ends sought from the case work agency, 6. The actual nature of this agency and its problem solving

means in relation to the client and his problem.

Social case worker attempts to imvestigate the following facts: 1. Picture of the Problem He tries to know major complaints, beginning of the problems, the nature of the problem, severity of the problem, implications of the problem, location of the problem, causation of the problem, scope of the problem (who are other affected persons) etc. 2. Client's Feelings and Reactions Case worker attempts to find out the altitude of the client towards his problem, the analysis and interpretation made by him about his problem, the relationship between client and problem, capacities, competencies and weaknesses of the client. 3. Client's Efforts to Solve Problems Social case worker acquires knowledge about the efforts made by the client to deal with his problems, the help taken so far, help taking organization and agencies, effects of help, client's evaluation towards these help receiving agencies, and the time spent in these agencies. 4. Social Conditions

. ;

He investigates the clear picture of family, its environment, and its impact on the client. He also gains knowledge of schools and its effect on client. Apart from these social agencies, he makes attempts to know the impact of neighbour, working place and religious, economic and political institutions. 156 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS 5. Psycho-social Development of the Client In this area, the case worker gets information about the pre- and post-natal care of the client, his early development, childhood, schooling, socialization patterns, home environment, marital history, occupational history, habits, relationship with others. 6. Personality, of the Client For the proper diagnosis, the case worker gives much emphasis to gather information regarding personality characteristics of the client i.e. knowledge, feelings, wishes, temperament, ego-strength, sensitivity, adaptability, communication patterns, cooperation, sympathy, tolerance, responsibility, expression of emotions, devotion to work, motivational stale, and level of aspirations and weakness in his personality. THE TECHNIQUES OF SOCIAL INVESTIGATION There are two fundamental Interview and (ii) Observation.

techniques

of

social

investigation,

i.e.

(i)

The process of social investigation is initiated and carried through by the process of interview. Professional skill in this area requires not only theoretical knowledge about the psychology of human behaviour but also considerable case work experience in

which the worker's technique is repeatedly analysed. The interview is used for securing information about the client as well as his problems including his relationships with other persons in his social and personal environment. Through the interview situation, the case worker attempts to instruct and guide both the client and others who play significant roles in his life and attempts to manipulate the environment for the benefit of the client

Observation is always coupled with interviewing. It makes possible to record the behaviour of the client as it occurs. It yields clues as to the pathological patterns of communication, pathogenic relation and defective role playing and polarization of power and authority among the family who are of etiological significance. Tools of Social Investigation The following tools are used by social relevant information for diagnosis and treatment:

case

worker

in

collecting

SOCIAL CASE WORK 157 1. 2. 3. 4.

Interview guide and schedule Life Chart . Video recording of family interaction Tape recorded interview

Format of Interview Guide/Schedule /. History of Problem 1. Major complaints (problems) 2. History of the problems 3. Treatment or helps taken so far. //. Personal History 1. Early development 2. Process of socialization 3. Coping patterns of day-to-day stress 4. Schooling—likes, dislikes, difficulties, academic achievements, extra-curricular activities, model teachers' behaviour, significant incidence. * 5. Marital History—age at marriage, willingness for marriage, types of marriage, consanguinity, age of the spouse, personality of the spouse, expectations from marriage, relationship and compatibility with the spouse, with the

the

in-laws and the offspring, sexual first child and its impact on the marital life.

gratification,

birth

of

the

Difficulties in communication, role playing, interaction, reinforcement, stress managing patterns and social system. Habits: (i) Drinking, gambling, smoking, addictions, etc. (ii) Reading, creative activities, music, writing, painting, etc. (iii) Social habits.

6. Occupational satisfaction in

History: every

when work,

and why relationship

started working, job with the supervisors

and collegues, promotion, work environment, reasons of changing occupation/job. 7. Income: Income per month, level of satisfaction, needs and income, spouse's attitude towards your income earning, capacity, debt, other problems. 6. 158 ¦*¦¦SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS 8. Sex experience: sexual perversion if any, failure in love, its effects, etc., III. Family History 1. Family structure 2. Economic status in community 3. Educational History 4. Occupational History 5. Marital History 6. Ethical and moral standards 7. Family Habits 8. Personality Patterns 9. Interaction Patterns 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Patterns of decision making * Existing role structure in family Patterns of managing problem Social system Interaction of the family with the client.

IV.

Analysis and Social Diagnosis: Problematic Areas

V.

Treatment Plan SOCIAL DIAGNOSIS

Diagnosis like treatment begins with the first glance between the help giver and help seeker. Social diagnosis is the attempt to arrive at an exact definition as possible of the social situation and personality of a given client.4 It is a search for the causes of the problem which brings the client to the worker for help. Diagnosis is (i) an explanation formulated in the light of known facts (both tangible fact items and psychological fact items); (ii) an explanation made in the knowledge of other possible explanations; and (iii) subject to change or revision whenever subsequent material warrants a different explanation. Diagnosis is, therefore, concerned with understanding both the psychological or personality factors which bear a causal relation to the client's difficulty and the social or environmental factors which tend to sustain it. The diagnostic process consists of a critical scrutiny of a client—situation complex and the trouble concerning which help is sought or needed for the SOCIAL CASE WORK

"y

purpose of understanding detail and accuracy. *

the

nature

of

the

difficulty

with

increasing

the

triangular

Content of the Social Diagnosis The content of pattern. It consists of:

the

case

work

1. The nature of the problem the client, in their relationship to;

2. The nature of the person and psychological situation and

diagnosis brought

who

falls and

bears

the

into the

goals

problem

sought

(his

by

social

functioning) and (or needs) help with his problem, in relation to; 3. The nature and purpose of the agency can offer and/or make available.

who and

seeks the

kind

of

help

it

The Process of Making Diagnosis A diagnosis has been broken up into a number of stages: gathering the data, the diagnostic study, the diagnosis itself or the evaluation, and the diagnostic product. Gathering Data Data are gathered of the interview of the client, reports agency's records reports, from other of the team, other agencies, schools, relatives. Home visit is also an important source of data collection. The accuracy of data depends on worker's skill of interviewing, individualization, acceptance, communication and involvement. Diagnostic Study The study attempt to identify the problem areas which are important for social case work involvement. Diagnosis or Evaluation This means finding the nature of the problem, its organization extent and who is going to be affected. Factors responsible for problem may be one or more than one of the following: (i)

Physical — Physical illness or disability, how feels, how his family and others feel. Effect illness — dependent, tired, irritable, depressed, lowering, distort relationship, disrupt communication.

the of self

and the

sufferer physical image

160 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND Mini IODS (ii) Psychological — The assessment is made of the quality of libidinal relationship, dependency, narcissistic tendencies, sexual identification, quality of aggressiveness, channelization of aggressiveness, nature of super ego, consistency of ego and super ego, reality perception, self-analysis, self-criticism, judgement, defence used, degree of discomfort the problem causes him, the nature of desire to change it, the effect that change may have upon other , (iii) Social — The following facets of social environment generally come within the diagnosis: 1. Income level — High, low, consistent, the present problem. 2. Housing — Loan taken, rented, landlord/tenant, overcrowding, basic

uncertain,

effect

adjustment

on

with facilities

lacking/sufficient. 3. Neighbourhood views toward client etc.

4. Employment

—

~

Job

Tolcrant/intoleranl/ive/confiict,

availability,

prospects,

remuneration,

level, security, status, condition of work, job satisfaction 5. Religion — Beliefs in values, offering — consolation, expressive outlets, sublimation, reinforcing problems — guilt, tension. 6. Availability/quality/attitude and attitudes (client) to social organization and services: medical facilities, courts, credit organizations, legal advice centres, Post-office, social security 7. Prejudice, tension etc. 8. Educational problems. Diagnostic Product After identification of the problem areas and the factors relating to them, the attempts are made towards possible solution. But before determining solution we need to think about the potential contribution to solutions of the client, others, the agency and the worker. The client's work ability (capacity and motivation) is the base for further determining the treatment techniques and procedures. Perlman discusses this capacity under three headings: SOCIAL CASE WORK 161 Emotional - Ability to relate others, ability to feel, experiencing, ing, etc. Social Intelligence Capacity — Perceptivity, attention, communication, self-management technology, management of situations. Physical capacity — How much the client has left over work on problem solving. Types of Diagnosis Perlman has described three types of diagnosis that social case work process. These are : dynamic diagnosis and etiological diagnosis.

is carried on in diagnosis, clinical

1. Dynamic Diagnosis Dynamic diagnosis gives an understanding of the current problem of the client and the forces currently operating within the client, within social environment and between him/his environment. It gives the answers of the question — what is t"he trouble?, What psychological, physical and social factors are contributing to it ?, What solution is sought? What are the means available within the client, his environment? what are organized services and resources by which the problem may be affected? The nature of such diagnosis is changeable because it is the beginning phase of social case work practice. 2. Clinical Diagnosis

,

Under clinical diagnosis, the case worker attempts to classify the client by the nature of his sickness/problem. He identifies certain forms and qualities of client's personality maladaptation and malfunctioning in his behaviour. The clinical diagnosis describes

both the nature of the problem and its relation to the client and the helping means and goals. Such type of diagnosis is useful only when it becomes apparent that a disorder of personality accompanies the social disorder, creating and complicating it. 3. Etiological Diagnosis ; Etiological diagnosis is concerned with the explanation of beginnings and life-history of problem of the client, basically problem that lies in th«elient's personality make up or functioning. The 162

the that


history of his development as a problem encountering, problem-solving human being may provide the case worker with an understanding of what his client suffers from and what the extent of his coping ability is likely to be. Elilogical diagnosis is more useful in explaining or rigid reactions. When inspite of the fact that the client's present problems are in the centre of attention, the clients responses are not in accordance with, the past history and its appraisal in the light of client's current capacities, goals and problems are used for the treatment. This type of diagnosis contributes to understanding the nature of the problem to be dealt with, the person who has the problem, and the ways and means that can be anticipated as helpful. Data for Diagnosis The data for diagnosis can be collected by at least three primary means: /. Interviews Interview guides are used for collecting information. There are a number of standard guides prepared by psychologists but most recent guide is of Goldfried and Davison ' having the categories of information: client's behaviour during the interview and physical description; presenting problem(s) (nature of problems, historical setting, events, current situation determinants, relevant organizmic variables, dimensions of (he problem, consequences of the problem): targets for modification; recommended trcatmcnt(s), motivation for treatment; prognosis; priority for treatment; client expectations; other information, comments, or observations. 2. Checklists and Inventories The followine inventories may be used: The Fear Survey Schedule (of Wolpe) , questionnaire on client's perception of himself (Goldstein) , family functioning (Stuart and Stourt) marital functioning (Knox), sexual functioning (Annon) and instruments for assessing environments (Moos) 3. Direct Observation Observation in those

situation

in

which

the

behaviour

actually

occurs, e.g., home or place of work makes the work of diagnosing very easy.

SOCIAL CASE WORK 163 Steps in Diagnosis The following steps are taken while diagnosing a problem: 1. The worker begins to focus on problematic behaviours. He begins with the survey of both functional and disfunctional behaviours in his environment. He classifies the various complaints and problems in of excesses and deficits. He evaluates client's personal strength as well as of his environment. 2. He specifies the target behaviours. This involves an attempt of breaking down complex behaviours into their component parts, being as clear and precise as possible about them. 3. Baseline data are collected to specify those events that appear to be currently controlling the problematic behaviours. 4. The collected information is summarized in an attempt to anticipate any major porblem in treatment and as a way of beginning to establish objectives for treatment. 5. Selecting priorities for treatment is ttie final step of the diagnosis. Concentration on one problem at one time makes treatment process more manageable and allows both client and worker to channel their energies into one area. It is the best of handling and proper use of available resources. SOCIAL TREATMENT Social case work consists of those processes which develop personality through adjustments consciously affected between men and their social environment. Generally, two types of efforts are required for social adjustment—environmental modification and/or change in behaviour and attitudes. Early case work treatment was placed on modification through the environment. Later on the development of ego psychology helped, social case workers to use intensive and direct treatment techniques. Now the aim of social case work treatment is to restore the individual to social functioning or to help him develop this capacity in order that he may achieve at one and at the same time his own and society's betterment. According to Hamilton, treatment is the sum total of all activities and services directed towards helping an individual with a problem. The focus is the relieving of the immediate problem and, if feasible, modify any basic difficulties which precipitated it.

164

SOCIAL WORK -

PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS The objectives of social case work treatment are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

To prevent social breakdown; To conserve client's strength; To restore social functioning; To provide happy experiences to the client; To create opportunities for growth and development; To compensate psychological damage; To increase capacity for self-direction; To increase his social contribution.

Thus the objective of social case work treatment is to alleviate the client's distress and decrease the malfunctioning in the person-situation system. It is to enhance the client's comfort, satisfaction, and self-realization. This may require enhancing the adaptive skills of his ego and the functioning of the person-situation system. Social Case Work Treatment Process Social case work treatment process begins with the initial with the client. The process of treatment es through many phases, i.e. (i) initial phase, (ii) motivation and role induction, (iii) primary contract, (iv) diagnosis and assessment, (v) establishing treatment goals, (vi) developing treatment plan, (vii) preparation for actual treatment, (viii) treatment in practice (ix) monitoring and evaluating the effects of treatment, and (x) planning of follow-up termination of therapeutic relationship. /. Initial Pfiase The main task of social case worker in the initial phase is to examine how the problem was brought to his attention. He would attempt to foucus on various aspects of the problem that seem fit to case work treatment. Here the decisions of the worker are tentative. The initial phase of social case work treatment will be thought to be completed when the case worker meets the following conditions. 1. The issues have been sufficiently identified substantiate that they are appropriate to the goals of the service. 2. The participants understand the nature and meaning of the 1. SOCIAL CASE WORK 165 problem with enough explicitness to permit engagement and participation. 3. The problem is appropriate to the programme, resources, and services of the setting. 4. The problem fits the practitioner's skill and capabilities.64

so as purposes

to and

Social case worker develops a preliminary understanding of the problem and of the client. He also provides psychological and help to the client and engages him in a therapeutic relationship. It is quite possible that through this initial process of treatment, client may

learn that he really does not need further help as the sufficiently clarified and explained. It is also possible may not have concrete service to the client and the become bound to refer the case to the particular agency. be continued with the case worker, he takes a decision system-oriented treatment or towards person centred treatment.

problem has been that the agency case worker may If the case is to whether to move

//. Motivation and Role Induction One of the most important tasks of social* case worker at the beginning of the treatment process is to build and develop the therapeutic relationship between himself and the client. Worker's empathy, warmth and genuineness feelings are highly motivating force for the client to take part in the therapeutic process. The objective of this phase is to the minimizing of premature terminations and enhance motivation to continue the treatment. At this phase the worker finds the resistances of the client, and its genuineness. He explores client's perception of why.he is involved in the treatment and how he feels about being in the agency. He also encourages the client to specify his expectations of treatment and feelings about seeking help. He attempts to clarify the roles and responsibilities of both himself and the client. He also clarifies about the type of services agency can offer and extends the boundaries to those services. These activities and role of social case worker help to engage the client in therapeutic planning. III. Primary Contract The objective of this phase is to develop a preliminary contract with the client. This contract may be oral or in writing. The case worker thus by making psychological contract (relationship) sets the stage to move towards more formal assessment. 166 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS IV. Diagnosis and Assessment Diagnosis and assessment process are ongoing throughout the entire treatment. Social case worker provides detailed information about the problem situation that will help in establishing the treatment goal, a strategy of treatment and selection of specific procedures of treatment. The case worker assesses the client's ego strength, skillfulness, capabilities and capacities in relation to his problem. He classifies the excesses and the deficiencies in his behaviour, and selects the specific treatment procedures to be used to overcome the problem. He assesses whether the client needs advice, counselling, behaviour modification, crisis intervention or consultancy services like teaching, consultation, interpretation, supervision or provision of adult services i.e. material help, resource location and referral. V.Establishing Treatment Goals

Social

case

worker

after

diagnosis

and

assessment

of

the

problems

of

the client, establishes goals for the solution of the problem. He selects any one or more goals of the following: (i) prevention of breakdown, (ii) ego strengthening, (iii) restoration of social functioning, (iv) creation of opportunities for growth and development, (v) self-direction experience, (vi) social participation experience, (vii) change in the environment. Social case worker along with this work, points out the negative and positive result that may come out due to change in the behaviour patterns of the client or due to environmental manipulation. Though the client has the major say in deciding on goals the case worker plays an important role by clarifying a variety of alternative goals for his consideration. VI. Developing Treatment Plan Treatment planning involves three major dimensions : formulating of a strategy, selection of specific treatment procedures and developing a method for evaluating the impact of the treatment programme. Social case worker decides whether the primary thrust of the invention or treatment will be system-centred, person- centred or both. He, then, makes a judgement as to which of the key roles of case worker are most suited to the particular problem. The entire process of formulating a treatment strategy may be depicted as.05 SOCIAL CASE WORK Assessment and Establishment of Goals 167

Formulate intervention Strategy

System centred Person centred

Direct /I Environment

Increase behaviours Cognitive restructuring VII.

Decrease behaviours

Change cognitive Patterns

Problem-solving and Self-control decision making

Preparation for Actual Treatment

Preparation for actual treatment phase involves such as collecting all possible information, system, preparation of mediator(s) if

several specific steps formation of action

needed, change of significant elements in the client's environment to increase the probability of getting desired result, make an attempt to make the new behaviour acceptable to the client and to provide high level of close relationship with the client. ' VIII. Application of Treatment Methods In order to achieve the goals set by the case worker, the following methods of social treatment have been mentioned:

conventionally

1. istration of practical services 2. Indirect treatment (environmental manipulation), 3. Direct treatment. 1. istration of Practical Services The client is extended help to choose and use the social resources afforded by the community. Porter Lee66 was the first social worker 168 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS who emphasized and classified such resources into executive and leadership. istration of practical services means to help the client in such a way that he could select and use the resources avalable in ih; community. Social case worker, helps the client for an adequate knev. ledge of available resources through the techniques of discussion, information, clarification and direction. The use of services is essential to solve any kind of problem and if the problem is of social nature, then it becomes more essential for the worker to help the client in this direction. These services take the form of treatment as they satisfy his needs and give satisfaction. The client knows the type of services he needs but he does not know how to reach these firs-ices. It is the job of case worker to take the client to the resources. Money, medical care, nursery schools, scholarships, foster homes. legal aid, recreational facilities, etc. are such type of services thai any person may need in order to resolve a given problem in his daily living.

2. Indirect Treatment (EnvironmentalManipulation) Environment:.'! manipulation means to bring change in the social conditions c: the client so that he may be relieved from excessive stresses and itrains. The case worker suggests as to what steps may or may not help the client to cope better with his problems. He plans with him as to his emotional, professional and recreational activities. He gives an appropriate advice to of his environment and modifies their attitude favourably. Though inteview is used in this method but the main emphasis is laid to change in his conditions. When social resources and systematized social conditions are

used as main sources for the solution of the problem, it becomes social treatment. Home services, camps, group experience activities, training and employment for livelihood and other activities of adjustmental nature are such type of programmes.

The purpose of such activities is always to minimize the load of tension in the client. Social case worker organizes such type of activities through which the client's experiences help in his personality growth and adjustment in the society. Though practical services are also made available but the focus is always on change in conditions. Attempts are also made to change and modify the attitude of parents, teachers, spouse, employer, friends and relatives in accordance with the needs of the client. SOCIAL CASE WORK 169 In general, environmental modification (manipulation) is undertaken by the case worker only when environmental pressures upon the client are beyond the latter's control but can be modified by the case worker.67 3. Direct Treatment Perlman sees direct treatment as the provision of a systematic but flexible way in which the client can work over his problem, his relation to it and possible solutions. Here case worker exerts his influence directly on the client. Direct treatment techniques are used where the client needs direction because of his ignorance, anxiety, and weaknesses of his ego strengths. The degree of influence, the case worker is able to exert, may depend on the relationship between himself and the client. Direct treatment is given through counselling, therapeutic interviewing, clarification and interpretation leading to an insight. ive treatment for the direct benefit of the client is provided through guidance, externalization of interests, re-assurance, suggestion, persuasion and advice. Counselling: Counselling is a personal help directed toward the solution of a problem which a person finds that he cannot solve himself and on which he, therefore, seeks the help of a skilled person whose knowledge, experience and general orientation can be brought into play in an attempt to solve the problem. It is a psychological help in which information and clarification are used for making the client aware about the problem. It is always used for some particular purpose like marriage counselling, occupational counselling, family counselling, school counselling, etc.

Therapeutic Interviewing: Therapeutic interviewing is used where intra-psychic conflict is projected to the environment or neuroses or behaviour disorders are acted out. The purpose of such interviewing is that of psychotherapy which aims towards personality growth in

the direction of maturing, competence and self-actualization. For analysis of the unconscious, social case worker applies techniques of free association, dream interpretation, analysis

the the of

resistances and transference. For behaviour modification, worker makes use of the techniques of positive enforcement,

social

case

170 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS negative enforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment, systematic desensitization and covert desensitization. Sometimes faulty communication, faulty interaction play basic role in developing maladaptive behaviour. For the improvement of interpersonal relations and correct communication social 'case worker practises marital and family therapy techniques and transactional analysis. Clarification : It is also a kind of counselling through which clarification of client's himself, his environment and the public with whom he is associated is made. Social case worker gives such an understanding to the client that he becomes capable of understanding himself, his environment and his social network. Clarification my consist of giving the client information about the environment or people in the environment, which he does not possess and without which he cannot see clearly what steps he ought to take.68 Interpretation and Insight: Sometimes conflicting feelings and strong emotions lead the individual to distort reality so seriously or react to it so inappropriately that understanding is impossible without the deeper perception. Social case worker interprets the factors of the problem, related facts, attitudes of client and unconscious feelings in relation to the reality situation. He helps the client to an awareness of his strong projection of his inner needs and his subjective responses upon the outer world. Insight development is always accompanied by some degree of clarification and psychological . Psychological : Psychological is useful in decreasing tension and guilt, increasing self-confidence, encouraging healthy functioning or a way of functioning that maintains the client's equilibrium and in helping him to build up compensatory strengths and satisfaction. The following help is provided to the client. He is encouraged to express his feelings. Case worker accepts him and his feelings, and shows keen interest in him. He clarifies the problem and encourages him to take his own decision. Social case worker, through psychological does not develop understanding in the client but applies reinforcement for his ego strength through SOCIAL CASE WORK

171

the techniques advice.

of

guidance,

reassurance,

suggestion,

persuasion

and

JX. Monitoring and Evaluation Monitoring provides the crucial to case worker and the client regarding whether the treatment programme is succeeding as desired, whether established goals have been achieved, whether modifications in the programme are necessary and whether the client is being helped in real sense. Social case worker evaluates the content of the programme and its effectiveness inner strength gained by the client and success of himself in helping the client. X. Planning Follow -up and the Termination of Therapeutic Relationship It is neither wise nor necessary for the termination to be an abrupt one. The frequency and amount of s should be gradually decreased. Particularly, the follow-up should be planned on a progressively diminishing basis, first, perhaps after two weeks, then a month hence then three months, six months and a year following the termination of the formal programme. BASIC CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL CASE WORK The goal of social case work is to solve client's problems by developing his capacities and capabilities so that he may realize satisfaction and happiness. To achieve this goal, case worker studies social and psychological conditions of each client. The problems generally arise when an individual fails to fulfil his role in a particular situation or his ego is not performing its obligations satisfactorily. Both the situations make the process of adaptation difficult for the individual. Thus, the case worker studies social roles of the clients, adaptation level and ego functioning to put a clear diagnosis for proper treatment. These concepts, are discussed here. TIIE CONCEIT OF SOCIAL ROLE The term role is used to designate the sum total of the cultural pallcrns associated with a particular status. It thus includes the altitudes, values and behaviour ascribed by the society to any and all 172 • SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS persons occupying this status ... In so far as it represents overt behaviour... A person's role is a pattern or type of social behaviour which seems situationally appropriate to him in of the demands and expectations of those in his group. 3 When a number of interrelated

behavioural patterns are this combination a social role.

clustered

Social role may be defined as to behaviour, attitudes and other

around

as

the

a

social

institutional

function,

group

we

call

expectation

attributes for the occupant of a given position in a social system. Every society is composed of familial, educational, economic, political, religious, etc. institutions to ensure the adequate development of each and every member of society. To ensure the proper and continuous functioning of these institutions every individual is assigned to fulfil certain obligations. Expectations vary according to the position the individual occupies in a family, a work situation, in a school or in other institutions. Expectations arc also being changed according to the changing social system. Normally balance is maintained between the changing expectations of the society and the changing values and capacities of an individual.

When there are periods of sharp transition either in individual's life cycle as he enters in another role expectations, or modification and sudden changes happen in the social system, a critical imbalance develops between person-social equilibrium. In such a situation he is bewildered and confused in understanding his role. If he finds himself capable of handling such a situation he maintains his position and status in society otherwise he will no longer enjoy the same position in the social system. And because of lowering of social position, he suffers from stresses and strains. When this kind of problem occurs social work may provide services which enable the person to reassume productive hip in the institutionalized groups of his society. BEIIA VIOUR AND SOCIAL ROLE The person's 'being and becoming' behaviour is both shaped and judged by the expectations he and his culture have invested in the status and the major social roles he carries. Every person occupies some position or status in a society. He has status in lieu of certain major functions which he fulfils. Every status is associated with certain expectations. For example, a man in the role of father is SOCIAL CASE WORK 173 supposed to act in a certain way towards his children, a woman in the role of wife to behave in certain ways towards her husband. Such types of behaviour in the form of roles an individual learns through the process of socialization. In the social transaction if he fails to perform his roles as expected, he feels shy and shame, mental stress and strains. ROLE CONFLICT

In complex society the individual needs high level of adaptability to fulfil the numerous roles. He is supposed to perform different types of roles every day. He may feel difficulty in doing so because of the lack of training or knowledge or skill and thus conflict occurs within the person himself. On other occasions conflict occurs when there is refusal or inability to conform to the expectations inherent in status and role. Conflict may also arise when

a person has not had adequate opportunity to learn the roles. Sudden new situations also bring conflict in the performance of the roles. When a person's feelings and ideal of himself are compatible with each other and with the social reality, and "when he is clear about permissions and obligations, his role is a source of gratification and of expansion of his personality. If he feels satisfaction in performing a major role as of father/mother/husband, it becomes possible for him to learn or struggle with frustration in other aspects of his life. But when he fails or feels disturbances and barriers in the social outlets, some degree of frustration is experienced by him resulting in self-devaluation. CONCEPT OF SOCIAL ROLE TO SOCIAL CASE WORK PRACTICE The person who is in trouble approaches the social case work agency for help. He needs help because he is unable to carry on one or more of his roles with satisfaction. This maladjustment may be either because of his inappropriate pattern of functioning or because of social circumstances. Thus, the social case worker must himself be clear as to what, realistically, the role's requirements are, its firm requisites, and the range of variations permissible within it. Then, within this objective frame of reference, the individual client's behaviour must be viewed and assessed as to the nature of the maladaptation whether it stems from conflict between what he wants and what he can be or between what he wants and what he must be, from some unrealistic interpretation of what his role 174 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS embraces, from some lack of preparation to engage behaviours, or from the loss of external s. THE CONCEPT OP EGO

in

the

necessary

The forces of the human personality are combined in three major functions; (1) the life emerges that seek satisfactory outlets; (2) the check system, automatic or voluntary, that halts, modifies, or rechannnels those drives to make their ends acceptable to their owner and his environment; and (3) the organizing and governing operations that control the negotiations and balance within the person himself, as between what he wants and what he can or ought to do, and between himself and his physical and social 79 environment. The names Freud gave to these are the 'Id', ego', (he super-ego'

Ego is the sum the sum total of

total of the integrating efforts all the mechanisms of dealing

of the personality, with conflicts. The

functions of Ego are four fold; perception wants and needs; perception of external demands and opportunities, integration

of internal subjective and relevant reality mediation operations

between the two sets of perception towards selection and choosing of means for gratification by the "reality principle", planning and /or management of conscious, voluntary behaviour. From the very beginning of birth to the moment of death every human being is continuously engaged in problem-solving work in order to maintain his stability, and effectiveness to achieve higher status in society. That process of ego functioning by which a person perceives inner or outer reality, reads its meaning, and variously adapts, defends, protects, copes, accommodates, treats, renounces, compromises, chooses, grapples and engages himself with his reality that process is the way by which a person feels with his encountered problems, whether those problems are in the nature of pleasure to be gained or unpleasantness to be avoided. Ego qualities are many; among them are abilities of perception (accurate/distorted), judgement (rational/irrational, considered/hasty), reality testing (working at things as they are, or resorting to fantasy), self-image (realistic, inflated/denigrated), impulse control (too little, too much), and executant ability (can they do things, organize themselves to achieve, persist). In persons with 'weak' or under-developed ego, these functions may not be fulfilled satisfactorily and the person may feel incapability in problem solving. The job of the case worker

SOCIAL CASEWORK

175

is to deal with such person whose ego functions either are undeveloped or are under the excessive anxiety, strains and conflict The person under great stresses and strains due to failure of ego-functioning uses defence mechanisms consciously or unconsciously to protect the ego. These defences may be rational or irrational. Irrational defences are unstable techniques for adjustment as they create more problem. Social case worker analyses other defences and tries to know how the client perceives his current situation, utilizes knowledge gained in past experiences and how he tries to solve his problems. He thus, by studying functioning of the ego, obtains the knowledge of client's inner strength, thought process and perceptional insight. On the basis of

this knowledge he prepares plan for his treatment or help. TUB CONCEPT OF ADAPTATION

When a person faces new adjustive demand he receives it in the form of particular problem based on its similarities to and differences from previous ones. If he faces a stress situation for which existing categories are inadequate, he-is forced to examine it as a unique situation and tries to discern its key dimensions. If the individual evaluates the stress situation as non-threatening or only mildly menacing, he is likely to deal with it in of old patterns that require little thought or effort. On

the other hand, if he evaluates the stress as a serious threat, he is likely to experience anxiety and to interrupt other ongoing activities and focus on coping with it. The individual's threat appraisal may be in error. He may perceive danger where none exists, fails to perceive it where it does exist or exaggerate," or minimize the threat. If he feels competent to handle a stress situation, his behaviour tends to be task oriented i.e. aimed primarily at dealing with the requirements of the adjustive demand. He offers the best channel for using and coordinating resources in constructive action, but if he faces severe stress and feels incapable of meeting the demand he uses mechanism such as denial of reality, fantasy, repression, rationalization, projection, reaction formation, displacement, withdrawal, etc. Thus its is quite clear that adaptation to stressful situation is made basically on three different levels: 1. Use of well known practiced method of adaptation. 2. Simple defensive mechanism like pairing, flight, withdrawal, etc. ,.-, 1. 176 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS 3. Destructive defenses like severe regression, severe withdrawal, apathy, and other mental disorders symptoms. The first level of adaptation gives satisfaction and new energy to the person but others two are harmful for the proper growth and development. In a stressful situation, involving a client who presents evidence of inadequacies in current role functions, and whose mode of adaptation seems either (a) appropriate (not markedly regressive), or else, at the other extreme, (b) markedly inappropriate and regressive, and who demonstrates the possession of either (a) a clear perception of the problems and what may be needs for their solution — evidence of effective ego functioning or (b) markedly inaccurate or distorted perception of the problems — evidence of grossly ineffective ego functioning, the goals and techniques of 1 environmental modification and ego are applicable. With a diagnosis of relatively strong ego functioning, of some but not marked regressive modes of adaptation, and of rather satisfying and effective performance in key social roles, the case worker may engage with clients in the goals and techniques of clarifying the effects and meaning of the client's behaviour. DIAGNOSTIC AND FUNCTIONAL SCHOOLS OF SOCIAL CASEWORK

The nature of social case work is dynamic and continuous progress is being made in its techniques and methodological procedures. In

the

beginning,

the

aim

of

social

work

was

to

help

but

later

on

due

to influence of psychology and psychiatry personality and behaviour treatment have also been added as the objective of social case work. Basic orientations of social case workers are of different kind and with the result diagnostic and functional schools appear in the practice of social casework. DIAGNOSTIC SCHOOL The Diagnostic school is basically founded on the Freudian Theory of Psycho-analysis. The credit for giving shape to these thoughts in the form of a school goes to Mary Richmond who wrote a first book on social case work i.e. 'Social Diagnosis' in 1917. However, the approach changed drastically as it was influenced by the happening of the world and growth of personality and social theory. SOCIAL CASE WORK 177 The contributors of this School were Marion Kenworthy (New York School of Social Work). Betsey Libbey (Family Society of Philadelphia), Gordon Hamilton, a teacher and writer,* others were Bertha Reynolds, Charlotte Towle, Florence Day, Lucille Austin, and Annette Garrett who contributed by their writings and practices. The Diagnostic schools is based on the following main foundations: 1. Principles of Diagnosis

^

Social case work help is based on the understanding of each client individually and his problem. It is essential because it gives a realistic basis for differentiation and gives a base for the improvement of the client's social situation and personal satisfaction and adjustment. In 1922 Mary Richmond pointed out that case work involved two types of insights, one into the individuality and another into the social environment, and two types of action, one through direct action of mind upon mind and another through indirect action in the sOcial environment. The diagnosis is based on the following principles: 1. The diagnostic process consists of a critical scrutiny of a client situation complex and the trouble concerning which help is sought or needed for the purpose of understanding the nature of the difficulty with increasing details and accuracy. 2. Diagnosis is based on the knowledge of the worker about the interplay of social and psychological factors effecting the client. ' 3. The knowledge of interaction between inner and outer forces influencing the client makes the process of diagnosis helpful and therapeutic.

4. Every problem of the individual should be

understood in the light of multiple factors theory. 5. In the initial stage also, relieving of pressure of stresses and strains on the client, helps the case worker to arrive at a proper diagnosis. ~ ¦ ¦',, •<: .-.*¦> 6. The initial appraisal of personality and motivations and their significance in the development of client's problem, provides the basis for planning the treatment of the client's problem. '',..< KÂ^ts 1. 178 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS 7. For the solution of the problem of the client, it is of utmost importance to gain some knowledge of his current capacity to work and to recognize the motivating forces k his behaviour. 8. The understanding of the psycho-dynamics and the pathological symptoms of the personality of the client provides the basis of determining the kind of help that can be appropriately offered. 2. Principles of Treatment The main objective of the treatment is of alleviating the client's distress and decreasing the malfunctioning in the person-situation system. The above objective is achieved by enhancing the adaptive skills of his ego and functioning of the person-situation system. It is based on certain principles: 1. The focus of the discussion in the interview is centered on the problem and ways of resolving it. Attention is paid to kr.ow the obstacles (both situational and behavioural) that stand in the way of solution. 2. Nature and extent of both the social and psychological factors differ in each situation, treatment goals and techniques are planned after the careful study of the particular needs of the client. 3. The success of the treatment programme is based on the utilization of the relationship purposefully. 4. Change in the client is brought largely through a correctional emotional experience in the relationship and through stimulating growth experiences in the social reality. 5. Social therapy and psycho-therapy are the two broad classifications of social case work treatment. 3. Use of Techniques The treatment objectives determine the use of techniques. They include, within the framework of relationship, encouraging, emotional, discharge, reassurance, , suggestion guidance and direction, provision of new experiences, clarification interpretation,

and so forth.84

SOCIAL CASE WORK 179 4. Use of Relationship The relationship is the medium of treatment through which client is enabled to find new ways of perceiving his problems and of handling himself.lt gives the client a sense of being listened, being understood and being given importance. The case worker's understanding of the dynamics of the relationship makes it possible to provide some gratification, protection, and guidance to the client when his ego needs , and at the same time to help the client marshal strength to meet his life situation. FUNCTIONAL SCHOOL The 'functional approach' to social work practice was developed by the faculty of the School of Social Work of the University of Pennsylvania. This approach is based on the personality theory of Otto Rank. According to Functional School social case work is a method for engaging a client through a relationship process, essentially one to one, in the use of a social service toward his own and the general social welfare. Function case work is a method of helping people through special services given by social agencies, in such a way that the experience of using such services may be psychologically constructive. Thus the functional approach of social case work has two inseparable aspects. 1. Potentials for help to a person is inherent in the existence of service. Inspite of the differences in the clients, and ways of using of agency's services, the kind of service an agency gives and its purpose remain the same. 2. The use of agency service gives psychological experience that differs from ,t he form of another kind of service regardless of the similarity of problem in the people using the two services. Diagnosis That diagnosis is most effective which is related to the use of some specific service and which is developed in the course of giving the service. This school does not recognize the significance to understand total situation of the client. The worker brings his own understanding through a process of professional education and experience. ¦>¦¦ ... Functional diagnosis recognises that people n cannot be

--_

ISO

SOCIAL WORK

-PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS categorized and a plan with a specific kind of service or plan on the basis of firm diagnosis by category of clients, may deny potential growth and change. In establishing a diagnosis each individual makes his own diagnosis of himself and revises that diagnosis, as he in fact becomes different. Diagnosis is a way of engaging in a human relationship process which frees the help seeker to determine his own goal for himself. He himself is the cantre for change capable of continuous growth and development Treatment Functional school preferred to use the term 'helping process' rather than treatment. Social case worker is not responsible for treating someone who is the ive recipient of treatment because the school believes that the centre for change resides in the client itself. Social case work through the agency service seeks to release power for improved social functioning. No classification scheme is used as base for engaging the client in certain form of helping. The distinctive characteristics of each person is served on the basis of age, sex, personality pattern, cultural base, intelligence, mental and psysical health, etc. The process of establishing and using a diagnosis serves as the part of case work helping. It also includes the use of time phases; beginning, middle, and ending within the total social case work process. The 'content' of service is determined by the purpose of the agency within which the case worker is functioning. His role is to achieve those goals assigned by the agency. Personality growth process takes place through the media of time, space and motion. Time cannot be grasped, held, repeated or postponed, but can only be used. It is upon this universal reality, functional view of social case work gives importance to the use of time in the helping process. It gives emphasis upon the present and the present relationship, and its dynamic use of the ending of that relationship. CaSe work activity consists in (1) meeting the projection with genuine regard for the client and respect for his need as well as with psychological understanding and acceptance of the meaning of the projection, and (2) at the same time differentiating between the projection and the reality that the case worker actually represents. It is the awareness of client's himself and of the strength of his own will, which makes him to strengthen his capacity voluntarily. Treatment mechmsms are projection and identification, union and separation, which SOCIAL CASE WORK 181

continuously work phases: beginning,

in the helping process. The beginning has middle and end. The beginning phase starts

three with

the

willingness

of

the

client

to

participate

in

the

helping

process.

His willingness is essential as it releases a positive feeling and eagerness towards help. The middle phase starts when the client feels that it is unnecessary to take part any more because he already feels so much better. In middle phase client often attempts to use the worker as he had used other meaningful person in his life. The help, the client receives, enables him to take responsibility and carry on his business of life. The end phase of the helping process brings fear in client of separation. Case worker gives him a chance to become conscious of his readiness to leave, so that he can leave the agency without any fear. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIAGNOSTIC AND FUNCTIONAL SCHOOL 1. Diagnostic school follows the theory of personality developed by Sigmund Freud whereas functional school is based on the theory of 'will' d'eveloped by Otto Rank. According to Freud, personality is a composite of many interacting forces, reacting not only in each other but also to favourable or unfavourable influences in the social environment. The strength and the nature of balance of these forces are the result of individual's experiences primarily of his relationships to parents and the other persons. The 'ego' is the chief of psychic energy, the strength of which is determined largely by the favourable or unfavourable course of one's psycho-social development. The functional school also believes that the process of development of personality takes place within the interaction of inner instinctual needs and environmental experience, but such an interaction takes place and is directed by the human being's inborn will to individuation and autonomy. Because of this, activity, since the beginning of life, is not only acted upon by inner and outer reality but also acts upon it. Thus the ego (self) is the result of the creative use of inner and outer experience through the Svill' and is not the product of interaction of inner and outer forces. 2. According to Diagnostic School, projection is a defense 182


mechanism by means of which an individual (1) places the blame for his own shortcomings and misdeeds on other; and (2) attributes to others his own unacceptable impulses, thoughts and desires. Functional school believes that projection is a technique of releasing of inner impulses upon an outer object and the appropriation of that object

in self-interest. In the relationship basically with the mother the individual projects his need (basically of biological nature i.e. hunger) upon her, they are also invested with great psychic significance. The satisfaction of need by mother or other person has the psychic effect of creating a union with her. Because complete union is not possible as he has when he was in wants, separation inevitably follows. The 'will' may use this separation constructively to create inner wholeness or destructively by refusing to accept limitations. 3. In the diagnostic view, resistance is a manifestation of the ego's effort to avoid facing unacceptable ideas and impulses which earlier it had succeeded in repressing. Treatment is considered something to overcome in order to help the individual for achieving adjustment. In the functional view, resistance is seen as an inevitable and necessary effort of the 'will' to maintain control over a relationship situation. Rather than making efforts to overcome resistance worker accepts the validity of the client's need to control a part of relationship and thus provides a new experience in which client may release a destructive use of 'will'. 4. The attitude of both schools towards the client who comes for help is different. Diagnostic school conceives of the individual as fashioned by the interrelationship between his basic needs and his physical and social environment. The problem or the psycho pathology is due to partial or total inability of the ego to cope with inner and outer pressure. Functional School sees the client as the fashioner of his fate. Though it does not deny the influence of inner drives and outer conditions on personality development yet, believes that even pathological phenomenon, like psychoses, is the effort of the 'will' to affect a solution of a psychic problem. 3. SOCIAL CASE WORK 183 5. In the diagnostic view, the goal of treatment is to increase the individual's ego capacity or strength whereas functional school tends to direct his effort toward helping the client to release his inner capacity of feeling, organizing and acting.

6. Total information about the personality, motivating forces, current feelings is essential for enabling the client to relationship. Functional

client's ego functioning,' total reality pressures and his according to diagnostic view take part in the therapeutic

school gives emphasis on the client's feelings in the immediate situation, which includes both his problem and the case work relationship through which he may solve the problem, other informations are secondary. 7. Diagnostic school believes in giving planned and goal' directed help to the client. It includes within the framework of relationship, both psychological and social help. The nature of help is determined by the case worker. Functional school gives full freedom to the client to give direction to his own processes of change. Agency services are made available for initiating, sustaining and terminating of a process in human relationship. The worker does not attempt to classify a client and select a type of treatment appropriate to him. 8. The diagnostic school accepts responsibility for apprising client capacities and weaknesses.and for organizing and arranging measure for er for self development. The functional school believes in the client's right for choices and goals because of the intrinsic constructive value of the use of self. TRANSFERENCE Transference is the tendency in every human being to relate the emotions and attitudes that have developed during his growth to those people in his immediate environment. The individual who brings to his object relationships his fantasied needs and who gives to the object fantasied qualities, is manifesting the phenomenon of transference. This means that he is transferring to a real person feelings, attitudes, and fantasies which come from his unconscious mind and which are residuals of his infantile experiences and 184

.SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS'

conflicts. " A patient's transference to the analyst is only that part of the patient's reaction to the analyst which repeats the patient's reactions to a person who has, at some previous time, played an important role in the patient's life.

When a patient recounts free associations, he soon speaks of events or fantasies of vital interest to himself, and when these are told, the listener is gradually invested with some of the emotions which accompany them. The patient gradually begins to feel that the sympathetic listener is loved or hated, a friend or an enemy, one who is nice to him or one who frustrates his needs and punishes him. The

feelings toward the listener become more and more like those felt toward the specific people the patient is talking about, or, more exactly, those his unconscious "is talking aboui". This special case of object displacement during psycho-analysis is called transference. TRANSFERENCE IN SOCIAL WORK Transfer' was introduced into social work literature by Jessie Taft in 95 1924 who described it as "an emotional relationship to the client'. Hamilton defines transference as a carrying over of irrational elements from other relationships, particularly in the past, displaced on to the social worker, reflecting unconscious motivation. All relationships are based on previous experiences with people, however, the psycho-analytic term 'transference' referring to specific irrational responses of the client to the worker, as though the worker was some person in the client's previous experience, is frequently used to refer any positive or negative feelings of the client for the worker. In this sense, the therapeutic relationship would be viewed as a transference relationship, as opposed to a real relationship, thus permitting the worker to insulate himself or herself from any true reactions and personally meaningful interactions with the client. A simple example of transference would be that of a client who came from a home where his father was an arrogant and domineering person. As a man the client has never been able to get along with his boss or any other figure of authority. In the case work situation, he transfers to the case worker hostile feelings of the type he originally felt toward his father and accuses the case worker of the same arrogant treatment at the hands of his father. TYPES OF TRANSFERENCE Transference is of two types: positive and negative. If the parents of SOCIAL CASE WORK 185 the client have been friendly and helpful, even though imperfectly or unsuccessfully but with the child's (client) interest at heart, he will SOCIAL CASE WORK worker who develops transference. treatment in a number of ways:

187 Thus

the

transference

1. The mature ego strengths of the worker the weak ego strengths of the client. 2. The client feels relaxed. 3. The client starts abandoning resistances. 4. He perceives the problem situation more realistically.

serve

to

helps

in

reinforce

5. The worker, when he does the client to see and bear the reality.

not

respond

6. Indcntification with the worker gradually strengthen his ego power and capacity for reality

neurotically,

helps

the

helps

client

to

testing problem solving. The effects of transference treatment, not treatment itself.

and are

many

but

it

is

the

leaven

of

COUNSELLING Counselling in social case work was started by Bertha Reynolds in 1932. Counselling is a personal help directed toward the solution of a problem which a person finds he cannot solve himself and on which he therefore, seeks the help of a skilled person whose knowledge, experience and general orientation can be brought into play in an attempt to solve problem. Counselling is essentially a process in which the counsellor assists the counselee to make interpretations of facts relating to a choice, plan or adjustment which he needs to make It is face to face situation in which, by reason of training, skill or confidence vested in him by the other, one person helps the second person to face, perceive, clarify, solve, and resolve adjustment problem. The process by which the structure of the self is relaxed in the safety of the relationship widi the therapist, and previously denied experiences are perceived and then integrated into an altered self is called counselling. It is a warm, permissive, safe, understanding, but limited social relationship within which therapist and patient discuss the effective behaviour of the latter, including his ways of dealing with his emotionally toned needs and the situations that give rise to them. ~ Counselling aims at enabling individuals to solve present problems to prepare themselves for future tasks, to attain higher standards of efficiency and well-being and to develop personal resources for growth. 188

SOCIAL WORK - PI IILOSOPMY AND METHODS

The Committee on Definition Psychological Association describes staling that the counselling following:110

of Division 17 of the American the objectives of counselling by psychologist contributes to the

(a) The client's realistic acceptance of his own capacities, motivations and self-attitudes. (b) The client's achievement of a reasonable harmony with his social, economic and vocational environment, and (c) Society's acceptance of individual differences and their implications for community, employment, and marriage relations. Classification is the most important technique of counselling. It is a tool through which the client becomes aware of certain attitudes, feelings, reality versus subjective concept and permits him to see himself and his environment in a more objective manner which allows better control of the himself and of situations. Counselling may include

the giving of information, explaining a regime and analysing the steps involved in a course of action. '

Counselling is a psychological help

and

analysing

its

issue,

which can be outside of the agency. In counselling no guidance is given to solve his problem.

solid

given help is

provided,

even only

COUNSELLING IN CASEWORK Social case worker not only offers financial relief, help in getting work, medical and the like to his clients but in addition to these he also provides counselling help. While the term counselling is used very iittle in case work circles, it is used here precisely to emphasize the fact that in giving the client an opportunity to release his feelings, to find new solutions to his adjustment problems, the case worker is utilizing the same process as the one used by the other professional individuals described. Social case worker in all settings gives much emphasis on the process of counselling for releasing client's innner burden i.e. anxiety and strains. Mostly counselling services are rendered in schools/colleges, employment offices, rehabilitation centres, sanatoria, prisons, welfare agencies of different types, family welfare centres, etc. Counselling is provided to the clients under the following conditions: 1. The individual is under a degree of tension, arising from SOCIAL CASE WORK

2.

3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

incompatible personal desires or from the conflict of social and environmental demands with individual needs. The tension and stress so created are greater than the stress involved in expressing his feelings about his problems. The individual has some capacity to cope with life. He possesses adequate ability and stability to exercise some control over the elements of his# situation. The circumstances with which he is faced are not so adverse or so unchangeable as to make it impossible for him to control or alter them. There is an opportunity for the individual to express his conflicting tensions in planned s with the counsellor. He is able to express these tensions and conflicts either verbally or through other media. A conscious desire for help is advantageous, but not entirely necessary. He is reasonably independent either emotionally or spatially, of close family control. He is reasonably free from excessive instabilities, particularly of an organic nature. He possesses an adequate intelligence for coping with his life situations, with an intelligence rating of dull, normal or above. He is of suitable age-old enough to deal somewhat independently with life, young enough to retain some

elasticity of adjustment. In might mean roughly from ten to sixty.11

of

chronological

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN CASE WORK AND COUNSELLING

age

this

Counselling is one technique of a social case work which prepare the client to participate in the treatment plan. It there are certain similarities in case wrok and counselling. These are:

is used to means that

1. Both have the Same Objective The purpose of social case work is to help an individual solve his psycho-social problems in such a way so that himself capable of dealing with these problems at present may solve in future if such problems arise. Counselling enabling individuals to solve the present problems, to themselves for future tasks and to attain a higher degree of in dealing with his problems.

client to he finds and also aims at prepare efficiency

190 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS 2. Both deals with the Same Type of Clients The 'client' is a man', woman, or child, anyone who finds or is found to be, in need of help in some aspect soical-cmotional living, whether the need be for tangible provisions or council. u

himself, of his

3. Both deals with the Same Type of Problems The problems within the purview of social case work are those which vitally affect or are affected by person's social functioning. The client of the case worker sees his problems as lying in some interacting relationship between himself and some other persons or between himself and his environment. Help is provided to the client for some readjustment of the self in relation to the demands and expectations of the social role he plays. Help is also directed to the readjustment of some parts of his social environment. If the client finds that his inner problems exert such pressure over his problems of social functioning, he may need counselling. 4. The Effectiveness of Both Depends on 'Relationship' The relationship is the medium in case work as well as in counselling through which help is provided to the client. It is the channel of the entire case work process and counselling process through which the mobilization of the capacities of the client becomes possible. It plans throughout in interviewing, study, diagnosis and treatment. 5. Both believe in Worth and Dignity of the Individual Case work and counselling treat the client as an individual who has right to get help and reorganize as a person of worth and dignity. He has every right to make his choice and decisions himself. 6. Both have Common Principles

Social case work and counselling, both believe in the individualization of all clients irrespective of their similarities in the problems. Both accept the client as he is and provide opportunities

for self-expression. Case worker and counsellor do not give their judgement to the clients. Client has every right to determine his path for his easy recovery from malfunctioning. SOCIAL CASE WORK 191 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CASE WORK AND COUNSELLING 1. In counselling, help is provided to the client without social service whereas the main base of help in social case work is social service. 2. Agency is not essentially required in counselling but social * case work is always practised in an agency. 3. Concrete help is not provided in counselling. Counsellor and client talk together on the problem but in social case work concrete service is rendered along with oral discussion. 4. Counsellor is concerned most of the time with one type of problem as there are various counselling agencies but in case work client is studied and understood as a whole. 5. Social case work gives an emphasis on activity but in counselling, the client is enabled to understand his problem. 6. In counselling, an emphasis is laid on the problem, not the person concerned but in social case work the emphasis is basically on client and the type of service to be provided. 7. Counsellor is self-dependent in his counselling but case work services are provided through agency. PSYCHOTHERAPY Psychotherapy is an effort to understand the personality structure of patients, the mental mechnisms which are at work, and the specific relationships of psychological situations in the precipitation of the illness. It may be defined as a process which utilizes psychodynamic principles to bring about an emotional growth, thus permitting greater development of the individual's capacities and better social adjustment. As derived from psycho-analytic principles, psychotherapy is two-person relationship which has the purpose of modifying attitudes and behaviour largely, though not exclusively through psychological processes. It is essentially a relieving experience, though not always of the remote past. In general, psychotherapy aims towards personality growth in the 118 direction of maturily, competence and self-actualization. This involves the achievement of one or more of the following goals: 1. Increased insight into one's problems and behaviour; 2. A better delineation of one's self-identity, 3. Resolution of handicapping or disabling conflicts,

own own

1. 192

SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND MEI"HODS

4. Changing of undesirable habits or reaction patterns. 5. Improved interpersonal or other competencies, 6. Modification of inaccurate assumptions about oneself and one's world, and 7. The opening of a pathway to a more meaningful existence. DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF PSYCHOTHERAPY The following are the differing systematic viewpoints, procedures of the major forms of psychotherapy.

goals

and

1. Psycho-analytic Therapy Psychoanalytic therapy was developed by Freud aiming at uncovering repressed memories, motives, and conflicts presumably stemming from problems in early psycho sexual development. It helps the client to resolve conflicts in the light of the adult reality. It follows the following techniques: /. Free Association The client is given an opportunity to say whatever comes into his mind, regardless of how personal, painful, irrelevant it may be. He sits in a comfortable position and allows his mind to give running of thoughts, feelings and desires. The therapist usually sits behind or records the expression through devices and later interprets the material which gives an insight into the understanding of conflicts and motives of which he has been unaware so far. 2. Dream Interpretation Dreams are unfulfilled desires. During sleep, defense mechanism's power is lowered an forbidden desires and feelings may find an outlet. In dream interpretation, the therapist uncovers the disguised meanings by studying the symbols that appear in the manifest content of the dream. 3. Analysis of Resistance Sometimes, the client while talking about an important area of his problem, suddenly switces topics or he may give some glib interpretation to his associations. Since resistance prevents painful and threatening material from entering and influencing awareness, it SOCIAL CASE WORK 193 must be broken down if the client is conflicts and deal with them in a realistic manner. 4. Analysis of Transference

to

face

his

problems

and

Often, a client carries over and applies to the therapist attitudes and feelings that he (client) developed in his relations significantly with others in the past. By recognizing the transference, the therapist may provide the client with the experience of having a good father (if father is a problem for the client), thus

he gives deal with reality.

an

opportunity

to

II. Behaviouristic Psychotherapy Bchaviouristic model views the maladjustment in the individual due to faulty learning of coping patterns, and failure of acquiring needed competencies. Therapist attempts to modify behaviour directly by: 1. Aversion therapy—removal of undesirable behaviour by punishment; x 2. Systematic desensitization; 3. Positive reinforcement for learning new competencies. III. Humanistic-Existential Psychotherapy Humanistic-existential therapy is based on the assumption that man has the freedom to control his own behaviour. He can reflect upon the problems, make choices, and lake positive action. The clientcentred therapy of Carl Rogers is known as humanistic psychotherapy . The therapist task is to present such psychological climate for the client where he can feel unconditionally accepted, understood and valued as a person. He will choose his own path for the solution of his problem. Existentialists are deeply concerned about the predicament of modern man, the breakdown of traditional faith, the alienation depersonalization of man in contemporary culture, and the lack of meaning in many people's lives.~ Existential therapy calls for the therapist to share himself his feelings, his values and his existence and not to let the client respond to him as anything other than he really is. IV. Interpersonal Psychotherapy Interpersonal therapy emphasizes the role of faulty communication, 194


interactions and relationships in maladaptive behaviour. Therefore, attempts arc made to improve mutual need gratification system, social role expectations and communication patterns. Eric Berne, (1964) developed an innovative technique of interpersonal therapy, known as Transactional Analysis. It is based on the notion that there are three 'ego states' in human personality — Child, Adult and Parent. 'Parent ego state' is that part of personality which one has corporated from his parents or from other parental model. When one says that 'you should not eat too much' or 'do not go in cold', these statements are appropriate when they are spoken to a child, but if they are used with spouse, it means he is playing too active

'Parent' role. 'Child ego state' is that part of personality which is carried over from the childhood feelings. The statements like 'I will eat as much as I like' or 'I play whole day' are the examples of child responding to the 'Parent'. This behaviour may be appropriate for child but not for a mature adult. 'Adult ego state' is that part of personality which processes information

rationally and appropriately for the present circumstances. An Adult response to the parent might be 'I really don't think it is cold enough for a sweater'. As long as such participant reacts to the other in the way that he is being addressed, e.g., as a child to a parent, the transaction may continue indefinitely. But when one part decides to discontinue playing with child for addressed role, the game ceases and conflict occurs. The therapist analyses the interactions among group (often married couples) and helps the participants understand the 'ego states' in which they are communicating with each other. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COUNSELLING AND PSYCHOTHERAPY The most common differentiation is that counselling is dealing with a generally normal individual, and psychotherapy is dealing with an abnormal person; or some would say that counselling does not get to the same depth as psychotherapy; or some would say that counselling is concerned with the conscious, whereas psychotherapy deals with the unconscious materials. According to Bordin 'counselling relationship is characterized by less intensity of emotional expression, and relatively more emphasis on cognitive and rational factors than in the case in psychotherapy. "" SOCIAL CASE WORK 195 This differentiation is only logical and for understanding the concept of both treatment processes. In practice there is no such differentiation1 as there is no clear and distinct line between conscious and subconscious. Anyone who works with people who are under stress going to have a difficult time cataloguing what he is doing as either counselling or psychotherapy on the basis of the conscious or the subconscious.1" CASE WORK AND PSYCHOTHERAPY Social case work is a form of psychotherapy with a special orientation, differential aims, and a particular methodology; it is the application of psychotherapeutic principles in a setting and in a manner which is uniquely its own. " Thus, there are a number of points of similarities: 1. Both social case work and psychotherapy help an individual who comes with emotional problems and painful situations. 2. Interview techniques are the same. • 3. Both types of workers try to put the client at ease and make it possible for him to express his problem.

4. Social case worker and

psychotherapist have skill in creating an atmosphere of confidence. 5. Both share the value of individuality, worth and respect for the client. 6. Both case work and psychotherapy believe in the client's self-determination. 7. Both types of workers havb training for helping the client in a systematic way. 8. Both recognize the role of emotional and unconscious processes in influencing the attitudes and behaviour of the client. 9. Both provide an emotional to relieve immediate anxiety of the client. 10. Both give imortance to the transference. Psychotherapy essential points: 1.

196

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

also

differs

from

social -

case

work

in

many

Though social case work and psychotherapy importance to the relationship but both have different In psychotherapy, the client himself wants to establish

give view.

SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS rapports or considers psychotherapist as magician or omnipotent parent. In social case work, the situation is different. He tries to establish close relationship with the client for achieving his goal. The case worker does not define the role problems he deals within of intrapsychic conflict. It is the problem of the client in relation to a distressing situation, usually of an economic, health, or interpersonal nature. Intrapsychic conflict within individual is the problem for the psychotherapy. Psychotherapy deals with the people's feelings or with the impact of personality on the situation but case work deals with client's stressful and painful situation. Social case work is to help the client with his situational problems. It does not attempt to modify the client's attitudes or his neurotic adaptations. Such types of change occur during the social case work process itself. Psychotherapy is mainly concerned with changes in the neurotic behaviour of the client. The case worker respects the consciously expressed wishes of the client and helps in clarifying those wishes. Psychotherapist accepts on such limitations. Psychotherapist generally thinks that client is a separate entity from social environment but in social case work client is seen as a unit of his social context.

7. Psychotherapy stresses whereas social case work gives

on

internal

factors

of

the

problem

equal importance as well as external factors of the problem.

to

internal

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CASE WORK, COUNSELLING AND PSYCHOTHERAPY CLIENT Social case work studies 'whole' individual for the giving of concrete help. Help is provided after considering and analysing client's social, psychological, economic etc., factors. Client has right to select his own course of action or make use of available resources. In counselling, counsellor has limited relations with client's social factors. He tries to know only that part which is interlinked with client's problem. Though the client has right to receive or not the SOCIAL CASE WORK 197 counsel, but in absence of concrete help, he feels himself unable to take decision. In psychotherapy, internal factors of client's personality are studied for treatment. Client has limited freedom in treatment process. PROBLEM Social case work deals with psycho-social problems which become a source of maladjustment for the client. Counselling deals with behavioural problems. Problems are solved through discussion or oral conversation. Problems pertaining to personality disorders are treated in Psychotherapy. HELP In counselling, the nature of help is mostly therapeutic and help is provided to solve some specific problems. Though in case work also the nature of help is therapeutic but concrete help has specific and primary place. Psychotherapy deals with the unconscious factors that are responsible for the internal conflict^ in the client. Client's personality is the centre of focus for psychotherapy. RELATIONSHIP Relationship is the medium for case work service. The utility of case work service depends on the intensity of the relationship. Worker gives first preference to relationship. In counselling, the client himself wants to establish closeness with the counsellor. It is the same with psychotherapy. « THEORIES OF SOCIAL CASE WORK PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

The first systematic attempt to discover the 'unconscious' was made by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud discovered his psychoanalytic model for realization of the important role played by unconscious process in the determination of behaviour. Individual's behaviour is the result from the interaction of three key sub-systems within the personality: 'Id', 'Ego' and 'Super ego'. The 'Id' consists of primitive

biological drives and basic energy of life 'Libido'. It is concerned with the immediate gratification of instinctual needs. 'Ego' mediates between the demands of the 'Id' and the realities of the external world. The third sub-system 'super ego' develops by learning the 198

SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND MEIHODS

taboos and moral values of society. It controls the 'Id' and directs the 'Ego'to inhibit desires that are considered wrong or unmoral The interrelationship between these sub-systems of personality (intrapsychic) are of crucial significance in determining behaviour. There is regular conflict between the instinctual needs and demands of the 'Id' with the demand of external world (Ego and Super ego). The adequate resolution of such conflicts by the 'Ego' is considered essential to personality adjustment. Psychopathology is the result of the individuals inability to resolve these conflicts. According to the psychoanalytic model every moment of human life is determined not by one psychological force operating alone but by the whole constellation of psychological processes. Some of them are conscious, some are on the fringe of consciousness but can be drawn into conscious (preconscious), still others are^ actually inaccessibie to conscious introspection. This is the "dynamic unconscious" to which Freud attributes the key role in 126 psychopathology'. Whole of behaviour is a product of these three processes: the conscious, preconscious and unconscious. Psychoanalysis clarifies the fact that human behaviour is normal precisely to the degree to which it is determined by conscious and preconscious forces operating within the individual Psychopathology or neurotic behaviour occurs when behaviour is determined by unconscious forces. The processes by which an individual is conscious can be influenced by appeals to reason, by argument, by success and failure or by rewards and punishments and thus he has the capacity to adapt _ _.-.,,—i »„„i;t;„c *nH fn learn from past experiences. If the are insatiable, Furthermore, since unconscious forces pursue wc symbolic and the behaviour which expresses such needs must repeat itself endlessly, repeating errors as frequently as success, regardless of the happiness or unhappiness which it occasions. Consequently to the extent to which behaviour is driven by unconscious forces it can learn nothing from experience, and can never devdop or change or grow. In the truest sense of the word, it is enslaved.

SOCIAL CASE WORK 201 I

exert

specific

influences

in

varying

proportions

at

each

stage

of

growth. If the process of psychological development is smooth and unimpeded, the 'ego* becomes strong enough to bear innner and external pressure and to control and flexibly mediates between conflicting internal and external forces. 'Ego* impairment may occur in the following conditions: 1. The equipment for sensory perception, matter activity, and memory may be defective. 2. There may be failure in the normal development of libidinal and aggressive drives. 3. The child may receive too much or too little gratification and frustration of a degree and kind appropriate to his maturation. Since the immature 'ego' needs both ive stimuli and protection from overwhelming ambunts of inner and outer pressure, either of these possibilities will seriously impede growth.

4. There may be insufficient or inadequate opportunities for identification with parents, teachers, peers, and other models whose real and unconscious attitudes toward reality and toward instinctual drives are apparently inadequate performance and enjoyment of

a

variety of roles, relationships, and beliefs compatible with the society of which they are a part. 5. It is also necessary that there be a successful resolution of conflicts between instinctual drives and reality demands, (Not only ego functions it might be added, depend upon these same factors, particularly process of identification and the successful resolution of conflicts. This concept of 'ego' is more helpful in understanding the personality of parents and children in troubled families. These concepts now illuminate the underlying therapeutic significance of case work's specific efforts to make details of life more reasonable and more confortable for parents whose 'ego' functioning is threatened.by the tasks confronting them. Case work practice is directed towards the goal of ensuring a socio-psychological environment which promotes the development of nature autonomous 'ego* functions, so that each individual is capable of "exercising freedom under the law".1 Case work is also directed to helping individuals resolve their problems of adaptation through

SOCIAL CASE WORK 203 01 flis interactions anu n au&uuiuua wim m^ uu«.^. t.^»1u. » „. t ,

diagnosis and treatment client's social context must

be and mobilized. need of the client.

Treatment

must

be

differentiated

according

understood to the

Psycho-social Study Social case worker starts his work with the knowledge of the needs of the client. He, on the basis of the needs, assesses what kind of help he is in need of. He also finds out the perception of the client about his own problem, and his desires about the kind of assistance to be provided. He, then, himself tries to arrive at his own understanding of what the client's trouble is, what factors contribute to it as etiological agents and what type of service in the client-situation gestalt can enable the client to improve his ego strength and adaptability. Social case worker tries to find out the history of the problem and its impact on the social functioning of the client. He locates the important happening in client's life as precipitating factors for the present problem. He gathers full data of the client's childhood, and other stages. Diagnosis of Assessment Psycho-social approach believes that diagnosis is essential because it gives a realistic basis for differentiation. On the basis of the collected data and available material, social case worker tries to assess the nature of client's trouble, contributing factors and what /. Objective The ultimate objective of the case worker using the psycho-social approach is a very broad one of alleviating the client's distress and decreasing the malfunctioning in the person-situation system. To achieve the above objective, social case worker's job is to enhance the adaptive capacities and functioning of the client in social systems. 2. Process Social case worker gives much emphasis on indirect treatment or environmental modification. He intervenes actively in the environment and provides necessary concrete help to the client. He helps the client in locating the place or agency for help. He also, sometimes mediates between the client and resource when the client has weak ego strength. Today the worker takes responsibility to secure financial assistance for which the client is eligible, proper health care and for housing and educational resources. If the situation demands to change or modify environment, he talks to the family , school teachers or employers and supplies the information about his problem. After preparing the. favourable background he gives an advice and makes suggestions for the

welfare of the client. Direct treatment is also provided for the ventilation of the client to accept concrete help. Psychological , classification, 204


interpretation, counselling, rapport with the client.

etc.

techniques

are

used

to

establish

FUNCTIONAL THEORY The functional theory in regard to social work practice was developed by the School of Social Work of the University of Pennsylvania in 1930s. The functional theory worked from a psychology of growth and believed that the centre for change was located in the client. The theorists used the word 'helping' instead of treatment. Social case work is not a form of social treatment but a method of istering some specific social service and creating such a psychological understanding in the client so that he may become skilful in utilizing the agency services. The functional theory believes that the social case work is a method for engaging a client through a relationship process, essentially one to one, in the use of a social service toward his own and the general social welfare. Functional theory presents five principles for the practice of social work.140 1. That diagnosis, is most effective, which is related to the use of some specific service and which is developed in the course of giving the service. 2. The effectiveness of any social work process primary or secondary, is furthered by the worker's conscious, knowing the use of time phases in the process (beginnings, middle, and endings) in order that the particular potential in each time phase may be fully exploited for the other's use. 3. The use of agency function and function in professional role gives focus, content, and direction to social work processes, assures ability to society and to the agency. 4. A conscious knowing use of structure, as it evolves from and is related to function and process, introduces "form" which furthers the effectiveness of all the social work processes, both primary and secondary. 5. All social work processes, to be effective, require the use of relationship to engage the other in making and acting on choices or decisions as the core of working toward the accomplishment of a purpose identified as his own, within the purpose of the service being offered. 1. SOCIAL CASE WORK 205

Initial Phase and Use of Time Phases

Functional theory believes that the social case work must use the concept of time phases properly and consciously so that the client may accept and utilize available services. In the beginning phase. It is the worker's understanding of what

is true for beginning that makes it possible for him to lessen the fear and resistance and thus begins mobilization of energy. Generally in the beginning phase case worker provides the knowledge of agency's services — conditions for availing of service, requirement, eligibility, etc. He encourages an immediate engagement of the client in expressing hopes, intentions, and fears in respect of what is being offered in the way of service. The goal in any beginning is to find a common base for worker and client to work together toward a common purpose with the rules of the game known, and its elements broken down into what can be encomed for immediate engagement. Middle time phase is characterized by the client's taking increased responsibility in utilizing services and by deepening of the relationship involved. Social case work'er directs the client in such a way that the client takes his responsibility in the solution of his problem. Ending phase is determined on the basis of the appraisal of the achievement in the middle phase. Diagnosis or Assessment Functional theory does not believe in the understanding of the total situation of the client. The worker develops his own understanding of man, in kno'wing the nature of a particular problem of the client. He attempts to find out to know the particular kind of individual services as well as his own developing understanding of this specific individual. Diagnosis is considered a way of engaging in a human relationship process which frees the other to define his own goals for himself as they fall within or coincide with the goals of a specific programme being istered, and to work toward their achievement, with the 1 worker's help. " Treatment Functional school uses the term "helping" in the place The goal of social case work is congruent with the goals of the

of

treatment.

206 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS programmes of social service it isters. Social case work attempts to release power for improved social functioning through the consciously directing the client to use the agency services appropriately. BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION THEORY

Behaviour modification theory is based upon the principles of learning and conditioning propounded by Pavlov and Thorndike.

The researches of B.F. Skinner helped develop the behaviour modification approach further. The first paper dealing solely with behaviour modification in a social work journal appeared in

1968.143 In essence, behaviour modification can be defined as the planned. Systematic application of experimentally established principles of learning to the modification of maladaptive behaviour, specially to decreasing undesired behaviours and increasing desired behaviours. The goals of behaviour modification are congruent with the goals of social work. In fact, the behavioural approach deals by and large only with problems in functioning, on the grounds that if change is not somehow detectable in improved functioning, such change may be meaningless to the client. The Problem The behaviouristic theory viewed problem as essentially the result of a failure to learn necessary adaptive behaviours or competencies and/or the learning of ineffective and maladaptive behaviours. It may happen due to conflicting situations that require the individual to make discriminations or decisions of which he feels incapable. The behaviouristic theory views the maladjusted person indifferent from others only in that he has learned faulty coping patterns which are being maintained by some kind of reinforcement and he has failed to learn needed competencies for coping with the problems of living. Techniques of Behaviour Modification The following techniques are used for behaviour modification. Simple Extinction In this technique, the reinforcement is removed to eliminate a SOCIAL CASE WORK 207 maladaptive pattern of behaviour. This is especially helpful maladaptive behaviour is being reinforced unknowingly by Through this technique, learned behaviour patterns are weaker and disappear overtime.

where others. made

Systematic Desensitization Systematic desensitization is a technique to deal with a wide variety of maladaptive emotional behaviours, particularly involving anxiety, irrational fears and phobias and other forms of dysfunctions (neurotic tendencies). This type of behaviour is being reinforced by the avoidance of painful situation. There are five basic steps in systematic desensitization : (i) assessment, (ii) constructions of anxiety hierarchies, (iii) training in muscle relaxation, (iv) imaginary training, and (v) implementation. The method of sensitization is aimed at teaching the client to emit a response which is inconsistent with anxiety while in the presence of real or imagined anxiety-producing stimulus.

Implosive Therapy

In this technique, instead of banishing anxiety the social case worker attempts to elicit a

from the treatment, massive flood, or

implosion of anxiety. With repeated exposure in a safe setting where no harm is felt by the client, the stimulus loses its strength to elicit anxiety. Assertive Therapy Assertive therapy is used to develop mechanism. In such therapy, the opportunity for role playing.

more effective coping is given to the client

Aversion Therapy This technique is used for the modification of undesirable behaviour by the method of punishment. Punishment may involve either the removal of positive reinforcements or the use of aversive stimuli. The first formal use of aversion therapy was made by Kantorovich in 1930 who istered electric shocks to alcoholics in association with the sight, smell and taste of alcohol. Since then, it is being used in the treatment of wide range of maladaptive behaviours i.e. drinking, smoking, drug dependence, gambling, and in sexual deviations. 210 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Initial recognition of a difficulty, Identification and specification of the problem, Analysis of the problem, Summary restatement of the problem Selection of objectives which are to be effected, Depiction of the criteria by which solution will be judged. Consideration of possible solutions, Testing proposals against criteria, Selection of a course of action,

10. Operation Planning (how it is to be done) 11. Implementation (actuation) of the plan. 12. Subsequent evaluation of the solution in real life. Self-control and Self-management Therapy Helping clients help themselves is an old case work catch phrase. Self-control refers to the ability of individuals to decrease behaviour that they or others perceive as harmful (or dysfunctional to themselves or others) and to increase functional behaviours. " The role of case worker in this process is to help client develop the knowledge about how, when, and where to use strategies for change. The worker acts as an instigation and motivation to help the client start the programme and have motivating force to complete it. A multi-step guide has been presented by Watson and Tharp to be

used both by case worker and client to develop a self-control plan!

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. List a current dissatisfaction. Select one particular problem of behaviour that occurs in a particular situation. Describe the effect of problem on behaviour such as escape aversive consequences. Be as precise as possible in stating the behaviours that occur and the situations in which they occur. Describe some behaviour in a situation that you wish to increase or decrease. Gather your own baseline data. Count every instance of target behaviour and keep a record of your count (include time and place). Catalogue your reinforcements. Answer three questions for each potential reinforcer (a) Is it a reinforcer specifically formed (b) Is it a strong reinforcer ? Is it accessible (can I find some way to use it). SOCIAL CASE WORK 211 7. Draw up a contract with yourself. State what the target behaviour is and what reinforcement you will gain for performing it. Specify the ways in which you will obtain reinforcement, e.g. the shaping schedule, (at times, it might be helpful to designate a significant other one, spouse or friend, as the dispenser and withholder or reinforcers to ensure there will not be any "cheating"). 8. List and attempt to through self-observation possible antecedents to problem behaviours. Devise a plan for intervention, for altering antecedents (or stimulus) control, but do not implement the plan yet. 9. Identify the emotional components of the problem (e.g. anxiety response) and devise an /'/: vivo or self-desensitization plan. Develop hierarchy and practice relaxation. 10. Select one of the plans you have developed. 11. Continue to collect data on the problem behaviour. Make a graph of the data to determine that the intervention plan is working. If not, rcanalysc or change the plan or choose an alternative plan. 12. Consider termination, if the plan is successful. Existential Social Work

From

the

existential

viewpoint,

man

as

basic

motivation

is

to

find

the best possible way of life, to actualize his potentialities, and to fulfil himself as human being. However, in an age of profound cultural change, traditional mores and beliefs are being questioned. As a result, modern man suffers from confusion and

deep spiritual and emotional strain. Existential thoughts have been developed by Kierkegoard, Sartre, Tillich and May. The major theme of existentialism is that non-being continuously threatens to extinguish man's individuality (being) and that man has to find the meaning of his existence in the face of such a threat. Essentially, man can resolve his dilemma in one of the two ways: 1. By giving up his quest and finding blind conformity and submergence in the group. 2. Striving for increased self-definition in own existence. 1. 208 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

some the

satisfaction reality

of

in his

COGNITIVE THEORY Cognitive theory believes that an individual's thinking which is a conscious process, primarily determines his emotions, motives and behaviour, Perlman's work on case work as problem solving process includes an important focus on cognitive events. The work of Werner has been the most specific and comprehensive one to translate cognitive theory into application for case work practice. Werner lists three premises on which this theory is based. 1. When perception changes, there is change in emotions, motives (goals), and behaviour; 2. When goal changes it results in behaviour change. 3. Perception can be changed by new activities and new kinds of behaviour.147 The theory, thus, believes in reciprocal relationship between perception, emotions, goals and behaviour. If the worker thinks that the client's goals are anti-social or self defeating and destructive, he fulfils the therapeutic task of helping the client to reorient himself with a different set of goals.14 The basic work involved in changing misconceptions and unrealistic expectations, is to identify and alter the client's typical way of structuring beliefs and thoughts. This process is called cognitive restructuring. The following techniques are used for conginitive restructuring. Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) This technique is used in the area of modifying irrational statements to oneself. Some of the irrational ideas that Ellis views at the core of emotional and behavioural problems are as under. 1. It is a dire necessity everything he does.

for

an

adult

to

be

loved

by

everyone

for

2. Certain acts are awful or wicked, such acts should be severely punished. 3. It is horrible when things are not them to be.

and the

people way

one

who

perform

would

like

4. Human misery is externally outside people and events one takes of those conditions. 1. SOCIAL CASE WORK 209

caused rather

and than

is forced on one by caused by the view

5. If something is or may be dangerous or feel some one should be terribly upset about it. 6. It is easier to avoid rather than face life's difficulties and self-responsibilities. J7, One needs something stronger or greater than oneself on which to rely. 8. One should be thoroughly competent, intelligent and achieving in all possible respects. 9. Because something once strongly affected one's life, it should indefinitely effect it. 10. One must have certain and perfect control over things. 11. Human happiness can be achieved by inertia and inaction. 12. One has virtually no control over one's emotions, and one cannot help feeling certain things. Rational Emotive therapy includes four stages: 1. Presentation of Rationale The worker attempts to elicit the problems, or self-statements in general without mentioning the client's problems.

significance

of

2. Overview of Irrational Assumption The worker presents a number of irrational self-statements before the client and tries to realize the client that his statements are irrational. » 3. Analysis of Client's Problem in Rational Emotive Client is made aware of his problem* rationally and is provided with the knowledge of how he has labelled the event. 4. Teaching the Client to Modify Internal Sentences In this stage the client is taught to change his opinions and attitudes which are anxiety provoking. Problem-solving and Decision-making Cognitive Therapy In this technique the client learns how to solve problems, thereby discovering for himself the best way of responding and deciding upon the most effective course of action. Problem solving is a behavioural process-overt or cognitive. The basic steps in this therapy are. 212


The first alternative is unauthentic and the pathway to anxiety and despair. Therefore the basic theme of this approach is that the individual's existence is given but what he makes of it his essence is up to him. The despair of the modern man is traced to the fact that he has lost his freedom due to depersonalization of mass society. Man should detach himself from the larger society and

must chart his own destiny by discovering his own highly individual meaning in life.1 Many of the concepts of the existential theory such as nonbeing, freedom, meaning, authenticity, obligation, commitment, existential anxiety, despair have had a profound impact on the thinking of the social workers. They now view modern man as alienated and estranged —stranger to God, to other man and to himself. Krill has listed five organizing concepts of existential thought in the context of therapy. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Disillusionment Freedom of Choice Meaning in Suffering Necessity of Dialogue Commitment. ROLE THEORY

Role is mainly behavioural concept. Roles and statuses are interlinked as roles are associated with given social positions. Social role refers to the behaviour of status-occupants, that is oriented toward the patterned expectations of others (who accord the rights and obligation),156 Linton went on to observe that each person in society inevitably occupies multiple statuses and that, for each of these statuses, there is an associated role. The concept of social roles in social work not only includes attitudes and emotions but it also includes behaviour itself. Thus the social worker, when he refers to role, it also includes social functioning. If, in any small group, we become leader or follower, new comer or isolate, scape goat or clown' we have feelings about the position we occupy and about the role behaviour associated with it. The other group also have feelings about our behaviour and their own role. Thus the concept of role in social work is based on two formulations, one expressed by Perlman, 'Role implies that certain SOCIAL CASE WORK 213 emotional values or sentiments tend to be injected in any human activities that involve relationships with others, either into the activities themselves, or 'into the reciprocal relationships, or both' The other is the emotional and effective component in the role relationship. It helps to determine the base of role differentiation. It is often assumed that the individual's wishes and capacities are the determinants of his role. Attitudes and behavioural patterns are the product of earlier life experiences in social network. These experiences form the individual's self-image and self-evaluation which in turn influence his expectations of acceptance, indifference,

or rejection in new group life style. Approach to new experiences.

Role may be seen as a product of

situations. His expectations influence his social situations is affected by his past

an interplay between (i) individual ' needs and resources; (ii) the solution in the social network; and (Hi) the forces acting on the social network from the environment. When there are internal or external difficuities which are beyond the capacity of an individual, he feels the problem and fails to perform his role.

Social case worker with such clients suggests new ideas and ways of facing the problem. He gives new definitions of the problem and suggests solution for a difficulty that the external stimuli have encountered. He .clarifies that values pertinent to what the social group is undertaking. He offers facts or generalizations which relate to his own experience for understanding the problem. He spells out suggestions in of examples, offers a rational for suggestions and tries to deduce how suggestion would work if adopted by the client. He mediates between other , attempts to reconcile disagreements, relieves tension in conflict situation. His efforts are also directed to keep communication channels open by encouraging others to participate in the business of the client. Family Therapy Family is the cradle in which the future is bora and nursery in which new democratic social order is being fashioned. It is a procreative group, a child bearing group and a status giving group.160 The family is highly complicated network of forces expressed in family relationships. Family is a system which is composed of three sub-systems: marriage, parenthood and siblings. There are 214


, !' . ~*1 • j I I |

continuous interactions and transactions among these sub-systems and certain relationship behavioural patterns become autonomous. Because these family patterns are unconsciously integrated and, therefore, largely outside the conscious awareness of the family and j' its , and because they need to be understood if the individual and family are to be assessed as correctly as possible for treatment strategy, direct observation of family process and I relationship is necessary.

Basic Assumption of Family Therapy 1. Marital relationship system heavily influences in the management of individual and family development tasks and that to understand the problem of the individual and family it is necessary to understand the nature of marriage. 2. The nature of the marital equilibrium affects

all

family

¦ |

, but its effects differ on each of the . 3. Children are affected developmental^ by the nature of the

marital equilibrium

I '„» i I I I j*J I.

,

because they introject the parents models, guides and educators. 4. Individual's developmental tasks such as self-control and self- responsibility, intimacy and distance, separateness and dependence, individuation and interdependence, must be guided and directed for masterly by the family for achievement of maximum self-realization both of individual and family. 5. Each developmental phase in the family has stressful situation which requires new identification, role transitions and new relationship.

as

the

Basic Concepts of Family Therapy The following are the concepts that influence the practice of family therapy.162 ¦¦ ^

1. Whenever one member of a family is in trouble, all are in trouble. The symptoms in an individual serve to balance forces within the family as well as his own intrapsychic forces. Understanding the meaning of the individual symptoms requires comprehension what they represent for him and for the family for purpose of treatment planning.

SOCIAL CASE WORK 215 2. The nature of family structure, that is, identifications, object relationships, collusions, alliances, and roles, are significant indexes of family functioning and are causative in individual development .... In disturbed families, behavioural difficulties, symptoms, or delays in personal development indicate faulty family structure that is expressed in poor role performance. 3. Communication in the family is the channel through which the rules and roles, the processes of identification and differentiation, the management of tasks, conflicts and resolutions — in short, the business of life is conducted ... Family therapy relies on understanding the communication patterns in the family and intervening in those, that are currently dysfunctional in the family system. Diagnosis and Assessment

(i) Diagnosis is confirmed on the basis of various types of interviews with the client and family. He knows the content of the problem, identification of the Tamily and its — their characteristics, complaints and requests, differing

and

similar

perceptions,

reactions,

efforts

made

by

the

family to deal with the problem. (ii) The worker knows family structure and processes in the family responsibilities, roles, family patterns of daily living, role performance, role relationship, reciprocal relationships, individuation, dependency, separateness, independence level; capacity, tolerance,*and control of feelings; intimacy, aggression anxiety, regressions, taboos, etc., capacity for reality perception, use of defences and resistances in the family; patterns of conflict and resolutions, decision-making, cultural and social influences; management of moral, ethical and religious values, social aspirations and goals; patterns of varbal and non-verbal communications, (iii) He records the family history and analyses its contents, history of marriage, child development, important events, family functioning in stressful situation; individual's behaviour, symptoms, adaptations and difficulties; ego strength of the family and its to solve the problem.

216

SOCIAL WORK - PI IILOSQPHY AND METHODS

Treatment Immediate and long range goals include, characteristically, helping the family to become better attuned to each other's needs, to "hear" what the others are saying and they mean to overcome fears, about expressing honest feelings, to learn how to communicate more directly and clearly, and to learn different ways of behaving and feeling.103 Most of the techniques used in one-to-one treatment, such as guidance, advice, education, and reflection, are used in family therapy, with the difference that they are always directed to the interactional process. Suggestions, clarification, and interpretations may be directed to an individual, but only in the interest of the total

EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL CASE WORK Social case work as a method of social work has emerged from the processes of industrialization and its concomitant urbanization. It is the offspring of Charity Organization Societies Movement which was introduced in the late 1870s. But the first theoretical formulation of social case work is associated with the publication of Mary Richmond's book 'Social Diagnosis' in 1917. Case work has gone through several discernible stages. These

stages are: (1) the exploratory and disciplinary, (3) the psycho-social, (4) the synthetic or integrated. THE EXPLORATORY AND DISCIPLINARY STAGE

Josephine Shaw Lowell, founder of the

(2)

the

sociological,

New York Organization Society and many other unworthy poor should be These workers were motivated by desires to:

Charity social workers believed that the provided financial assistance.

1. Deal kindly but firmly with individuals in need, self-respecting and working" poor, the public deal with others by repressive methods. 2. Reduce duplication in relief istration agencies. 3. Conduct careful inquiries into the extent of personal needs. 4. Help people with certain types of personal problems 1. SOCIAL CASE WORK 217

primarily agencies as

the to

between

contributing to poverty such as sickness, and to deny help to others who were lazy, intemperate, extravagant, 5. Give their time effort without remuneration to the alleviation of sufferingand to the diminution of extravagant relief istration. THE SOCIOLOGICAL STAGE In 1901, Mary Richmond presented a chart showing the environmental forces influencing the family and argued for the analysis of social situation before providing any help. She wrote a very valuable book 'Social Diagnosis' in 1917 which reflects the sociological point of view of social case work. In 1922 she published another book 'What is Social Case Work?' in which she defined social case work as such: "Social case work consists of those processes which develop personality through adjustments consciously affected, individual by individual, between men and their social environment. THE PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE World War I was a major turning point for the practice of social case work. The psychiatric wave forced social case work away from its appropriate concern with social issues toward an inappropriate pre-occupation with mental phenomena. Influence of Freudian concept spread and social case work became psycho-dynamic case work. Valuable contributions were made by Towle, Bibring,170 Turner,171 Austin172, Bandler,173 Parad,17* Hollis,175 Smalley,176 Garrett,177 etc. The other contributors are Miss Robinson who wrote a book 'A Changing Psychology in Social Case Work', Taft who wrote a book 'A Functional Approach to Family Case Work'. ' " In this phase, the following contributions were made to the philosophy and practice of social case work:

1. Interest in the causes of human distress conceived deriving from the social situation or physical environment.

2. Interest in the family as the

of

as

social unit having maximum importance in the development of human adjustment but with little appreciation of the nature of psychological interactions within the family. 3. Efforts to find the most scientific way of doing things and the development of a methodology for social diagnosis. 1. 218 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS 4. Belief that most of the people will make adjustments to life if their environment is favourable. If it is unfavourable, the social worker has the function of removing or of having removed the disrupting conditions. 5. Interest in the effects of social environment upon human personality but without much understanding of causation and mechanisms of bahaviour. 6. Belief in the values of friendly s and their effects upon personality but with little awareness of what in the next period was so energetically studied —psychological relationships and the dynamics of interaction. TI IE SYNTHETIC OR INTEGRATED STAGE The Milford Conference in 1925 appointed a committee under the Chairmanship of Porter Lee to define the nature of generic social work. Milford Conference accepted the report of the committee which recommended: " Social case work deals with the human being whose capacity to organize his own normal activities may be impaired by one or more deviations from accepted standards or normal social life. The use of norms is essential because without use of norms purposeful activity is difficult. Social history of the client is significant for the particularization of the care. The purpose of social case work is to assist the individual to develop his capacity to organize his own normal social activities. Since the publication of the Milford Conference Report 1929, number of books on social case work theory and practice have been published. Lowry edited 'Readings in Social Case Work: 1920-1938' in 1939. Hall is brought out 'Social Case Work in Practice' in 1939. Hamilton published, 'Theory and Practice of Social Case Work' in 1940. BASIC ASSUMPTION OF SOCIAL CASE WORK Hamilton case work:

has

described

the

following

main

assumptions

1. Individual and society are interdependent, 2. Social forces influence behaviour and attitudes, opportunity for self-development and contribution world in which we live; 3. Not only are all problems psychosocial, inner and most case work problems are interpersonal, that is, more 1.

of

social

affording to the outer

but

SOCIAL CASE WORK

219

than one person is likely to be involved in the treatment of the individual, and particularly in case work the family unit is involved; 4. The client is a responsible participant at every step in the solution of his problems; 5. At the certres of the case work process is the conscious and controlled use of the worker-client relationship to achieve the ends of treatment. REFERENCES 1. Richmond, Mary: Vie Long View, Russel Sage Foundation, New York, 1930, pp. 374-75. 2. /6/ ',VolVI,p.289. 10. Reynolds:S/H«/iCo%cSwd/er,Vo!.in,p.9. • 11. Reynolds: The Family, Vol. XVI, p. 235. 12. Klein: A Social Study of Pittsburgh, p. 622. 13. Swift, Linton B: The Purpose and Programme of A family Case Work Agency", Vie Family, Vol. XX, No. 1,1939, p. 4. 14. DeSchwinitz,F:Sun^M;d-MowWy, Vol. LXXVp.39. 15. Strode: Introduction to Social Case Work, p. 79. 16. Towle,C: Soda/WwfcyfcarBooA, 1947, p. 477. 17. Bowers, Swithun : The Nature and Definition of Social Case Work in Kasius, Cora (ed) Principles and Techniques in Social Case Work, Family Service Association of America, New York, 1952. p. 127. 18. Hollis, Florence: 'Social Case Work', Social Work. Year Book, 1954, p. 474. 19. Hamilton, Gordon : Tltcory and Practice of Social Case Work, Columbia University Press, New York, 1956, p. 23. 20. Hollis, Florence: 'Social Case Work'.Soc/a/ Work Year Book, 1952, p. 525. 21. Perlman, Helen, Harris : Social Case Work 0 A Problem Solving Process. The

University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1957, p. 4. 22. Perlman, H.H. op cil p. 4. 23. Ibid p. A. 24. Ibid. p. 4. 25. lbid.p.4. 26. Friedlander, W.A : Concepts and Medtods of Social Work, Prentice Hall, Inc, Englewood Cliffs, N J., 1958, p. 21. 27. Witmer, Helen L: Social Work: An Analysis of Social Institution, Rinehart and Company Inc, New York, 1942, p. 178. 1. 220 SOCIAL-WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS 28. I lelcines Todd : 'Relief and Relief Giving', in Defining Family Case Work Services in Relation to Client Applications, Family Service Association of America, New York, 1938, p. 4. 29. Moffctt, J : Concepts of Case Woik Treatment, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, 1968. 30. Hollis. F : Case Work - A Psycho-Social Therapy, Random House, New York, 1964. 31. Towled Charlotte : 'Social Case Work", Social Work Year Book, Russell Sage Foundation New York, 1947, p. 477.

32. Bowers, Swithun : The Nature and Definition

of

Social Case Work' in Cora, Kasius (cd) Principles and Techniques in Social Case Work, New York, 1953, p. 112. 33. Pcrlman, Helen Harris : Social Case Work : A Problem Solving Process, The University of Chicago Press Chicago, 1957, p. 201. 34. Austin, Lucille Nickel : "Trends in Differential Treatment in Social Case Work". Journal of Social Case Work, 29:205, June, 1948. 35. Lyndon, Benjamin II : KDcvclopincnt and Vsc-E, in Richard Sterba, Nenjamin, H.L. & ct ai, Transference in Case Work, Family Service Association of America, New York, 1948, p. 16. '* 36. Hamilton, O : Theory and Practice of Social Case Work, Columbia University Press, New York, 1951, p. 27. 37. Biestck, Felix P : 77ic Case Work Relationship, Loyola University Press, Chicago, 1957, p. 11. 38. Hollis, Florence : Case Work :A Psycho-Social Theory, Random House, New York, 1972. 39. Tilbury, D.E.F : Case Work in Context UA Basis for Practice, Pergamon Press, New York, 1977, pp. 109-111. 40. Pcrlman, Helen, Harris : Social Case Work U A Problem SoMng Process, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1957, pp. 64-83. 41. Raport, L: Crisis Intervention as a Mode of Brief Treatment in Roberts R. and R. Nee (cd). Theories of Social Casework, Chicago Press, Chicago, 1970, p. 290. 42. Fischer, Joel : Effective Case Work Practice — An Eclectic Approacli, McGraw Hi! Books Compay, New York,' 1978, p. 191. 43. Bicstek F.P. op. cit. p. 12. 44. Bicstek, F.P. op. cit. pp. 23-120. 45. Friedlandcr, W.R : Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prentice Hall, Inc, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 1958, pp. 99-101. 46. Perlman, H.H. op. cit. p. 115. 47. Perlman, H.H. "The Problem-Solving Model in Social Case Work" in Robert Nee (ed) op. cit. p. 163. 48. Richmond, Mary: Social Diagnosis, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1917, p.5, 49. Sytz, Florence: "The Development of Method in Social Case Work" in Kasius, Cora (cd). Principles and Techniques in Social Case Work, Family Service Association of America, New York, 1953, p. 320. 50. Aptekar : "The Dynamics of Case Work and Counselling, Houghto Miflin, New York, 1955, p. 72.' 51. Hollis, Florence op. cit p. 51. 52. ¦ Perlman, H.H : Social Case Work — A Problem Solving Process, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1957, pp. 168-169. 53. Perlman, H.H. op. cit pp. 189-1%. SOCIAL CASE WORK 221 54. Ibid pp. 171-180. 55. Perlman,H.H.o/>.cJtp. 176 56. Goldfried, M.G. and Davison, G.C : Clinical Behaviour Therapy, Hold, New York, 1976, pp. 47-54.

57. Wolpe, J: The Practice of Behaviour Therapy, Pergamon, New York, 1973. 58. Goldstein, A.P : Psychotherapeutic Attraction, Pergamon, New York, 1971, p. 172-179. 59. Stuart, R.B : Client-Tlierapist Treatment Contract, Research Press, Champaign, 111, 1975. 60. Richmond, Mary : What is Social Case Work"! Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1922, p. 98. 61. Richmond, M : 77ie Long View, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1930, p. 374. 62. Hamilton, G: Theory and Practice of Social Case Work, quoted by Tilbury, DEP, op. tit. pp. 149-150. 63. Hollis, Florence : The Psycho-Social Approach to Case Work, in Robert Nee op. c/tp.57. 64. Goldstein, H : Social Work Practice: A Unitary Approach, University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, 1973, p. 229.

65. Fisher, Joel: Effective Case Work Practice—An Eclectic Approach, McGrawHill Book Company, New York, 1978, p.

264. 66. Lee, Porter : 'Social Work as Cause and Function', in Hamilton Book, op. ck, p. 243. 67. Holis, Florence : "The Techniques of Case Work" in Principles and Techniques of Social Case Work, (ed) Cora, Kasius, F.S.A.A. New York, 1953, p. 414. 68. Holis, Florence, op. ck p. 419. 69. AW p. 422. 70. Ibid p. 416. 71. Fischer, Jeol. op. ck p. 292. 72. Linton, R : 77ie Cultural Background of Personality, Appleton Century Crafts, New York, 1945, p. 264. 73. Sargent, S.S : 'Conceptions of Role and Ego in Contemporary Psychology' in J.H. Rohrer and M. Sherif (ed) Social Psychology at the Crossroads, 1951, p. 360. 74. Fichter, J.H: Sociology, p. 120. 75. Mass, Henry S. Wolins, Martin : Concepts and Methods in Social Work Research in Kasius, Cora (ed) New Directions in Social Work, op. at p. 229. 76. Ibid, p. 130. 77. Perlman,H.H.op.c/'£p.24. 78. Ibidp.2S. 79. Ibid p. W. 80. Alexander, F.: "Development of die Fundamental Concepts ofPsycho-analysis" quoted by Perlman, H.H. in his article 'the Problem Solving Model in Social Case Work' Robert Nee et al., op. at pp. 153-154. 81. Friedlander, W.A: op. ck p. 45. 8Z Ibid p. 96. 83. Richmond, Mary : What is Social Case Work? Russell Sage, Foundation, New York, 1922, p. 101. 84. Kasius Cora: A Comparison of Diagnostic and Functional Case Work Concepts. Family Service Association of America, New York, 1950, pp. 20-21. 85. /Mi p. 19. 83. 222 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS 86. Smalley, Ruth E : The Functional Approach to Case Work Practice' in Robert Nee. p. 113. 87. Kasius, Cora, op, cit. p. 27. 88. Kasius, Cora. op. ciL p. 29. 89. Taft, Jessie : "Time as the Medium of the Helping Process". Jewish Social Service Quarterly, Vol. XXVI, No. 2,1949, p. 189. 90. English O. Spurgcon and Pearson, Gerald H.J : Emotional Problems of Living, W. W. Norton & Company, New York, 1945, p. 537. 91. Heiman, Marcel : Psychoanalysis and Social Work, International Universities Press, New York, 1953, p. 71. 92. Ibid. p. 71. 93. Parad, Howard J (ed) : Ego Psychology and Dynamic Case Work, Farcify Service , Association of America, New York, 1958, p. 54. 94. Hendrick, Ives : Facts and Tltcories of Psychoanalysis, Alfred A. Knopp, New York, 1958, p. 193. 95. Taft, Jessie : The Use of the Transfer within the Limits of the Office Interview. The Family.

96. Hamilton, G : op. cit. p. 257. 97. Fischer, Joel : Effective Case Work Practice, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1978, p. 346. 98. Heiman, M. & Kaufman, M.R.: op. cit. p. 73. 99. Ibid., p. 73. 100. Ibid., p. 73. 101. Hamilton, G. op. cit. p. 257. 102. Ibid, p. 257. 103. Parad, Howard, J. op.ch. p. 71. 104. Aptekar, H.I 1: 77ie Dynamics of Case Work and Counsellmg Houghten Mifflin Camp. New York, 1955, p. 110. 105. Smith, Glcen, F : Counselling in the Secondary School. The Mac Millan Company, New York, 1955, p. 156. 106. Williamson, E.G. and Foley, J.D : Counsellmg and Discipline, McGraw Hill Book Company, 1949, p. 192. 107. Rogers, Carl. C : "Client Centred Psychotherapy", Scientific American, 187:70, 1952. 108. Pepinsky, Harold B & Pepinsky, Paulin, N : Counsellmg: Theory and Practice, Ronald, New York, 1954, p. 3.

109. Mehta, II.P : Counselling and Vocational Guidance, Encyclopaedic of Social Work m India, The Planning Commission, Govt, of India, 1968, p. 200. 110. Hadley, John M: Clinical and Counselling Psychology, Knopf, New York, 1958, p. 26. 111. Hamilton, G. op. cit. p. 251. 112. Rogers, Carl. R : Counsellmg and Psychotlierapy, Houghton Mifflin Com. New York, 1942, pp. 7-8. 113. Ibid pp. 76-77. 114. Perlman, H.'H. op. cit. A. 115. Weiss, Edward & English, O. Spurgeon : Psychosomatic Medicine, W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 1950, p. 16. 116. Ibidp.V. 117. Hamilton, G. op. cit., pp. 254-255. 118. Coleman, Janes, C. op. cit p. 663. 86. SOCIAL CASE WORK 223 119. Ibid. p. 663. 120. Coleman, James, C: op. cU. p. 677. 121. Ibid. p. 678. 122. Arbuckle, Dugald S : Counselling: An Introduction, Allyn and Bacon, Inc., Boston, 1961, p. 145. 123. Bodin, Edward S : Psychological Counselling Appleton Company Crofts, New York 1955, p. 15. 124. Arbuckle, D.S. op. ck p. 146. 125. Coleman, Jules V : Distinguishing Between Psychotherapy and Case Work' in Kausis, Cora's book op. ck p. 382. 126. Heiman, M. & Kauf Man, M : Psycho-anafysis and Social Work, International University Press, New York, 1953, p. 5. 127. Ibid. p. 7. 128. Friedlander, W.A : Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prentice Hall, New York,'1958, p. 74. 129. Davison, E.H: Special Case Work, p. 55. 130. Parad, H J op. ck p. 43. 131. Stamm, Isabel L: Ego Psychology in the Emerging Theoretical Base of Case Work. In Khan, AJ. (ed) Issues in American Social Work, Columbia University Press, New York, 1959, pp. 88-89. 131 Ibid pp. 89-90. 133. Ibid p. 91. 134. Erikson, Erik H : 'Growth and Crisis of the Healthy Personality". In Clyde Kluckhohn and H.A. Murray (cd). Personality in Nature, Society and Culture, Knopf, New York, 1953, pp. 185-225. 135. Knight, Robert : "Determinism 'Freedom' and Psychotherapy", Psychiatry,

IX, 1946, pp. 251-62. 136. Stamm, I.L. op. ck p. 96. 137. Ibid p. 103-104. 138. Hollis, Florence : 77ie Psychosocial Approach to Case Work, Robert, Nee & Other,op.c/tp.67. 139. Smalley, Ruth E: The Functional Approach to Case Work' in Robert Nee book p. 81. 140. Ibid. p.Sl-SZ 141. Ibid p. 101. 141 Ibid p. 112. 143. Thomas, EJ : "Selected Socio-Behavioural Techniques and Principles". An Approach to Inter Personal Helping". Social Work, Vol. 13,1968, pp. 12-15. 144. Fischer, Joel: Effective Case Work Practice, An Eclectic approach, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1978, p. 157. 145. Ibid p. 157. 146. Werner, H.D : "Cognitive Theory" in FJ. Turner (ed) Social Work Treatment, Free Press New York, 1974. 147. Ibid p. 264. 148. Ibid. p. 264. 149. Ellis, A: Reason and Emotions in Psychotlterapy, Lyle Staurt, New York, 1962. 150. Mahoney, MJ : Cognitive and Behaviour Modification, Balliger, Cambridge, 1974, pp. 171-172.

151.

Urban, H.B. and Ford, D.H :

Some Historical and Conceptual Perspectives Psychotherapy and Behaviour Change, Wiley, New York, 1971, pp. 3-35. 143. 224 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

on

152. Watson, D. and Tharp, R : Set/Directed Behaviour, Monterey, Calif, Brooks, 1972 quoted by Fischer, J. op .cit pp. 186-187. 153. Ahmad, M.R : 'Social Case Work' in Surendra Singh & K.S. Soodan (ed) Horizons of Social Work, Jyotsna Publications, Lucknow, 1986, p. 85. 154. Coleman, Jones, C. op. tit. p. 69. 155. Lowe, C. Marshall, pp. 125,178. 156. Mcrton, Robert K : Social Theory and Social Structure (englarged edition). Amerind Publishing Comp. 1968, p. 41. 157. Ibid p. 422. 158. Heap, Ken : Group Thcoiy for Social Workers, Pergmon Press, New York, 1977, p. 140. i 159. Perlman, I MI: The Role Concept and Social Case Work: Some Explorations: the 'Social' in Social Case Work, Socio/ Service Review, Vol. 35, p. 378. 160. Gilin, J.L. & Gilin J.P : Cultural Sociology, The Macmilan Co. New York, 1954, p. 227. 161. Schcrz, s II: "Thcoiy and Practice of Family Therapy" in Robert's book, p. 225. 162. Schcrz, s, II. op. cit. pp. 131-235 163. Ibid p. 244. 164. Ibid p. 247. 165. Clarke, I F.I : Principles and Practice of Social Work, Applcton Century Crofts, New York, 1947, p. 57. 166. Ibid pp. 58-59. 167. Richmond, Mary : What is Social Case Work?, Russell Sage Foundation, New York. 1922, pp. 98-99. 168. Field, Martha II. Social Case Work Practice during the Psychiatric Deluge", Social Semce Review, Vol. 54, No. 4, December 1980, p. 483. 169. Towle, Charlott et al : Social Approach to Mental Patient Care, Columbia University Press, New York, 1964. 170. Bibring, G.l: Psychiatry and Social Work, Journal ofSocial Case Work, 1947, pp. 203-10. 171. Turner: Social Work Treatment. 172. Austin, Lucille N : Trends in Differential Treatment in Social Case Work, Journal of Social Case Work, 20,1948, pp. 203-11. 173. Bandler, L: The Concept of Ego ive Psychotherapy, Parad H. (ed): Ego Oriented Case Work, F.S.A.A. New York 1963. 174. Parad, 11: Ego Ps)'chology and Dynamic Case Work, F.S.A.A., New York, 1958. 175. Mollis, F : Case Work : A Psychosocial Therapy, Random House, New York, 1964. 176. Smalley, R.E: Theory for Social Work Practice, Columbia University Press, New York 1967. 177. Garrett, A: Modem Case Work: The Contribution vfEgo Psychohsy,»» Parad, H. (ed) op. cit. 178. Clarke, op. cit. p. 65. 179. Hamilton, G. op. cit p. 22.

152. 11

Social Group Work

Social Group work is a method of social work which develops the ability of establishing constructive relationship in the individuals through group activities. Group experiences are the essential needs of human being. Montagu develops the idea that the pattern of social relationships is a natural continuation of the processes of biological growth. ... the source of the social appetite of all living creatures is traceable to the way in which the living organism originates. All cells originate from other cells; it is impossible for them to originate in any other way ... Each

cell of the organism is dependent for its proper functioning upon the interaction with it of every other cell of the organism. This is to say that every organism functions as a whole, and not as a mass of discrete, independent cellular elements. The orgaiysm is itself dependent and interdependent whole. Montagu thus, invests the social appetite of man with an instinctive quality, derived, from the biological growth process and consistent with it. I. DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK We are quoting here some of the views expressed workers about the social groupwork to understand it systematically.

by

the

social

NEWSLETTER (1935) Group work maybe defined as an educational process emphasizing the development and social adjustment of an individual through voluntary association and the use of this association as a means of furthering socially desirable ends. 226


COYLE(1937) Social group work aims at the development of persons through the interplay of personalities in group situations, and at the creation of such group situations as provide for integrated, cooperative group V action for common ends.5 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF GROUP WORKERS (1948) Group Work is a method by which the group worker enables various types of groups to function in such a way that both group interaction and programme activities contribute to the growth of the individual, and the achievement of desirable social goals. WILSON AND RYLAND (1949) We ... see social group work as a process and a method through which group life is affected by a worker who consciously directs the interacting process toward the accomplishment of goals which in our country are conceived in a democratic frame of reference. HAMILTON (1949) ^ Social group work is a psycho-social process which is concerned no less than with developing leadership ability and cooperation than with building on the interests of the group for a social purpose.

COYLE(1954) *•$ o Its distinct characteristics lie in the fact that group work is used within group-experience as a means to individual growth and development, and that the group worker is concerned in developing social responsibility and active citizenship for the improvement of democratic society. "* TRECKER, H.B. (1955) Social group work is method through which individuals in groups in social agency settings are helped by a worker who guides their interaction in programme activities so that they may relate themselves to others and experience growth opportunities in accordance with their needs and capacities to the end of the individual, group and community development. KONOPKA(1963) Social group

work is a method of social work which helps

< --' SOCIAL GROUP WORK 227 individuals to enhance their social functioning through purposeful group experiences and to cope more effectively with their personal, group or community problems. ANALYSIS OF THE DEFINITIONS

Newsletter has metioned social group work as an educational process and this method is used by voluntary association to help individuals to achieve social goals. But social group work is not only an educational process, it is a service. The objectives of group work is not only achieved by voluntary associations but both types of associations; public and private use social group work method. Grace Coyle in her first definition talks of personality development through the process of group activities. In her second definition she included the worker's role as to develop social responsibilities among group . Wilson and Ryland mentioned group work both as a process and a method and the purpose of group work is to help individuals through groups lo further their development into emotionally balanced. Intellectually free and physically fit persons on one hand and on the other to help to achieve ends desirable in an economic view are quite different from earlier thinkers. In her opinion, social group work is a psychosocial process through Which individuals are affected both mentally and socially. American Association of Group Worker's

definition denotes both personality development and in general social development. The most appropriate and complete definition of social group work has been given by Trecker. We find the following main characteristics of his definitiorl. 1. Social Group Work is a Method A method is a conscious procedure, a designed means of achieving a goal. In its outer sense, a method is a way of doing something but doing underneath we always discover an integrated arrangement of knowledge, understanding and principles.11 It means the purposeful use of insights and understandings based upon a body of knowledge and principles. It also means that social group work has special knowledge, understanding, principles and skills. Social group worker has the knowledge of individuals, groups, community behaviour and skills of working with them. He is made aware about the factors of human behaviour, such as role of heredity, environment, learning, socialization, motivation and 228


perception. He is equipped with the principles of planned group formation, purposeful relationship, programme development, selfdetermination, flexible functional organization, guided group interaction, resource utilization, etc. Social group worker is skilled in establishing purposeful relationship, analysing group situation, participation with the group, dealing with group feeling, using agency and community resources. 2. Individuals Settings

Helped

through

Groups

and

in

Social

Agency

Groups and agency both are important for social group work practice. Help is provided to the individual when he becomes a member of a particular group which exists in a social agency. 3. The Role of the Worker is to Guide Interaction Process The relationship between worker and group is based on acceptance. The basic function of social group worker is to direct interaction process of the group. He watches the activities and behaviour of every member of the group. He keeps his eyes on member's participation, its frequency, time duration, order of participation, interactional level meaning of activities to the group member. On the basis of this knowledge he provides adequate opportunities to each member for his proper growth and development. 4. The Purpose of Social Group Experience, Growth Opportunities for Development

Work

is

to

Provide

Social group worker helps the group activities through which group

to organize such types increase their capacities

of for

participation, belonging, decision-making, responsibilitytaking, and adjusting themselves. They avail opportunities for their growth and development. Democratic principles are followed in group work activities. Clarke12 has mentioned the following aspects of social group work. 1. Provision of opportunities to growth experiences. 2. Understanding by leader of characteristics including type, milieu in which the group lives. 1. SOCIAL GROUP WORK 229

for

educational

the significance of composition, structure,

or group and

3. Use of Programme resources to meet desires and needs of group . 4. Use of community resources. 5. Adaptation of knowledge from other areas to the requirements of social group work. 6. Understanding by leader of personality organization. 7. Development of leadership qualities and skills in the professional workers. 8. Knowledge of techniques for promoting constructive interpersonal relations within the group. 9. A philosophy, which, in the language of social case work; Generic and specific, "determines the purposes, ethics, and obligations" of social group work. 10. The blending of all nine aspects. After the analysis of these definitions, we find that: (1) social group work is a democratic method of social work; (2) it develops democratic ideals and leadership qualities in group ; (3) constructive relationship is the base for achieving its objectives; (4) the ability and capability of self-direction is developed by the group worker; (5) tic group is used to make group experience more pleasurable; (6) group activities are directed on the basis of certain skills, principles zr.<\ techniques; (7) these activities arc carried out in social agency; (8) group work is used for remedial as well as for personality development purpose. Thus it can be said that social group work is a method of social work in which worker organizes programme activities through group itself for its growth and development and accepts interaction process as a base for this growth and development. 11. HISTORY AND GROWTH OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK Just as the Charity Organization Movement is the parent of social case work, the club and recreation movements of the nineteenth century and early twentieth are the direct forebears of social group

work.1 1. THE YMCA AND YWCA MOVEMENTS '

Social group work has developed as a method from two sources, the Young Men's Christian Association and Young Women's Christian Association and Settlements. YMCA was established by 230

SOCIAL WORK - Fl IILOSOPIIY AND METHODS

George William in 1844 with the objectives of giving social and religious welfare and companionship. It was also realized that women and girls were in need of opportunities for recreation, instruction and Christian companionship. In 1877, Mrs. Kinnird and Miss Roberts decided to bring two organizations — Prayer Union and General Female Training Institute, together under the name of YWCA. In America, the first YWCA was formed in Boston in 1866 with the objective of the temporal, moral, and religious welfare of young women who were dependent on their own exertions for their . 2. SETTLEMENT MOVEMENT Jane Addams was one of the founders of settlements for the purpose of formation of clubs through which residents of the area could share the cultural resources of more fortunate segments of the propitiation, the identification of settlement workers with the life of the area, and the responsibility of the same group for social reform. These objectives were based on the philosophical tenets of (i) the advantages to (hose who have not the sharing experiences, (ii) the desirability of strengthening and perpetuating many racial and cultural characteristics, (iii) the wisdom of providing an opportunity to practise the Christian way of life, or in other than religious language, the opportunity to practise democratic and 15 humanitarian principles. 3. PLAY GROUND AND RECREATIONAL MOVEMENTS In 1885, Mariezakrzewska, who had visited Berlin where she had seen children playing in sand piles in public parks, opened a sand garden in Boston. The movement was first confined to the summer months but later on it became a regular activity. The of schools and of social agencies greatly contributed to the rapid development of the playground movement. The school saw them as a means of supplementing classroom instruction by providing a form of socialized experience in harmony with the newer theories of progressive education. Social agencies, including settlements, saw them as an outlet for youthful energy and as a means of forestalling delinquency. The War Camp Community Service organized during World War I, helped greatly to accelerate the recreation movement. SO'CIAL GROUP WORK 231

Recreation activities such as playground, sports, athletics,

pageants, parades, community music, dancing, debates, etc. provide the opportunity for them derive pleasure and relaxation.

handicrafts, self expression

discussion, and from

4. INFLUENCE OF EDUCATION John Deway and William H. Kilpatrick of Columbia University used group process for eudcational achievements. Kilpatrick profounded certain principles as listed below for education and these principles formed a foundation for social group work. 1. Life is itself a positive good ... not something to be denied or reduced or simply to be postponed. 2. Personality as such is to be cherished in all men, and as far as possible, on of equality. 3. Change is inherent in human affairs. 4. The free play of intelligence is our final resource to tell us what to think and to do in all human affairs. 5. Democracy is the effort to run society on the principles just enumerated. 6. Society can no longer run itself on the individualistic basis of each man for himself alone. 7. The conscious improving of our culture should be a chief determining goal of both social and educational endeavour. 5. INFLUENCE OF SOCIOLOGY Grace Coyle in 'Social Process in Organized Groups', Edward Lindeman in Social Discovery, Mary P. Follett in 'the New State' and other writers study human conduct in society, especially in relation to groups. Their thesis is that for the preservation of. democracy and civilization, we must have education system based on principles derived by Kilpatrick and social organizations through group associations. It is the human association through which development of integrated personalities is possible and desired social change can be achieved. 6. INFLUENCE OF MENTAL HYGIENE ¦ The theories of psychology especially of mental hygiene have become an integral part of social group-work, S.R. Slavson in 'An Introduction to Group Therapy' writes: "In group therapy we work 232

SOCIAL WORK - PI IILOSOPHY AND METHODS

with children who are directly rejected by parents, family, schools, street gang, and community centre, or whose powers and personalities are indirectly rejected by pampering and coddling, as a result of which they are unable to get on with their contemporaries and with adults. These children are actively hostile

and destructive or reject the world by withdrawing from it. They are either excessively aggressive or excessively withdrawn; obsessed with great fears on guilt, they overcompensate for them by non-social

or antisocial behaviour.1 III. BASIC ASSUMPTION OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK Douglas has mentioned the following basic assumptions upon which group work practice is founded. 1. That group experience is universal and an essential part of human existence. 2. That group can be used to affect changes in the attitudes and behaviour of individuals. 3. That groups provide experiences which can be monitored or selected in some way for beneficial ends. Life outside the group is in no way neglected, it tends to be 'put out of focus'in favour of considering the'here and now* situation within the group. 4. That groups offer experiences shared with others so that all can come to have something in common with the sense of belonging of growing together. 5. That groups produce change which is more permanent, that can be achieved by other methods and change which is obtained more quickly also. 6. That groups assist in the removal or diminution of difficulties created by previous exposure to the process of learning. 7. Thatgroups as instruments of helping others may be economical in the use of scarce resources, e.g. skilled workers, time, etc. 8. That a group can examine its own behaviour and in so doing learn about the general patterns of group behaviour (process). 1. SOCIAL GROUP WORK 233 Coyle has narrated the following basic assumptions of group Work.2" 1. A firm conviction of the value leisure time educational and recreational activities can yield both to the individual and to society. 2. The group worker brings an insight to his job. The group worker always is aware of two simultaneous streams of activity within the groups. On the one hand, he sees the programme activities and their progress, games discussion, business meetings, dramatics or ceramics as the case may be. On the other hand, he sees an interplay of social relationships which make the group. 3. The programme must be viewed always in of its effect on individuals. This involves, in the first place, keeping his relation to the group person centred and not activity centred.

4. The group worker is aware of the emotional, social as well as physical and intellectual aspccts*of the lives of those with •whom he works as well as their leisure time pursuits related to their work situations, their family relations and their community attitudes.

5. If group workers arc to and education to find them need to understand behaviour.

help individuals seeking recreation in the most fruitful forms they

In general, social group work is based on the following basic s assumptions: • 1. Man is a group animal, 2. Social interaction is the result of group life, 3. Man's achievements can be increased, changed and developed through group experiences. 4. The capacity to solve problems may be increased through group experiences. 5. Group experiences change the level of individual's aspirations and desires. 6. Group recreational activities are beneficial to both individual and society. 7. Group experiences have permanent impact on individuals. 8. Group work always focuses its attention on two types of activities—programme and social relationship in the group. 1. 234 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS 9. Social group work believes in the principle of 'whole man'. 10. Evaluation of programme activities is done on the basis of its effects on group . 11. Individual member may be fully understood and helped in group activities. 12. Knowledge of social sciences is essential for working with the group. 13. Professional knowledge and skills are essential for working with the group. IV. OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK When we use the word 'objectives' we refer to what we are trying to accomplish. Here our objectives are statements or formulations of 1 what wc are trying to do in group work." Objectives are not merely goals; they are motivating forces for action, and we move toward them or retreat by concerted action. The objectives should be clear because they help the worker in the determination of the kinds of programmes need for the fulfilment of the group goals. They provide the guidance through which the group worker proceeds in his mission. The utilization of skills, techniques, resources, financing, equipments and other physical necessities are based on the objectives.

The

group

worker

enables

various

types

of

groups

to

function

in

such a way that both group interaction and programme activities contribute to the growth of the individual, and the achievement of desirable social goals.23 According to Wilson and Ryland, social group work has two objectives: (1) to help individuals use groups to further their development into emotionally balanced, intellectually free and physically fit persons, (2) to help

groups achieve ends desirable in the economic, political and social democracy. Trecker's view is that the purpose of social group work is to bring about the highest possible development of human personality, dedicated and devoted to the democratic ideals. Specht thinks that social group work brings change in internal personality, encourages to accept new roles; brings closeness in interrelations among group ; improves the conditions of systems and also in communication process. In short, it can be said that it enables groups to achieve personally enriching and socially productive goals.

SOCIAL GROUP WORK 235 Konopka has mentioned the following objectives of group work method. 1. Individualization — It helps the individual to free himself while being helped to interact with his fellowmen. 2. Development of sense of belonging. 3. A basic development of the capacity to participate. 4. Increase of the capacity to contribute to decisions on grounds of rational thinking and through group deliberation. 5. Increased respect for differences among people. 6. Development of warm and accepting social climate. Heap29 has mentioned different objectives on the basis of the type of groups. 1. Some social work groups aim primarily at alleviating social isolation. Such groups have the preventive function of reducing the debilitating effects of isolation, as well as more creative purposes of life enrichment and increasing self-esteem. This is a common aim of work with the aged and infirm, handicapped and psychiatric patients. 2. Another aim is that of orientating and preparing people for new experiences which may arouse uncertainty, disorientation, or fear. Such cases are the predischarge group prison inmates, or psychiatric patients, intake groups in mental hospitals and children's hospitals. 3. Other groups are mainly intended to contribute to the social learning and maturation of people who encounter obstacles to normal social growth and development. This kind of social group work is most often found in the youth service and maladjustment children. 4. Another aim of social work with groups is that of solving

problems.

5. It

aims

at

solving

specific

environmental

problems

which

affect the group i.e. improvement of the environment.

helping

slum

dwellers

for

as

of

the

In general social group work fulfils the following needs of the human being. 1.

Social group work fulfils human needs affection, feeling security, to have enjoyment, etc.

such

SOCIAL WORK - 1'IHLOSOPHY AND METHODS Social group work is a unique means of solving isolation problems especially in urban areas where man lives among thousands but feels alone. Self-reliance is developed through group activities. Maladjusted children are treated through group programmes. The feeling of being accepted is satisfied with the help of group work activities. Evidences have proved that in the absence of acceptance by the family and society, one becomes either a mental case or antisocial case. Social group work provides the opportunity to each of its to feel crealive and honoured member of the group. Social group work helps in developing self-confidence. Every member is given the responsibility to carry his role independently in relation to other role. Thus, the essential element of life is again re-charged in group . Social group work helps in solving adjust mental problems. One fails to adjust in family and community because of certain reasons. These reasons may be: his authoritarian altitude, aivycssive tendencies, inactivity, not realizing his roles, tendency -s dependency, runaway from taking responsibilities, negative responses, denial of others' authority, misntilization of group resources or fanta.;.). Group experience is the best remedy for all these abnormal behaviour symptoms. Sometimes due to physical injury or congenital deformities, one becomes totally or partially dependent on others. In such situations the sufferer feels disgusted, isolated and helpless creature. Social group work gives an opportunity to realize and accept his dependency and encourages to adopt a new way of life that makes his life pleasurable. Relations are made real and productive through group experience. Psychosocial problems are solved and managed through the group work services. Democratic values equality, opportunity, liberty and development, are developed through group experience. Social group work is the best method lor proper

need

love,

development of personality.

Social group work provides recreation.

SOCIAL GROUP WORK

237

V. BASIC SKILLS OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK In a general sense, skill means tha capacity to perform. The Webster dictionary defines it as "Knowledge of, and cxpertness in, execution and performance". Virginia Robinson refers as "the capacity to set in motion arid control a process of change in specific material in such a way that the change that takes place in the material is affected with the greatest degree of consideration for and utilization of the quality and capacity of the material.31 Trecker defines method and skill: "Melhod means the purposeful use of insights and understandings based upon a body of knowledge and principles. Skill is the capacity to apply knowledge and understanding to a given situation. " Method is the use of a process, skill is capacity to use it. To become more productive, a group worker needs to develop the following abilities and skills in the group. 1. To exchange ideas among the freely and clearly, using language understood by everyone and with no fears of starting arguments or hurting feelings. 2. To examine objectively how well the group and its are working. 3. To share the leadership jobs among the group and to become sensitive to the feelings of all. 4. To accept new ideas and new into the group without irreparable conflict, and to discipline itself to work toward long range objectives, and to profit from failures. 5. To think clearly about its own problems, finding causes and working through to some solutions. 6. To adjust its procedures and plans to meet the feelings and the desires of the . 7. To create new jobs or committees as needed and to terminate them, or the group itself, when the need is 33 34 ed. Trecker has listed the following basic skills of social group work: 1. SKILL IN ESTABLISHING PURPOSEFUL RELATIONSHIP (a) The group worker must be skilful in of the group and in relating himself

gaining to the

the acceptance group on a

positive professional basis. (b) The group worker must be skilful in helping individuals in (a) 238 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS the group to accept one another and to in common pursuits. 2. SKILL IN ANALYSING TOE GROUP SITUATION

(a) The worker must be skilful in

with

the

group

judging the developmental level of the group to determine what the level is, what the group needs, and how quickly the group can be expected to move. This calls for skill in direct observation of groups as a basis of analysis and judgement. (b) The group worker must be skilful in helping the group to express ideas, work out objectives, clarify immediate goals and see both its potentialities and limitations as a group. 3. SKILL IN PARTICIPATION WITH THE GROUP (a) The group worker must be skilful in determining, interpreting, assuming, and modifying his own role with the group. (b) The group worker must be skilful in helping group to participate, to locate leadership among themselves, and to take responsibility for their own activities. 4. SKILL IN DEALING WITH THE GROUP FEELING (a) The group worker must be skilful in controlling his own feelings about the group and must study each new situation with a high degree of objectivity. (b) The group worker must be skilful in helping groups to release their own feelings, both positive and negative. He must be skilful in helping groups to analyse situations as a part of the working through group or intergroup conflicts. 5. SKILL IN PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT (a) The group worker must ve skilful in guiding group thinking so that interests and needs will be revealed and understood. (b) The group worker must be skilful in helping groups to develop programmes which they want as a means through which their needs may be met. (a) SOCIAL GROUP WORK 239 6. SKILL IN USING AGENCY AND COMMUNITY RESOURCES (a)

The group worker must be skilful in locating and then acquainting the group with various helpful resources which can be utilized by them for programme purposes. (b). The group worker must be skilful in helping certain individual to make use of specialized services by means of referral when they have needs which cannot be met within group. 7. SKILL IN EVALUATION (a) The group worker development processes

must have skill that are going on

in recording as he works

the with

the group.

(b) The

group

worker

must

be

skilful

in

using

his

records

and

in

helping the improvement.

Phillips work:

group

to

review

its

experiences

as

a

means

of

has enumerated the following skills of social group

I. Skill in using agency Function The skilful worker carries protest it by words but toward what the agency is to the doing of it.

the function in himself, not needing to directing all of his efforts consistently in the community to do, and contributing

1. The Intake Process The worker who meets the applicant, while carrying out the agency's procedures for intake, will discuss with him what he particularly wants from the agency as well as what is available there for him to consider both the privileges and responsibilities of agency hip. 2. Connecting the Group with the Agency The worker relates the group more firmly to the agency hy helping it to understand what the agency stands for and what kind of responsible behaviour is expected of them as well as of other groups. 240

SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

3. Serving the Individual through the Croup Work Process Since the function of the agency includes helping group units to develop in socially useful ways, as well as helping individuals, the worker's attention must simultaneously be on the development of the group as whole, and on each individual's use of the group. 4. Working with the Individual Outside the Group Meetings Although the worker's help toward fulfilling the purpose is offered primarily within the group process, part of that help may be given through individual s with , to the end, that they may make better use of the group experience. 5. The Referral Process An important part of the group work agency's service is to work with and their parents in a process of considering the use of other community services for help with problems that cannot be dealt within the group work agency, possibly eventuating in a referral. II. Skill in Communication of Feelings /. The 1 Vorkers' Feelings High among the qualities essential to a social worker's skill is the

capacity to feel with others. 2. The Group 'Feelings The worker must be skilful in helping accept, express and be responsible for their feelings.

the

group

to

know,

3. Group Feelings The interaction of each member to produces some group feeling. The understanding their feelings and its meanings.

the others and to worker helps the

the worker groups in

HI. Skill in using the Reality of the Present 1. Utilizing the Group's Current Interest for Purposeful Activity. 2. Helping the group to responsible decision. 1. SOCIAL GROUP WORK " 2ST IV. Skill in Stimulating and using Group Relations

1. Group relations as the focus for social group work process. Social group work has focused its efforts on understanding and using the worker's activity in a process that enables each group member to find and take his part in the whole, in relationship with other . I 2. The use of programme to strengthen group relations. 3. Containment of an essential quality in the worker. j| 4. Group relation in crisis: The group worker controls the process of group relations but not the , by enabling them Ij to take their active and appropriate part in it. VI. PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK Douglas36 has described fourteen principles of social group work: 1. Recognition and subsequent action in relation to the unique difference of each individual. 2. Recognition and subsequent action in relation to the wide variety of groups as groups. 3. Genuine acceptance of each individual with his unique strengths and weaknesses. 4. Establishment of a purposeful relationship between group worker and group member. 5. Encouragement and enabling of help and cooperative relationships between . 6. Appropriate modification- of the group process. . 7. Encouragement of each member to participate according to the stage of his capacity and enabling him to become more capable. 8. Enabling to involve themselves in the process of problem solving. 9. Enabling group to experience increasingly satisfactory forms of working through conflicts.

10. Provision of opportunities for new and differing experience in relationships and accomplishments. 11. Judicious use of limitations related to the diagnostic i( assessment of each individual and the total situation. »

12. Purposeful and differential use of programme according to . f 10. 242 SOCIAL WORK -PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS diagnostic evaluation of individual , group purpose, and appropriate social goals. 13. Ongoing evaluation of individual and group progress. 14. Warm human and disciplined use of self on group worker.

the

part

of

the

Terence J. Cooke37 has derived the following principles to use as a guide in applying the philosophy of St. Thomas. 1. All individuals have common human needs which they seek to satisfy in groups. 2. The primary objective of social group work is the development of the individual by means of the group in which some of these needs are satisfied and/or the primary objective of group work is the development of the individual and the group. 3. In social group work, the group work process, the dynamic interaction among the of the group and the worker and the group is the primary means of personality growth, change and development. (i) Group Programme The programme is a means or tool of individual and group development which should be derived from the basic needs and interests of the group, (ii) Voluntary attendance Voluntary attendance of group at meetings is essential to good group work. 4. Since social group work operates in setting, the group worker is essential process and he is necessarily one understanding and skill in the art related to and work with each other.

a controlled agency to the group work who has knowledge, of helping people

Friedlander has mentioned the following basic principles of social group work: 1.

The function of the social group worker is a helping or enabling one. This means that his goal is to help the of the group and the group as a whole to move toward greater independence and capacity for self-help.

SOCIAL GROUP WORK 243 2. In determining his scientific method

way —

of life, the fact finding

group worker (observation),

uses the analysis,

diagnosis in relation social environment.

3. The group work purposeful relationships This includes conscious

to

the

individual,

the

method requires the to group

group,

and

worker to and the

the

form group.

focusing on the purpose of the sponsoring agency, and as implied in the ' behaviour. It is differentiated from casual unfocused relationship. 4. One of the main tools in achieving such a relationship is the conscious use of self. This includes self-knowledge and self- discipline in relationships without the loss of warmth and spontaneity. 5. Acceptance of people without accepting all their behaviour: This includes a basic respect and love for people, a warmth relating to their strength as well as to their weakness. It is not sentimentality and is enhanced by understanding of individual needs and societal demands. 6 Starting where the group is. The capacity to let groups develop from their own point of departure without imposing immediately outside demands. 7. The constructive use of limitations : They must be used judiciously in relation to individual and group needs and agency function. The forms will vary greatly. The group worker will mainly use himself, programme materials, interaction of the group, and awakening of insight in the group . 8. Individualization. 9. Use of the interacting process. 10. The understanding and conscious use of non-verbal programme as well as verbal material. Tracker 1.

has explained the following principles:

The Principle of Planned Group Fromation — In social group work, the group is the basic unit through which service is provided to the individual, consequently, the agency and worker responsible for the formation of groups or the acceptance into the agency of already-formed groups must be aware of the factors inherent in the group SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

situation that make the given group a positive potential for individual growth and for meeting recognizable needs. 2. The Principle of Specific Ojectives — In social group work, specific ojectives of individual and group development must be consciously formulated by the worker in harmony with group wishes and capacities and in keeping with agency function.

3. The Principle of Purposeful Worker Group Relationship — In social group work, a consciously purposeful relationship must be established between the worker and the group

based on the worker's as they are and upon

acceptance of the group the groups willingness to

accept help from the worker because of the confidence the have in him and in the agency. 4. The Principle of Continuous Individualization — In social group work, it is recognized that groups are different and that individuals utilize group experience in a variety of ways to meet their differing needs; consequently, continuous individualization must be practised by the worker. Groups and the individuals in the groups must be understood as developing and changing. 5. The Principle of Guided Group Interaction — In social group work, the primary source of energy which propels the group and influences the individual to change are the interaction or reciprocal responses of the . The group worker influence this interaction by the type and quality of his participation. 6. The Principle of Democratic Group Self-determination — In social group work, the group must be helped to make its own decisions and determine its own activities, taking the maximum amount of responsibility in line with its capacity and ability. The primary source of control over the group is the group itself. 7. The Principle of Flexible Functional Organization — In social group work, the process through which the worker guides the group in setting up formal organization is just as important as the actual structure details of that organization. Formal organization, should be flexible and should be encouraged only as it meets a felt need, is understood by the and can function accordingly. 2. SOCIAL GROUP WORK 245 The formal organization of the group should be adaptive and should change as the group changes. 8. The-Principle of Progressive Programme Experiences — In social group work, the programme experiences in which the group engages should begin at the level of member interest, need, experience, and competence and should progress in relation to the developing capacity of the group. 9. The Principle of Resource Utilization — In social group work, the total environment of agency and community possesses resources which should be utilized to enrich the content of the group experience for individuals and for the group as a whole.

10. The Principle of Evaluation — continuous evaluation of process and of outcomes is essential. Worker, group and agency

In

social group programmes in

work,

share this procedure as a means possible self-fulfilment for all.

of

guaranteeing

this

in greatest

VII. DEFINITION OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE GROUP WORKER A National Committee Workers4 formulated the group worker:

of the American Association of Group following definition of the functions of the

The group worker enables various types of groups function in such a way that both group's interaction programme activities contribute to the growth of individual, and the achievement of desirable social goals.

to and the

The objectives of group worker include provision for personal growth according to individual capacity and need, the adjustment of the individual to other persons, to groups and to society, and the motivation of the individual toward the improvement of society, the recognition by tfie individual of his own rights, limitations and abilities as well as his acceptance of the rights, abilities, and differences of others. Through his participation the group worker aims to affect the group process so that decisions come about as a result of knowledge and a sharing and integration of ideas, experiences and knowledge 246 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS ralher than as a result of domination from within or without the group. Through experience he aims to produce these relations with other groups and the wider community which contributes to reponsible citizenship, mutual understanding between cultural, religious, economic or social groupings in the community and a participation in the constant improvement of our society toward democratic goals. •. The guiding purpose behind such leadership rests upon the common assumptions of a democratic society, namely, • the opportunity for each individual to fulfil his capacities in freedom, to respect and appreciate others and to assume his social responsibility in maintaining and constantly improving the democratic society. Underlying the practice of group work is a knowledge of individual and group behaviour and of social conditions and community relations which are based on the modern social sciences. On the basis of this knowledge the group worker contributes to

the group with whom he works, to use their capacities constructive group activities.

He

is

aware

of

both

the

skill in leadership to the full and

programme

activities

which enables the to create socially

and

the

interplay

of personalities within surrounding community.

the

group

and

between

the

groups

and

its

According to the interests and needs of each, he assists them to get from the group experience the satisfactions provided by the programme activities, the enjoyment and personal growth available through the social relations and the opportunity to participate as a responsible citizen.

The group worker makes conscious use of his relation to the group, his knowledge of programme as a tool, and his understanding of the individual and of the group process and recognizes his responsibility to individuals and groups with whom he works and to the larger social values he represents.

In general, Social group worker performs the following activities: ACTIVITIES RELATING TO GROUP 1. Group Formation Worker studies individual's altitudes, interests, needs, and desires and unite them on the basis of certain principles. He forms the group according to the motives and the needs of the agency. He, after the SOCIAL GROUP WORK 247 interview of the , brings out such accepted and conditions which unite them together. In the group formation process, the group worker decides: (i) nature of group activities — recreational, educational, social treatment or mixed; (ii) working methodology; play, drama, role playing, discussion, work experience, etc; (iii) place of activities; (iv) frequency of the group meeting; and its meeting time; (v) process of communication; (vi) selection procedure of the group (age, sex, member, educational, cultural background, etc.); (vii) need of the community resources. 2. Programme Planning Though group plan and organize activities for themselves but the worker is the key factor in making these activities lively. He guides and directs the group so that the maximum creative effects may come out from these activities and group may avail full benefit out of these activities. He is more involved in children's activities. If

he works with socially handicapped cr mentally retarded people, dicides himself most of the activities. The worker keeps his eyes on the interaction process of group. If any member is not taking interest or not participating as is desired, the worker helps him. He resolves group conflicts directs them for healthy interaction.

he the he and

3. Development of Responsible Participation

Social group work believes that when of the group behave in a responsible manner, the group has conducive with more effect on its . The following conditions show the nature of belongingness: member accepts the

objectives of the group, interprets them and shows interest in achieving them. He fulfils his roles and helps others in doing so. He believes in healthy criticism. The social group worker accomplishes the following activities to gain responsible participation : He selects only those individuals who want to avail the facilities in a real sense. He provides them full information about the programme, facilities in the agency and working methodology. He directs the group activities keeping in view the needs and desires of each member. He develops leadership qualities in them so that they take leadership in their hands and direct their activities. He does not allow any member to dominate,jhe ; group and individualizes each member regularly. 248


4. Direction to the Interaction Process The basic function of social group worker is to direct the interaction process of'the group. He watches the activities and bahaviour of every member of the group. He keeps his eyes on member's participation, its frequency, time, duration, order of participation, interaction level and its direction, contents of interaction and meaning of activities to the group . Generally disorganized interaction appears in the forms of conflict and apathy. Group worker resolves such problems with the help of his professional skills. 5. Development of Leadership Group differ in their talents and abilities. Some are more capable in the realm of leadership than others. Group worker's job is to locate those individuals who show signs of being able to assume leadership responsibilities Thus, the worker on one hand, finds it necessary to work with these who are carrying on leadership duties, and on the other hand helps every member to try out his specific strengths. 6. Study and Help of each Individual Member The group worker works with individual member in the .following ways: 1. He makes aware each member about the aims, objectives, resources, facilities of the agency. 2. He gains knowledge of attitudes, interest, needs and problems of each individualization. He introduces each member to the group. 3. He advises each member to fulfil his responsibilities and helps in his tasks. 4. When any member fails to fulfil his responsibilities and feels difficulty, the worker develops an insight and brings the factors to light which are responsible for his failure. 5. When any member shows aggressive tendencies or shows of sign of withdrawal, the worker helps in changing his behaviour.

7. Evaluation Evaluation is an important task of suggested the following activities under evaluation:

the

worker.

Trecker

SOCIAL GROUP WORK 249 1. Formulations of objectives for groups and individuals in of agency purposes. 2. Identification of criteria for judging growth and development of individual and group. 3. Provisions of programme experiences designed to foster growth and change. 4. Keeping of full records of individual and group behaviour. 5. Analysis of records by applying criteria of growth and development. 6. Interpretation of analytical data to determine whether objectives are being reached. 7. Review of programme content and method. 8. Modification of objectives, continuation of evaluation. ACTIVITIES RELATING TO THE AGENCY Group worker is an employee of the agency and therefore, he uses his knowledge and skill as a representative of the agency. He must have the following knowledge about the agency. 1. Aims and objectives of the agency. 2. Changing nature of the agency. 3. Geographical, social, psychological, and other factors of the agency, 4. Condition and fecililies of the agency. 5. Internal and external policies of the agency. 6. The worker tries to change the group according to the policies of the agency. 7. He participates in every meeting of the agency. 8. He helps in the growth and development of the agency's resources. VIII. GROUP DIAGNOSIS HOW TO DIAGNOSE GROUP PROBLEMS Three most common group problems are: 1. Conflict or fight 2. Apathy and non-participation 3. Inadequate decision-making4 1. 250

has

SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS 1. Problem of Conflict or Fight in the Group We find the following group behaviour expressions in conflicting and fighting situations: 1. are impatient with one another, 2. Ideas are attacked before they are completely expressed, 3. take sides and refuse to compromise,

4. disagree to plans or suggestions, 5. Comments and suggestions are made with a great deal of vehemence, 6. attack one another on a personal level in subtle ways, 7. insist that the group does not have the know-how or experience to get anywhere, 8. feel that the group cannot go ahead because it is too large or too small, 9. disagree to the leader's suggestions, 10. accuse one another of not understanding the real point, of issue. 11. bear distorted fragments of other member's contributions, 10. Symptoms

Possible diagnosis

1. Every suggestion made seems The group may have impossible for practical reasons; been given an impossible 2. Some feel the group is too Job and are feel unable to meet the demands made of them. frustrated because they small; 3. Everyone seems to feel pushed for time; 4. are impatient with one another; 5. insist the group does not have the know-how or experience to get anywhere; 6. Each member has a different idea of what the group is supposed to do; 3. SOCIAL GROUP WORK 251 Symptoms 7.

Possible diagnosis

Whenever a suggestion is made, at least one member feels it won't satisfy the large organization.

1. Ideas are attacked before they are The main concern pf completely expressed; is to find status in the group. 2. take sides and refuse to

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

compromise; There is no movement towards a solution of the problem; The group keeps getting struck on in consequential points; attack one another on a personal level in subtle ways; There are subtle attacks on the * leadership; There is much clique formation.

1. The goal is stated in very general, are loyal to non-operational ; outside groups of conflicting interests. 2. take sides and refuse to compromise; 3. Each member is pushing his own plan;

4. Suggestions

are

not

built

on

previous

suggestions; 5. Each member appearing to start again from the beginning; 6. disagree to plans or suggestions; 7. don't listen to one another, each waiting for a chance to say something. 1. 252 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

Symptoms Possible diagnosis

1.

4. 5. 6. There is a goal which understand and agree to; Most of the comments are relevant to the problem; frequently disagree to one-another's suggestions; Comments and suggestions are made with a great deal of vehemence; There are occasional expressions of warmth; are frequently impatient with one another; There is general movement towards some solution of the problem. The fight being expressed is constructive,

feel involved and are working hard on a problem.

<•%, x^J ^ 2. Apathy

Apathy may be expressed in the form of the indifference to the group task, lack of genuine enthusiasm for the job, lack of persistence, satisfaction with poor work, etc. The following symptoms are generally seen: frequent yawns, dozing off, no point of discussion, low level of participation, conversation drags, coming late and frequently absent, slouching and restlessness, overquick decisions, failure to follow through decisions, ready suggestions for adjournment , failure to consider necessary arrangement for the next meeting,

reluctance any further responsibility.

to

Symptoms Possible diagnosis

1.

Questions may be raised about: The group goal may seem unimportant to the .

\ i What is their Job? What do they want us to do? SOCIAL GROUP WORK 253 Symptoms 2. fail to follow through decision; 3. There is no expectation that will contribute responsibly, 4. Confused irrelevant statements are allowed to go without question; 5. wonder about the reason for working on this problem; 6. Suggestions are made that we work on something else; to 7. The attitude is expressed that we should just decide on

Possible diagnosis

assume

8. 9.

10.

11.

1. 2.

1. 254

anything; The decision does not really matter; are inattentive seem to get lost and not to have heard parts of the proceeding discussion; Suggestions frequently ploped are not taken up and built on by others; No one will volunteer for additional work. Points are made over and Inadequate problem solving over; procedure. Appears to be unable to develop adequate summaries; SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS Symptoms

3. Little evaluation of the process; 4. Little attention to fact finding or use of special resources; 5. Complaints are made that the groups'job is an impossible one; 6. Subgroups are formed; 7. No follow-through on decisions or disagreement or what the decisions really were;

Possible diagnosis

> .-

8.

Always demand for leader's decision.

1.

Two or three Conflict among few dominate all over the is creating apathy in others, discussion, but never agree; Conflict between strong comes out no matter what is dicussed, ; dominant occasionally appeal to other's for , but otherwise control ' conversation Decisions are made by only two or three .

2.

3.

3. Inadequate Decision-making Symptoms 1.

Possible diagnosis

The group swings between Decision is too difficult or making too rapid decisions group is low in cohesiveness and having difficulty in and lacking faith in itself. deciding anything;

SOCIAL GROUP WORK Symptoms

255 Possible diagnosis

2. The group almost makes the decision but at the last minute retreats; 3. Group call for definition and redefinition of minute points. 1. There are long delays in Though goal is important but getting started much fear working toward irrelevant preliminary the group — goal conversation; 2. Embarrassment or reluctance in discussing the problem at hand; 3. emphasize consequences of

the making

4. 5.

6.

7.

wrong dire has little ascertainable facts; make suggestions apologetically; are over-tentative and hedge their contributions with may, ifsandbut's; Solutions proposed are frequently attacked as unrealistic; Suggestions are made that someone else ought to make the decision - the leader, an outside expert, or some qualified person outside the group;

decisions, consequences

imagine which to

reference

1. SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS Symptoms 8.

Possible diagnosis

insist that they have not enough information

or decision

ability

to and

make appear

a to

9.

demand high level of competence; Humorous alternative proposals are suggested, with the group completely unable to select among them.

an

unrealistically

1.

No one is able to suggest the first step in getting started toward the goal; 2. seem to be unable to stay on a given point and each person seems to start on a new track; 3. appear to talk of the past to misunderstand one another and the same; 4. Discussion wanders into abstraction. 1. Lack of clarity about decision; Decision may be threatening 2. Disagreement as to %vhere because of unclear consensus is; consequences, fear or of , .. , reaction of others or fear of 3. A decision is apparently failure for the individuals, made but challenged at the end; 4. Group refuse responsibility; SOCIAL GROUP WORK 257 Symptoms 5.

Possible diagnosis

There is continued effort to leave decision-making to leader, subgroup or outside source. IX. GROUP WORK TREATMENT

Social

group

work

is

a

professional

service

which

aims

to

work

generally with the normal people to develop and strengthen their abilities to establish and maintain positive relationships with others. Treatment in group work means management of group situations and problems with a view to satisfy the group needs and achieve satisfying group participation and growth. Persons poorly adjusted in a group are simply those with poor adjustment in their social life. They have not learned to capitalize suitably their own potentials. They are relatively static in the face of obstacles *or retreat from pressures instead of meeting the demands of reality. When group work is used as a therapy, its objectives are different. It is mostly used in dealing with functional illnesses which aims at (1) to relieve tensions and anxieties in the patients, (2) to help patients resolve some of their conflicts, (3) to assist patients in arriving at a clearer understanding of some of the reasons for their trouble, and (4) to enable patients to depend upon their personal resources in substituting methods of behaviour which are satisfying and acceptable for those which have been chiefly defensive. TREATMENT METHODS

No specific methods have been

developed in social group work because its main objective is to strengthen normal personality and socialization process. Group avail of this opportunity if they find the atmosphere of the group congenial and interest promoting. Group worker's success depends on the degree of rapport he has built with the group . In general, the following- methods are used in social group work. 1. Empathy, Warm and Genuineness Empathy means to perform the role of others or to realize other's ¦''¦J258

SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY AND MEIHODS

> , 1 I e ;

'

problems as its own. The job of the worker is to study the group and mobilize them in such a way so that they may develop an insight of the problem. Warm is a non-verbal method of expression. The worker expresses this feeling by touching , showing favourable facial expression and acting accordingly. This helps in creating worker's acceptance by the group and developing close relationship among group . Genuineness means the appropriate methods and media for the group activities to attain its objectives. 2. Self-disclosure

!

The worker expresses his own experiences before the group . It helps them in understanding their problems and learn to ease from tension and anxiety. The time, content and nature of self-disclosure one important and the worker must keep in mind the appropriateness of these factors in accordance with group situation. 3. Disclosure of Confronting Behaviour "*-"' '

Sometimes the behaviour expression of a member of the group is different than what he says. For example, he says that he is not angry with anybody in (he group but his voice and word expression show that he is angry. The job of the worker is to clarify these situations and warn not to allow to happen such situations.

4. Investigation ^>

^

The group worker prepares an interview schedule for the group in order to know the internal and external feelings of the . This helps the worker to diagnose the problem of the group. 5.

-«i

It is a psychological strategy which is used to strengthen .or restructure ego power in the of the group. The worker provides an opportunity to the group to express its feelings and

clarifies the positive and

negative aspects of these feelings. He takes interest in group activities and helps at the time of need. He enables the group to take its own decision for the programme and its implementation.

SOCIAL GROUP WORK 259 6. Cognitive Restructuring Cognitive restructuring refers to complex strategy for changing perceptions of emotional sets, which seem to impede the group ' abilities to change. Sometimes group fails to arrive at a decision due to complexity of problem. At this time, group needs such help so that it may perceive the reality. It is the work of group worker to provide such help. 7. Role Playing Role playing is such a method through which group gain knowledge of their roles and other's roles. Through role playing a member expresses his feelings, thoughts and action in reference to others. This method is used to know the reality of life conditions. 8. Partialization Group worker divides the takes up one by one for organize activities accordingly. in such a way so that it process helps the group to solved.

whole problem into many parts and its solution. He directs the group to Thus he enables the group to work does not have unnecessary tension. This understand that the problem can be

X. TOOLS OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK The major tools of the social group worker are: 1. The conscious and disciplined use of himself. 2. The verbal interaction between himself and between . 3. The discriminate use of programme activities related to the needs of the individual and the group. 4. Interaction among the group themselves. The worker must have necessary knowledge of human and group behaviour, skills, techniques, and problem solving capacity. The success of the group work depends on him. If he is skilled, the group will certainly achieve its objectives. He contributes especially

in the following areas. 1. Establishes purposeful relationship with the group, agency 260

SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS and the community and always tries to make it more effective and purposeful.

2. Participates in the activities of the

-«p;S -t

.» ¦>

"'J> .""

Ij*

" -* , -v "- i t t .J ""', \

group, agency and community and thus helps them.. 3. Determines his responsibility, z makes changes in his approach and evaluates himself according to the need of the group. 4. Uses his knowledge and relationship timely. 5. Develops self control, patience, tolerance in himself and works with group in healthy atmosphere. The basic need for relationship is . Group and the worker have emotional and psychological variety of tools. They affect another due to interaction. The interaction process denoted the fact that the worker's reaction, gesture, words or abstracts, bodily movement stimulate and they in their turn act toward the worker and the group. Stability of relationship is dependent on the reactions of the participant and "interaction among the group 44 themselves." The worker must be skilful in directing the interaction process. The reveal their personality patterns through the ways in which they are engaged in activities. Knowledge of the potentialities of programme media makes it possible for the worker to understand the needs so expressed and to help the meet these needs through the programme to the group if it is possible to do so.45 There are many programme media which are used according to the need of the group. There are games, play, dance, music, story telling, drama, arts, crafts, etc. Growth and development in the group are the result of natural interaction among group . In the beginning phase of the group activities, group shows the characteristics of collection of individuals and group consciousness is of low level. take interest in their talks. The social group worker develops a common wish or desire and this is the first sign of group formation. Group feelings are increased later on. In general, group interaction has six stages: 1. collect together but each takes interest in himself. 2. Group feeling is developed, form of organization is

determined and programmes are

organized.

SOCIAL GROUP WORK 261 3. Rules, regulations, and conditions are framed, closeness is increased. 4. High level of group feelings are found and objectives are achieved. 5. start taking less interest, low level of interaction gradually appears. 6. Group is dissolved. XL DEMOCRATIC GROUP PROCESSES Processes are the ways of doing things, the approaches one takes and the steps are followed to reach one's goals. Democratic group process occurs when there is a permissive, democratic, experimental atmosphere as opposed to a punitive, hostile, competitive, autocratic climate. The following characteristics are found in democratic group process: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Everyone participates voluntarily All action is cooperative. » Regular interaction occurs among group . The group formulate goals. Every group member is a'change agent' Group morale and discipline are'we-centred'. Leadership is a function of the group. ANALYSIS OF GROUP PROCESSES

To achieve maximum effectiveness with democratic processes, a group needs group thinking, group discussion, planning, group decision, group action and group evaluation.

group group

GROUP THINKING It means group intelligence in working to work out means for their accomplishment.

process.

It

shows

the

ability

GROUP DISCUSSION When there is an effective discussion, participate freely, and the atmosphere of the group is cooperative. Leadership is assumed by various of the group and es from one to another. Questions stimulate group thinking. The following techniques should be used to achieve group thinking and discussion: (1) each person should express his

262


views, (2) no debate but cooperative talk, (3) every one should assess his ideas in the light of the discussion, (4) when discussion wanders, restate the question and get a new start, (5) short statements, (6) no ambiguous talks, (7) control over feeling of too much talks, (8) fair chance to every member, (9) trust the group , (10) fixed time for discussion, (11) summarize each discussion. GROUP PLANNING AND DECISION

Group planning and decision involve the following fundamental steps'. (a)*fhe clear definition of the problem during a period of group thinking and the formulation of the real group goals; (b) the selection of the possible paths of action (ends and means) toward the goals; (c) the election of a path of action (group decision) and the application of the action to the problem. Group decision involves the decision how to take action and who should do it. The group decision often becomes a forced compromise by means of majority vole. Such a compromise divides the group into majority and minority. Though majority rule is democratic technique of group decisions, yet it is an inadequate technique. Group decision should be the result of a consensus in the action to be taken. But to achieve consensus is very difficult. The following steps should be taken for achieving group decision : (i) full opportunity to each member to express his views; (ii) free to ask questions, (iii) control the group member from criticizing each other, (iv) find out common suggestions, (v) make priorities and preferences. GROUP ACTION Effective group action has three prime requisites: (a) a genuine interest in the group project; (b) a belief on the part of the group in each other and in the cooperative democratic process; and (c) a desire to make it work. The following steps should be taken to make group action more effective. 1. Group action must arise out of need felt by group . 2. Group should accept the responsibility of group action. 1. SOCIAL GROUP WORK 263 3.

Group action should develop intolerance of group pathologies such as inability to arrive at a decision, failure to use member potential, inability to use resources, inability to evaluate success or failure of group processes, rigidity of organization, prevention of the assimilation of new , rigidity of role structure etc. GROUP EVALUATION

Group evaluation techniques aspects of evaluation.

are

1. Evaluation of leadership, 2. Evaluation of the group process, 3. Evaluation of the outcomes , and

concerned

or

with

changes

the

brought

following

about

in

4. Evaluation of group action in of group goals. XII. EVALUATION

By evaluation we mean appraisal or

judgement of the worth and effectiveness of all the processes of social group work designed to meet the objectives of the group. It is essentially the study and review of past operating experience. According to Trecker, "Evaluation is that part of social group work in which the worker attempts to measure the quality of group's experience in relation to the objectives and function of the agency. Evaluation may be centred upon individual growth, programme content, on worker performance. Evaluation is essential because it enables the worker to discover to what extent group has achieved its objectives. Evaluation enables the group to see both strengths and weaknesses and is enabled to discover points at which group need to alter their procedures. Well planned evaluation help to formulate new objectives and to renew unsuited objectives. It further directs the worker to adjust and modernize his methods of working with group. Evaluation can be stimulation to greater professional growth. It can be an extension of the learning process because its very nature is scientific and its aim is educational. CONTENT OF EVALUATION Group worker evaluates the following: 264


1. Evaluation of Individual Growth Group is composed of individuals. They become the member of the group because of certain needs and desires. Therefore, the main objective of social group work is to fulfil these needs and desires in accordance with the prescribed rules and procedures. But how can the worker be able to know the level of fulfilment of their needs without evaluating their growth process. The worker evaluates the presence of each member. He evaluates their level of participation in the group activities. Sometimes it happens, that the member because of difficulty in adjusting himself in the group, remains usually absent giving one or the other reason. The worker evaluates the growth of skills, methods of problems solving, behaviour techniques or knowledge gained by the member through the group experience. The chart (A) has been prepared for the evaluation of the individual member growth. (A) Chart for Evaluation Individual qualities parts and

Nature of growth and Regression chance Slight Major 1 2 3 as usual progress 1. Attendance progress 2. Frequency of participation 3. with group 4. Self-esteem

4

5. Reliability 6. Emotional control 7. with reality 8. Frequency of responses 9. Behavioural dynamism 10. Tolerance 11. Leadership qualities

12. Sensitivity 13. Sympathy for group 14. Loyalty for group 15. Capacity of Problem solving 16. Discussion and conversation 17. Ways of performing task 18. New knowledge 19. Status in group 20. Breakdown prejudices 10. SOCIAL GROUP WORK 265 Douglas has proposed the following capacities to be evaluated for measuring individual growth. These are :.,. (1) encourages, (2) agrees, accepts, (3) arbitrates, (4) proposes action, (5) asks suggestions, (6) gives opinion, (7) asks opinion, (8) gives information, (9) seeks information, (10) poses problem, (11) defines position, (12) asks position, (13) routine direction, (14) depreciates self, (15) autocratic manner, (16) disagrees, (17) self-assertion, (18) active aggression, (19) ive aggression. 2. Evaluation of the Group Group is the medium for achieving individual's objectives and individual personality development. Therefore, it is essential for a worker to evaluate the effects and growth of group as a whole. The group worker evaluates the group organization, a social responsibility fulfilled by the group, maturity that has achieved, skilfullness, and expertness has developed, the techniques of problem solving have seen learned and mutual understanding and cooperation have developed amotig group . Bernstein " has developed the chart (B) for evaluation of the progress in the group. (B) Chart for Evaluation Group criteria 1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Trends Regression Static Slight 2 ' 3 progress 4

Attendance Group organization Group standards Wider Horizons Social responsibility: (a) To each other

Great progres s 5

(b) To agency (c) To community 6. Enriched Interests 7. Handling conflicts 8. Leadership and participation 6. 266 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPIIY AND METHODS Group criteria 1

Trends Regression Static Slight 2 3 4 progress .

Great progre ss 5

9. Cooperative planning 10. Group-thinking 11. Group loyalty and morale 12. Acceptance of differences 13. Decreasing need of leader Douglas has prepared the following yardstick for measuring the growth of a group. 1. How clear are the group goals:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

No apparent goals Goal confusion, uncertainty or conflict Average goal clarity Goals mostly clear Goals very clear

2. How much trust and openness in the group ? 1. Distrust, a closed group 2. Little trust, defensiveness 3. Average trust and openness 4. Considerable trust and openness 5. Remarkable trust and openness 3. How sensitive and perceptive are group ? 1. No awareness or listening in the group 2. Most self-absorbed 3. Average sensitivity and listening 4. Better than usual listening 5. Outstanding sensitivity to others. 4. How much attention was paid to process ? (The way group was working) 1. No attention to process ^ 2. Little attention to process 3. Some concern with group process 4. A fair balance between content and process 5. Very concerned with process. 1. SOCIAL GROUP WORK 267 5. How were group leadership needs met ? 1. Not met, drifting 2. Leadership concentrated in one person 3. Some leadership sharing 4. Leadership functions distributed 5. Leadership needs met creatively and flexibly 6. How were group decisions made ? 1. No decisions could be reached 2. Made by a few 3. Majority vote 4. Attempts at integrating minority vote 5. Full participation and tested consensus 7. How well were group resources used ? 1. One or two contributed but deviants silent 2. Several tried to contribute but more discouraged 3. About average use of group resources 4. Group resources well used and encouraged. 5. Group resources fully and effectively used.

8. How much loyalty and sense of belonging to the group? 1. had no group loyalty or sense of belonging. 2. not close but some friendly relations. 3. About average sense of belonging. 4. Some warm sense of belonging 5. Strong sense of belonging among . « 3. Evaluation of the Member's Group Contribution The focus here is on the contribution of the member to the development of the group, not on his total personality. This calls for an assessment at the end of each meeting. Bernstein has prepared the chart (C) for this purpose.

(C) Chart for Evaluation of

Group Contribution Constructive participation 1.

268

Good attention and interest but no outstanding participation

SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS* Constructive participation

2.

3.

4.

5.

Name of member

Name of member

Minor contributions, such as helping to arrange chairs, getting equipment, etc. More important contribution, e.g. thoughtful consideration of new . A good job handling a committee assignment or of something comparable An outstanding contribution, such as helping to resolve conflicts, unusual effort in relation to responsibilities, etc Destructive participation

1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

Inattentivene.ss and lack of interest and participation Giggling, restlessness, and similar behaviour. Openly opposing and thwarting the plans and activities of the group. Name calling and other arts which tend to stimulate aggressive and negative responses. Violently destructive behaviour which makes it impossible for the group to continue normally for a time. XIII. IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK IN MODERN TIMES

1. Man is a group animal. He lives in the group for the protection, education, exploration of adventure, promotion, advisement, istration coordination, integrations SOCIAL GROUP WORK

269

purposes of treatment,

and planning.54 He has no existence far from group life. In modern times group life has been adversely affected due to development of technological and materialistic outlook. Man, though lives among thousands yet feels alone. He now thinks himself as a machine. Values of happy life such as love, affection, sympathy, friendliness, etc, are becoming rare commodity today. Social group work which is based on these values may be of a great help to the modern man. ill

2. Urbanization has separation. The feeling of

increased

the

problem

of

isolation

and

separation is gradually increasing. Man is considering himself as a helpless creature and is limiting his close circles. Thus its result may be seen in the form of increased mental disorders. Social group work attempts to deal with the problem of isolation. 3. Every human being has the basic desire of having importance, worth, respect and a place in the society. Social group work keeps the busy by providing them worth, dignity, ? place, role, creative participation. * 4. Modern age is affecting our adaptation abilities. Old I techniques are not as suited as those were in the times. Man has to ?t learn new techniques of behaviour for the proper adjustment in the j various fields of life. Social group work provides theis knowledge. | 5. Self dependency is a basic characteristic for the personality if growth and development. In social group work, each member plays j his role and thus learns to fulfil his obligations of life without taking j] help from others. Group work alsb makes people economically nji self-dependent by organizing training in small-scale industries and crafts. 6. Social group provides a new hope to the physically handicapped disabled and aged persons. 7. Social group work helps to achieve democratic goals such as liberty, equality, fraternity and social justice. 8. It provides recreation, the most valuable medicine for keeping oneself mentally healthy. 9. Human capacities and abilities are strengthened through the group work. 10. Social group work helps in solving psychosocial problem.

J mm J 270

SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS XIV. RECORD WRITING IN GROUP WORK MEANING OF RECORD WRITING

Writing record is generally accepted as a necessary practice in social group work. For the worker to keep an accurate, honest and thoughtful of the processes which are occurring within the group, it is of utmost importance as no worker is able to keep the variations of behaviour of a group in his mind. Recording extends and supplements our memory recall, thus increasing the volume of usable memory wc have at our command.

Recording in group work means writing the

description of the individual's activities, his relationship with the group. Social group worker writes about the individual and their responses to one another, their behavioural pattern, type and extent of participation, movement, growth and change in individual and group and his own role in the group processes. IMPORTANCE OF RECORD WRITING Preparing records is essential because (i) records help the group worker to understand individuals in the group; (ii) help the worker to understand the group as whole; (iii) provide evidences of growth and change in the and in the group worker himself; (iv) help the worker to do more effective job with his groups; (v) the worker can see merging and changing interests of individual ; (vi) he can see the development of skills and social attitudes; (vii) he gains knowledge of special problems in the group; (viii) he knows the emergence of group consciousness; (ix) he records provide content for supervisory conferences; (x) they are the source of future planning; (xi) they are source of information for other workers; and (xii) the records provide a permanent and continuous of facts for the agency. CONTENTS OF RECORD 1. Identifying information of the group: 1. Name of the group 2. Time of meeting 3. Place of meeting 4. Name of the present, absent 5. New (if any) 6. Physical settings of the agency 1. SOCIAL GROUP WORK 271 7. Important observations. 2. Member's participation by name: 1. Role perfumed 2. Conversation did 3. Talks began 4. Expressed his views 5. Sequence of participation in activities 6. Special contribution made 7. Interaction type, level, duration, place. 8. Emotional quality of participation 3. Description of the group as a whole:

and

creativeness,

took

1. General atmosphere in the group — formal, informal, competitive, cooperative, hostile, ive, permissive, any other. 2. Quantity and quality of work accomplished by the group 3. Participation of group — mostly all/few talked and participated, ed* others, took sides/ dominated group, etc. 4. Positive and negative responses 5. feelings about their group 6. Group's status in the agency. 4. Description of the group problems.

1. Conflict or fight — nature, type,

reason, involvement, level; 2. Apathy — nature, level, and possible causes; 3. Inadequate decision making' 5. The relationship and the role of the group worker: 1. Material provided by the worker 2. Arrangement made 3. Agents help taken 4. Suggestions given 5. Technique, used for problem solving 6. Workers'participation in group processes ]5. Special assistance given: 1. Member's name ! 2. Problem 3. Nature of assistance 272


7. Evaluation: 1. evaluation of programme activities 2. evaluation of the group 'participation 3. evaluation of the workers role. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF RECORDING Lindsay has suggested the following basic principles of recording: 1. The Principle of Flexibility The acceptance of this principle means that the group worker records as a disciplined professional. As the nature and objectives of the agency and the group change, the worker records accordingly and gives emphasis on the other aspects. 2. The Principle of Selection Everything should not be recorded in the group work recording. The worker records significant observations about individuals and their interactions.-He selects from the movement of the group, behavioural patterns of individual, his own enabling contributions and skills and techniques applied in the group processes. 3. The Principle of Readability The most important aspect is to keep the record as simple as possible in form, in language, in length. Records, must have face sheet, presenting a brief outline of the factual data. If records are detailed, brief summaries should be prepared. In describing individuals, verbetim quotations should be written. Records should be written systematically. 4. The Principle of Confidentiality One of the basic principles of recording in all social work is that records are written on the premise that they will be held in confidence. If records are used for other purpose such as training,

all names and other identifying information need obscured, with fictitious ones substituted. Records in lockup. -. 5. The Principle of Worker Acceptance The worker should take up this responsibility as one of his SOCIAL GROUP WORK 273

to be carefully should be kept

important assignment. He should important as other responsibilities.

realize

that

this

work

is

as

much

XV. PROGRAMME PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT Planned activities play an important role in social group work practice. These planned activities are the programmes which are organized for many purposes. These include attaining improvement in member's own environmental conditions, promoting a sense of achievement, sublimating and canalising certain impulses, actualising problems in an on-going social situation and working through or articulating symbolically problems and feelings which are unable to express verbally. Programme is a concept which, when broadly conceived, includes the entire range of activities, relationship, interactions and experience individual and group which have been deliberately planned and carried out with the help of the worker to meet the needs of the individuals and the 57 group. Social group worker translates his knowledge into practice with groups through the use of programme as a tool in group relationships. Most of the tools in group work used are that of recreation and that is why social group work is thought to be equivalent to recreation. It is as if we should say that the surgeon is a butcher because he uses a knife and cuts into flesh, or that the to t case worker is a talker because he uses only words. Social group worker knows more about the activities and has skills in relating to these activities with human needs. FACTORS IN PROGRAMME PLANNING In planning a programme, the social group worker must take into a number of factors. Firstly the programme must accord with the facilities and traditions of the community. Secondly, the programme must be tailored to fit into the needs and interest of the group . Thirdly the programme must be based upon the resources which exist in the agency. Fourthly, progression of the group may be vertical or horizontal, i.e., the member's present abilities and interests may be discovered and developed or he may acquire interest and abilities in group activities. The group worker 274


must analyse each factor and individualiza each participation in group activities should be open to all .

member.

Lastly,

PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMME PLANNING In order to achieve the objectives important principles of programme Let us take look at some of these principles.

of the planning

group, a number of have been identified.

1. Participation in Activities Depends on Reward For the to remain involved period of time, they must receive satisfactory rewards.

The

two

kinds

of

rewards

possible

and

are

interested

gratification

over

of

long

member's

need for such things opportunity to test ideas, and accomplishment of tasks.

as so

dominance, friendship, intimacy, forth; and satisfaction with group

2. Group Works and Employing Energy on Felt Problems The only matters on which group will expand those which they feel are problems, things about which feelings which they must deal with. Therefore, the problems suggested by is the starting point of activities.

energy are they have survey of the group

3. Leadership is by Team Leadership is an important factor in group activities. This should be within the group. This kind of leadership encourages free expression of feelings and opinions and guides the group into action. 4. hip should be based of Willingness to Work and not Ideology The basis of participation in group activities should be to work in group. As long as there is willingness to problems, ideological differences can be settled or avoided.

willingness work on

5. Activities should be Problem Centred of the group must know that what, they and doing, is for their welfare and for the solution of the problems. SOCIAL GROUP WORK

are

organizing

275

6. Group should plan their own programme. 7. All decisions are Subject to Revision as a Result of Taking Action If the decisions are not suited for action, the process of changing decisions plays an important and cohesive role in group work programming. 8. There should be definite rules and regulations, of group activities. 9. Group should be formed on the basis of sociometric measures, on mutuality of interests, and needs of the individual. PROGRAMME MEDIA Programme media setting to help desirable personal social recreation,

are tools which are used within the group individuals and the group as a whole achieves and social goals. Many media such as games, dances, music, story telling, dramas, arts and

crafts, domestic arts of cooking, sewing, photography, educational activities etc. are used. PRINCIPLE ELEMENTS IN PROGRAMMING PROCESS

discussion,

There are three elements of programming process, the , the social group worker and th% programme content. The the group having their .special interest, needs, abilities, relationship and desire to advancement. The

worker has his values, working methodology, and obligations of agency he works. Programme content and its variety of rules, require a change in behaviour patterns. The interaction three is essential in programme planning for successful of the group. ROLE OF GROUP WORKER IN PROGRAMME PLANNING Wilson and Ryland have worker in programme planning.

narrated

the

following

norms, in which regulations, of these functioning

role

of

the

group

The social group worker helps the group own programme. He enables them to engage constructively in

to

plan

their

1. Helping the Plan the Programme

276 the programme ways:

SOCIAL WORK -PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS planning

process.

He

does

this

by

the

following

(a) Observing, Listening and Acting The social group worker observes the actions and words of the as they make use of programme media, reveal their needs and interests. He is sensitive not only to the actual words but to the way in which they are spoken. The worker picks up conversations in the midst of activities and helps the to verbalize their troubled thoughts. (b) Analysing and Recording The worker makes 'on the spot' analysis which changes his procedures with the group. Through the records, he re and sees the events of the meeting and the ' reactions in a little different light and finds new leads for programme related to the needs of the and the group as a whole. (c) Visiting and Counselling By another way the worker discovers needs and his s with the family, the school and the He counsels them to plan the activities according to their needs.

interests is through community resources.

(d) Teaching and Leading Sometimes the worker leads the activities when it is urgently needed in such a way that the enjoy participating in them. The worker keeps his focus both on the group experience and on the . He is catalytic agent between people, programme, ideas, materials, and the facilities. 2. Discovering and Arousing Interests (a) Assumed Interests Because of his general

knowledge

of

the

growth

and

developmental

needs of individuals at various age levels, the worker a group composed of having the ordinary a certain age will have certain interests. (b) Expressed Interests Various devices are used to express their interests. It is worker's

can assume development

that for

SOCIAL GROUP WORK

277

responsibility to sec what needs lie behind the expressed interests. (c) Implied Interests Many interests are implied or insinuated rather than expressed directly in words. Group worker analyses these interests and brings them on conscious level of the group. 3. Using the Environment The worker makes an extensive use of the environment to stimulate new programme activities. He uses agency's facilities such as gymnasium, swimming pool, game room, record player, library, kitchen, craft, shop, etc. to enrich the activities. 4, Using Limitations Social group worker imposes limitations on the activities on the basis of available materials, rules and procedures, resources and facilities. He also limits the activities within the realm of the possibility of a successful accomplishment. In groups in which some or all of the are handicapped, the worker's responsibility is to help the handicapped person to function to the best of his ability within the limitation of his disability. REFERENCES 1. Phillips, M.U : Essential of Social Group Work Skills, Association Press, New York, 1957, p. 2. 2. Montagu, A: On BcingHuman, Henry Schuman, New York, 1950, p. 30. 3. Kulckhohn, C. Murray A., Schneider, D.M : Personality, Society and Culture, Knopf, New York, 1953, p. 64. 4. Newsletter, W.I : What is Social Group Work? Proceedings of the National Conference or Social Work, Ixii, 1935, p. 251. 5. Coyle, Grace: 'Social Group Work' Social Work Year Book, National Association of Social Workers, New York, 1937, p. 461. 6. Wilson, G. and Ryland, G : Social Group Work Practice, Houghton Mifflin, Boson, 1947, p. 61. 7. Hamilton, G. op. til p. 19. 8. Coyle, C : 'Social Group Work' Social Work Year Book, AASW, New York, 1954, p. 480. 9. Trccker, H.B : Social Group Work Principles arid Practices Association Press, New York, 1955, p. 5. 10. Konopka, G: Social Group Work A Helping Process, Prentice Hall, Englcwood Cliffs, 1963, p. 29. 11. Trccker, H.B. op. cil. p. 3. 1. 278 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

12. Clarke, Helen, I: Principles and Practice of Social Work, Applcton - Century Crofts, Inc. New York, 1947, p. iOz. 13. Clarke, H.l. op dtp. 91. 14. Ibid., p. 93. 15. Ibid., pp. 93-94 16. Nash, J.B : "Playground", Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. XII, pp. 161-163. 17. Clarke, H.I. op. cit. p. 98. 18. Slavson, S.R : An Introduction to Group Therapy, The Common Wealth Fund, New York, 1943, quoted by Clarke, H.l. op. cit. p. 49. 19. Douglas. Tom: Group Work Practice, International Universities Press, New York, 1976, pp. 28-29. 20. Coyle, Grace Lonwcl: Group Work with American Youth, Harper and Brother, New York, 1948, pp. 22-32. 21. Treckcr, II.B. op. cit. p. 56. 22. David,D.K : Tlic Objective of Professional Education quoted by Treckcr, H.B. op. cit. p. 57. 23. Coyle, G.L: Social Group Work, Social Work Year Book, 1951, p. 466.

24. Wilson, G. and Ryland, G : Social Group Work Practice, Houghton Mifflin Co.

New York, 1949, p. 61. 25. Treckcr, H.B. op. cit. pp. 67-68. 26. Specht, H: Integrating Social Work Methods, p. 156. 27. Bruno, F.J : Trends in Social Work (1874-1956) Columbia University Press, Columbia, 1957, p. 423. 2S. Konopka, G : Group Work in the Institution, Whiteside, New York, 1954, pp. 44-46. 29. I leap, Ken: Group Theory for Social Workers, Pcrgaman Press, New York, 1977, pp. 3-10. 30. Phillips, Helen U: Essentials of Social Group Work Skills, Association Press, New York, 1957, p. 6. 31. Robinson, V.P : "The Meaning ofSkilL£ Training for skill in Social Case Work, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1942, pp. 11-12. 32. Treckcr, H.B : Social Group Work, 'Principles and Practices Whiteside, New York, 1955, p. 35. 33. Jenkins, David H. Zander, Alvin: "Some Skills for improving Group Dynamics" in Sullivon s Book op. ciL pp. 156-157. 34. Treckcr, I I.B. op cit. pp. 35-37. 35. Phillips, Helen, U : Essential of Social Group WorkSkill, Association Press, New York, pp. 51-155. 36. Douglas, Tom: Group Work Practice, International Universities Press, New York, 1976, pp. 26-27. 37. Cooke, Terence J : Basic Principles of Social Group Work, in Sullivan, D.F.'s Book (ed) Readings in Group Work, Association Press, New York 1952, p. 429. 38. Fricndlander, W.A. (cd): Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prentice Hall Inc., Hnglcwood Cliffs, N.J. 1958. pp. 153-154. 39. Treckcr, H.B. op. cit. pp. 258-271. 40. Committee on the function of the Group Worker,The Group, May, 1949. 41. Treckcr, H.B. op. cit. p. 218. 42. Bradford, L.P., Stock. D., Morwitz, M : 'How to Diagnose Group Problems' in Robert T. Golembiewski and Arthur Blumbcrg: Sensitivity Training and the 29. SOCIAL GROUP WORK 279 Laboratory Approach, Itases, III, Peacock, P.E, 1970, quoted by Douglas, Tom, Group Work Practice, International University Press, New York, 1976, pp. 99107. 43. Hinckley, Robert G. & Hermann, L : Group Treatment in Psychotherapy, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1951, pp. 14-15. 44. Konopka, G: Group Work in the Institution: A Modem Challenge Whiteside, Inc., New York, 1954, p. 47. 45. Wilson, G. and Ryland G. op. cit p. 154. 46. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, NEA, Ibid, pp. 29-34. Group Processes in Supervision NEA, Washington, 1948, p. 28. 47. 7«
1950, p. 309. 51. Douglas, Tom. op. cit. p. 108. 52. Bernstein, Saul: 'Charting Group Progress* in Sullivan, D.F. {ed). Readings in Group Work, op. cit. pM. 53. Douglas, Tom. op. cit. pp. 112-13. 54. Wilson, G. & Ryland G. op. cit. p. 26. 55. Lindsay, A.W : Group Work Recording—Principles and Practices, Women's Press, New York, 1952, pp. 95-106. 56. Ken, Heap: Group Theory for Social Workers, Fergamon Press, New York, 1977, p. 123. 57. Trecker. op. cit. p. 14Z 58. Konopka, G: Group Work in tlie Institution : Modem Challenge, aWiteside, Inc, New York, 1954, p. 36. 59. Wilson G. and Ryland. op. cit pp. 159-193. 43. 12

Community Organization

Community organization as a social work

process distinct from case work and group work, which are concerned with the welfare of individuals through inter-personal and intra-group relationships, is interested in inter-group relationships. It is directed to providing 1 services for people with spcical needs. Community organization is a process in which efforts are directed towards meeting the commuity needs and developing integration within the community. I. DEFINITIONS The term community organization became an important concept in the social work profession due to the publication of the Lane Committee Report in 1939 which identified community organization as a method of social work. Here we are giving some of the important definitions of community organization formulated by different thinkers and practitioners. LINDEMAN (1921) Community organization is that phase of social organization which constitutes a conscious effort on the part of a community to control its affairs democratically, and to secure the highest services from its specialists, organizations, agencies and institutions by means of recognized inter-relations. PATTrT(1925) The term "community organization is best defined as assisting a COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 281 group of people to meet these needs

to

recognize

their

common

needs

and

helping

them

LANE{1939) We suggest that the general aim of community organization is to bring about and maintain a progressively more effective adjustment between social welfare resources and social welfare needs. This implies that community organization is concerned with (a) the discovery and definition of needs; (b) the elimination and pre~ention of social needs and disabilities, so far as possible; and (c) the articulation of resources and needs, and the constant readjustment of resources in order better to meet changing needs. SANDERSON AND rOLSON (1939) The aim of community organization is to develp relationship between groups and individuals that will enable them to act together in creating and maintaining facilities and agencies through which they may realize their highest values in the common welfare of all

of the community. MCMILLAN (1947)

Community organization in its generic sense is deliberately directed effort to assist groups in attaining unity of purpose and action. It is practised, though often without recognition of its character,

wherever the objective is to achieve or maintain a pooling of talents and resources of two or more groups on behalf of either general or specific objectives. DUNHAM (1948) Community organization for social welfare means the process of bringing about and maintaining adjustment between social welfare resources in a geographical areas or a functional field. Resources include, not only agencies and organizations, but also personnel, physical equipment, finances, laws, leadership, public understanding, goodwill, and participation, community organization is a dynamic, pervasive, far-reaching process. ROSS (1955) Community organization is a process by which a community identifies its needs or objectives, orders (or ranks) these needs or objectives, develops the confidence and will to work at those needs 282

SOCIAL WORK - PI IILOSOPI tY AND METHODS

or objectives, finds the resources (internal and/or external) to deal with these needs or objectives, takes action in respect of them, and in so doing extends and develops cooperative and collaborative attitudes and practices in the community. SIEDER (1959) Community organization is a method of social work practice which helps a community determined and achieve continuously more desirable programme goals which meet constantly changing social welfare needs by facilitating the interaction of its constituent parts (organizations, institutions, individual leaders, and geographical subdivisions) in such a way as to make maximum use of its internal and external resources which at the same time strengthening its potential ability to undertake the solution of new and more tlifficatt problems. KRAMER AND SPEC1IT (1969) Community organization refers to various methods of intervention whereby a professional change agent helps a community action system composed of individuals, groups or organizations to engage in planned collective action in order to deal with social problems within a democratic system of values.

Community organization includes two words: community and its organization. Community has been defined in of geographical boundaries. The area must have some common characteristics. ^Warner states "The word community denotes a number of people sharing" certain interests, sentiments, behaviour and objects in common by virtue of belonging to a social group. The community from the point of view of social work is any area where people have

common interests in the social welfare field and where the community organization process is being attempted. It may be a small community, a section of a city, an entire city, a metropolitan

area, a country, a state, or a nation.12 Organization is a process through which it is made possible for people of a community to work out problems involved in coordinating the social services that are provided by all types of agencies—economic development, health, welfare and others.

When we analyse the definitions given by find the following characteristics of community organization:

various

authors,

we

1. It is a process by which the capacity of the community to COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 283

2.

3.

4.

5.

function more positively and progressively grows. The social worker makes this process conscious, deliberative and understandable. Community organization makes possible the community to identify its needs when community involves itself in solving methods of its problems, the first job of the worker is to help the community to focus its attention upon the problems about which it is disturbed. After the identification of the needs, community is helped by a worker to establish some order of priority among these needs so that efforts may be taken accordingly to fulfil these needs. Community organizer helps the community to locate the resources in the society through which the needs may be fulfilled. There are certain agencies in the community which work for the betterment of the life of people but people generally are ignorant about these agencies. Worker helps the community in such a situation and makes community able to use those agency resources for its development. Community organization process identifies a problem about which some action is required and helps the community to take some action so that the problems are solved or needs are fulfilled.

6. As the process evolves and progresses, people in the community will come to understand, accept, and work with one another, that in the process of identifying and dealing with a common probUyn, subgroups and their leaders will become disposed to cooperate with other subgroups in

common endeavours, and will develop the inevitable conflicts and difficulties which emerge in

skills

in

overcoming

such collective tasks. II. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION The general aim of community organization is to bring about and maintain a progressively more effective adjustment between social welfare resources and social welfare needs. It is concerned with: (a) The discovery and definition of needs, s*f 284


(b) The elimination and prevention of social needs and disabilities, (c) The articulation of resources and needs, and the constant readjustment of resources in order better to meet changing needs.15 The other objectives are : 16

1. To secure and maintain an adequate factual basis for sound planning and action. 2. To initiate, develop, and modify welfare programmes and services, in the interest of attaining a better adjustment between resources and needs. To improve standards of social work and to increase the effectiveness of individual agencies. To improve and facilitate interrelationships, and to promote coordination, between organizations, groups, and individuals concerned with social welfare programmes and services. 5. To develop a better public understanding of welfare problems and needs, and social work objectives. 6. To develop public of, and public participation in, social welfare activities. Financial includes income from tax funds, voluntary contributions and other resources. McNeil has mentioned the following objectives of community organization in the field to social welfare:

o

i 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 9. 10. Analysing resource-services available to meet needs, Gaining facts about human needs, Synthesis, correlation and testing of facts, Relating facts about needs to facts about available services, Bringing into participation in all phases of the process, individuals and representatives of group concerned, Fostering interaction of attitudes and representative view points with the objective of reaching agreement through mutual understanding, Stimulating citizen interest in social problems and creating motivation for action through participation and education, Determining priorities, Developing and improving standards of service, Identification of gaps or duplication of services, . COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

285

11. Adjusting or eliminating existing services or developing new services to meet needs, 12. Enhancing community understanding through education, 13. Mobilizing — moral and financial. III. THE SCOPE AND NATURE OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION The scope of community organization is broad and its content is varied. It is needed in all types of communities in hamlets and villages in towns and cities and metropolitan areas — in primary services communities and in distributing communities, in industrial communities, educational centres, resort towns and political 18 centres. "The community organization" process is used, consciously or unconsciously, in many fields or human activity — in

politics, in art, in education, in economic life. Wherever individuals and groups seek ways to pool their resources and efforts to achieve an improvement in community life, the., community organization process is at work. The increasing necessity for more effective community organization of social welfare services grows out of a number of factors: 1. Communities are becoming more complex; 2. The number of social welfare agencies has been increasing;

3. Social welfare needs are constantly

expanding; 4. Higher standards for services and more, effective istration of them are required; 5. The increasing specializations must be more effectively integrated; 6. Hazards to unity and coordination are becoming more evident in many communities; 7. Understanding and skill in cooperative relationship are also becoming more and more necessary. IV. PRINCIPLES IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION McNeil has mentioned the following principles: 1. Community organization for social welfare is concerned with people and their needs. Its objective is to enrich human SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

2. 3.

4.

5.

6. 7.

life by bringing about and maintaining a progressively more effective adjustment between social welfare resources and social welfare needs. The community is the primary client in community organization for social welfare ... It is an axiom in community organization that the community is to be understood and accepted as it is and where it is. Understanding the climate in which community organization process is taking place is essential if seeds of that process are to bear fruit... All the people of the community are concerned in its health and welfare services. Representation of all interests and elements in the population and their full and meaningful participation are essential objectives in community organization. The fact of ever-changing human needs and the reality of relationship between and among people and groups are the dynamic in the community organization process ... Interdependence of all threads in the social welfare fabric of organization is a fundamental truth ... Community organization for social welfare as a process is a part of generic social work. Knowledge of its methods and skill in their application will enhance the potentialities for growth and development of any community effort to meet human needs ...

Ross has mentioned the following principles: 1. Discontent with existing conditions in the community must initiate and/or nourish the development of the association (organization) 2. Discontent must be focussed and channelled into organization, planning, and action in respect to specific

problem... 3. Discontent which initiates or organization must be widely shared in the community...

4. The

association

must

involve

leaders

sustains

(both

community

formal

and

informal) identified in the community... 5.^ The association of high acceptability...

with,

and

must J

have

accepted goals

by,

and

major

methods

of

subgroups procedure

COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 287 6. The programme of association should include some activities with emotional content... 7. The association should seek to utilize the manifest and latent goodwill which exists in the community... 8. The association must develop active and effective lines of communication both within the association and between the association and the community... 9. The association should seek to and strengthen the groups which it brings together in cooperative work... 10. The association should be flexible in its organizational procedures without disrupting its regular decision-making routines... 11. The association should develop a pace for its work relative to existing conditions in the community... 12. The association should seek to develop effective leaders.... 13. The association must develop strength, stability, and prestige in the community.. ? Johns and Demarche has narrated the following general principles of community organization: 1. Community organization is a means and not an end . . . Organization, personnel, programme, knowledge and skills are only means to an end — the welfare and growth or people is the end. 2. Communities, like individuals and groups, are different. Each has its own peculiarities, its own problems and needs. To deal with communities effectively, they must be individualized. 3. Communities, like individuals, have a right to self determination. 4. Social need is the basis for organization. 5. Community welfare rather than agency self-interest should be the first consideration in determining programme. 6. Coordination is a process of growth. 7. Community organization structure should be kept as simple as possible. 8. Services should be distributed equitably. 1. 288 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

9. Diversity in programme approach should be respected. 10. There should be broad representation bodies. 11. There must be a balance between decentralization. 12. Barriers to communication must be broken down. 13. Communities need professional help."

in

inter-agency

centralization

and

V. SKILLS IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION Harper and Dunham"'1 has mentioned the following essential skills essential for community organizer: 1. Skills of maintaining many relationship with individuals and groups; because individuals and groups, simultaneously and often independently of one another; because individuals and groups may be fearful or hostile to one another and yet may all be engaged upon solution of a common problem. 2. Skill in use of professional judgement in timing the drawing into of these relationships, after the worker has been able to resolve or modify the issues between them by an individual approach. 3. Skill in knowing where to take hold and when to let go of a project. 4. Skill in group thinking. The following skills are essential in community organization worker: 1. Skill in establishing rapport, 2. Skill in releasing people's feelings and in overcoming resistance, 3. Skill in helping people to grow in personal and social understanding, 4. Skill in enabling people to clarify their ideas, 5. Skill in motivating people in expressing their own goal, 6. Skill in enabling people to find the ways to fulfil their goals, 7. Skill in communicating knowledge of programmes and resources available to them, 8. Skill in stimulating people's movement towards achieving goals. 1. COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 289 VI. STEPS IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION Lindeman has suggested ten steps in community organization. These are: 1. CONSCIOUSNESS OF NEED Some persons, either within or without need which is later represented by the definite project.

the

community,

2. SPREADING Tl IE CONSCIOUSNESS OF NEED

express

the

A leader, within some institution or group within the community, convinces his or her group, or a portion of the group, of the reality of the need.

3. PROJECTION OF

CONSCIOUSNESS OF NEED The group interested attempts to project upon the leadership of the community; becomes more general.

the the

consciousness consciousness

of of

need need

4. EMOTIONAL IMPULSE TO MEETTHE NEED QUICKLY Some influential assistance is enlisted, in an attempt to arrive at a quick means of meeting the need. 5. PRESENTATION OF OTHER SOLUTIONS Other means of meeting the need are presented. 6. CONFLICT OF SOLUTIONS Various groups lend their to one or the other of the various solutions presented. 7. INVESTIGATION It appears to be increasingly customary to pause investigate of the project with an expert assistance.

at

this

point,

and

to

8. OPEN DISCUSSION OF ISSUE A public mass meeting or gathering of some sort is held, at which the project is presented, and the groups with most influence attempt to secure adoption of their plans. 9. INTEGRATION OF SOLUTIONS Various solutions presented are tested, with an effort to retain 290


something emerging.

out

of

each,

in

the

practicable

solutions

which

is

now

10. COMPROMISE ON BASIS OPTENTATIVE PROGRESSIVE Certain groups, relinquish certain elements of their plans in order to save themselves from complete defeat, and the solution which results is a compromise with certain reservations. The means selected for meeting the need are not satisfactory to all groups, but are regarded as tentatively progressive. VII. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

Community organization in broad sense is as old as community fife because wherever people live together, some organization becomes necessary. But when life became more complicated, some formal organizations were set up for the welfare of the community. Elizabethan poor Law in England was one of the first efforts to provide services to the needy. But the Charity Organization Societies were forerunners of modern community organization planning. They were first organized in London in 1869 to eliminate indiscriminate

alms-giving by the relief agencies at that time. In America, the first Charity Organization Society was organized in Buffalo in 1877. Later on these were organized in Pennsylvania, Boston, New York, Philadelphia and other places. The basic purpose of these societies

was "cooperation between all charitable agencies of a given locality and the best coordination of their efforts. They also organized a number of other activities employment bureaus, day nurseries, etc. The Settlement House Movement was another landmark in the beginning of community organization. Beginning with the establishment of Neighbourhood Guild in the Lower East Side of New York City in 1886, the movement spread rapidly in all industrial centres. James Addam's Hull House in Chicago and Mary Simkhovilch's Greenwitch House in New York City were among more famous settlements. The American Red Cross Home Service programme began during World War I and had the concept of professional social work in its practice. At the same time many other agencies like Y.M.C.A., Y.W.C.A., the Boys Scouts, the Girl Scouts and the Camp Fire Girls, began extending their programmes to many communities. COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 291 VIII. COMMUNITY COUNCILS AND COMMUNITY CHESTS

Community councils and chests are generally considered to be major specialized and primary community organization bodies in cities and metropolitan areas of America. In general, community welfare councils may be defined as intergroup bodies composed of delegates or representatives, of member organizations and of the public. Three main types of councils may be distinguished (1) traditional councils of social agencies, (2) Community welfare councils, and (3) specialized councils. The first type of councils are concerned with the department of social welfare. Community welfare Councils are concerned with social welfare in a comprehensive sense and frequently engaged in social action as well as in efforts to coordinate social agencies and improve health and welfare programme. Specialized councils are functional divisions of either of the two and are found in such fields as family and child welfare, health, mental hygiene, rehabilitation, youth services and correctional programmes. Councils are the voluntary bodies whose functions include: factfinding, planning, stimulation of discussion, coordination and the improvement of team work and agency efficiency, consultation to neighbourhood councils and to agencies, interpretation and the improvement of public relations, and promotion and social action. In addition, they may ister certain common services such as research information and referral, volunteer bureaus, and the social service exchange. Community chest is the modern counterpart of financial federations, which has been established largely as a result of the desire to eliminate multiple solicitations. The main job of the chest is to raise adequate funds 1,0 finance the agencies. Community

chests have two major functions:

compaigning of member through t budgeting.

annually agencies, and

for distributing

the

funds

the raised

IX. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION The term "community development" designates the utilization under one single programme of approaches and lechniques which rely upon local communities as units of action and which attempts to combine outside assistance with organized local self-determination and effort, and which correspondingly seek to stimulate local initiative and leadership as the primary instrument of change... 294


an extension worker but a social worker. Thus the community organization is different from community development: 1. Community development is a government sponsored programme while for community organization, government sponsorship is not necessary. 2. Community development aims to provide services to the people mainly economic for improvement. In community organization, community services are organized and planned by the people themselves under the guidance of a community organizer. 3. Community development programmes are practised mainly in underdeveloped or developing communities for the economic development. The basic aim of community organization is to develop cooperative and collaborative attitude among people in thp community. 4. Community organization worker is not necessarily a government functionary. He is skilled in community planning but the functionaries of community development are expert in removing economic backwardness. The following steps are taken in community organization process: 1. Identifying the Problem Under this step the following information is gathered: (i) Nature of the problem; (ii) Severity of the problem; (iii) Implications of the problem; (iv) Location (institutional/social); (v) Causation of the problem; (vi) Recognition of the need for change; (vii) Scope of the problem (who are affected); (viii) Efforts made to solve the problem;

(ix) Effectiveness of the previous efforts; (x) Reasons for success or failure. 2. Perception of the Problem — Facts and Data (i) Attitude of the community; COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

295

(ii) Perception (iii) Significant different attitudes.

of

the

problem;

3. Structural-functional Analysis (i) Origins of the problem; (ii) Characteristics of community structure that maintains problem; (iii) Forces operating favourably and unfavourably; (iv) Significant elements of the social structure. 4. Beneficiaries Profile (i) Population segments; (ii) Physical surroundings of the community; (iii) Factors operating as behaviour determinants; (iv) Client's divisional and cleavages; (v) Significant relations with other parts of the social structure; (vi) Level of acceptance of plans; (vii) Barriers into the way of acceptance; (viii) Significance of the barriers. 5. Action Plan (i) Thinking of various possible course of action; (ii) Analysis of the course of action in of cost, efforts, consequences, effectiveness, acceptability; (iii) Selecting the best possible course of action; (iv) Analysis of the problem-solving structure and processes. 6. Determination of the Strategy (i) Level of efforts required for success; (ii) Nature of activities required; (iii) Minimum work required; (iv) Action system—individual conscientizatioii, conscientization, organization and planning, building maintaining viable counter-system, developing istrative techniques. 296


7. Linking People with Programme (i)

Areas: (a) Level of needs analysis, (b) Nature of activities required, (c) Strategy dclcrmination, (d) Planning action, (c) Implementation and management, (ii) Approaches: (a) Individual approach, (b) Extensive approach,

group and skills,

(c) Community education, (d) Need-base approach, (c) Social action. (iii) Steps to be taken: (a) Arousal of consciousness about problem, (b) Popularization of the problem, (c) Creation of motivating force for solving the problem, (d) Suggestion invitation, (e) Rendering proper knowledge, (f) Resource utilization, (g) Promotion for action of practice, ¦ (h) Regular , (i) Follow-up. 8. Implementation and Evaluation (a) Effectiveness of action,

(b) Success of strategy in problem-solving, (c) Weaknesses in action, (d) Deg new action and strategy. 9. Building Counter-system (a) Such system-building aims to develop a power base from which changes in existing system can be achieved. X. COMMUNITY PLANNING AND COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION Planning is one of the methods of community organization. It is the conscious and deliberate guidance of thinking so as to create logical COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

297

means for achieving agreed-upon goals. Planning is basic and fundamental approach or way of dealing with the human problems which beset us? Community planning can be defined as a process in which a number of activities are undertaken in a systematic manner for bringing about an adjustment between community resources and felt community needs collectively determined by residents of the community themselves. Community organization is a broader word which not only includes planning but implements the programmes for the development of community and its relations. REFERENCES

Clarke, Helen I: Principles and Practice of Social Work, Appleton Century Crofts, Inc, New York, 1947, p. 124. Lindeman, Edward C: Vie Community,Association Press New York, 1921, pp. 139-173, Quoted in E.B. Harper and A. Dunham: Community Organization in Action, Association Press, New York, 1959, p. 55. Pettit, Walter W: Quoted by I larper E.D. and Dunham, A. (cd) op. cit. p. 56. Lane, Robert, P : The Field of Community Organization, Quoted, Ibid. p. 56. Sanderson, D. and Poison R.A: Rural Community Organization, John Wiley and Sons, New York, McMillan, Wayne: Community Organization in Social Work in Social Work Year Book, 1947, A.A.S.W., New York, 1947 p. 110. Dunhar i, A. op. cit p. 58. Ross, h I.G : Convnunity Organization : Tixeory and Principles, Harper and Brothei;, New York, 1955, p. 39. Sicder, fiolet M : "The Tasks of the Community Organization Worker" in H.L, Luric, 1 he Community Organization Method in Social Work Education, Council of Socia Work Education, New York, 1959, p. 249. Kramer Practice

Warner Ralf M. and Specht, Harry (eds): Readings in Community Organization Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1969, p. 6. W. Lloyd and Lunt, P.S : The Social Life of a Modem Community, Yalle University Press, New York, 1941, p. 16. Johns, lay and De Marche, David F: Community Organization and Agency Rcspom 'bility. Association Press, New York, 1951, pp. 11-12. Ross, M .G. op. cit. p. 48. Harper, E.B. op. cit. p. 65. Dunham, A. Ibid p. 65. Ibid. p. 65. McNeil, C.F : "Community Organization for Social Welfare" in Social Work Year Book, 1951,1954, p. 122.

Johns, R. and Responsibility.

De Marche, Association

D.F : Press,

Community Organization and Agency New York, 1951, p. 73.

McMillan, W : Community Organization for Social Welfare, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1945, p. 24. Johns, R. and Dc Marche, D.F. op. cit. pp. 2-3.

298


21. Mc. Neil, C.F : Principles in Community Organization for Social Welfare, quoted by I Iarpcr and Dunham op. cit. pp. 106-107. 22. Ross, M.G : Community Organization : Theory and Principles, Harper and Brothers, New York, 1955, pp. 155-199. 23. John, Ray and De Marchc, D.F : Community Organization and Agency Responsibility. Association Press, New York, 1951, pp. 235-239. 24. Harper, and Dunham, op. cit. 84-85. 25. Lindcman, E.C : Tlie Community ¦ An Introduction to the Study of Community Leadership and Organization, Association Press, New York, 1921, pp. 120-123. 26. Warner, A.G., Queen, S.A., Harper, E.B : American Charities and Social Work, Thomas Y. Crowcll Co. New York, 4th ed., p. 207. 27. I iarpcr, E. B. and Dunham, A. op. cit. p. 355. 28. Ibid. p. 355. 29. Ibid. p. 355. 30. Ibid. pp. 355-356. 31. Ibid. p. 357. 32. United Nations Document E/CN5/291, Programme of Concerned Action In the Social Held of the United Nations and Specialized Agencies quoted by Ross, M.G. op. cit. p. 7 33. I Iarpcr, E.B. & Dunham, A. op. cit. pp. 525-526. 34. Gangradc, K.D : Community Organization in India, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1971, pp. 28-29. 35. Uniicd Nations: Social Progress through Community Development, New York, 1955, pp. 5-13. 36. Singh, S : Community Organization in Singh and Soodan's Horizon of Social Work op. cit. p. 107. 37. I Iarpcr, E.W. and Dunham A. op. cit. p. 215. 38. Singh, Surtndra. op. cit p. 108. 21. 13

Social Welfare istration

SOCIAL work may be described as a professional service to people for the purpose of assisting them, as individuals or in groups, to attain satisfying relationship and standards of life in accordance with their particular wishes and capacities and in harmony with those of the community. Organization of effective" service involves planned, directed and coordinated endeavours on the part of the social workers. Until and unless social workers have the knowledge and skill necessary to provide istrative leadership to the social service programmes in which they practise, social work will be looked upon by the public either as a subprofessional services or as merely a useful service operating as an aid to that of another profession. Thus, it seems essential to discuss the process and principles of social welfare istration. WHAT IS ISTRATION?

istration is a process of direction, oversight, coordination and stimulation in an agency designed to carry out some agreed purpose with economy and effectiveness in the means employed (material and

personnel) and with all possible regard for the claims of the individuals involved. Leonard Mayo indicates that istration may be defined as the determination and clarification of function; the formulation of policies and procedures, the delegation of authority; the selection, supervision, and training of staff; and the mobilization and organization of all available and appropriate resources to the end that the purposes of the agency may be fulfilled. Arlien Johnson defines istration as a process and method by which 300


objectives of a programme are transformed into reality through a structure and a mode of operation that make possible the coordinated and unified work of people in the movement toward the defined objectives. Thus istration may be defined as the process or means by which the.aims of an organization are determined, plans made for achieving those aims and the plans are carried out. Dunham defines social welfare istration in the sense of ing or facilitating activities which are necessary and incidental to the giving of direct service by a social agency. Kidneigh defines istration as the process of transforming social policy into social services. Friedlander's view is that istration of social agencies translates the provisions of social legislation and the aims of private philanthropy and religious chanties into the dynamics of services and benefits for humanity. istration is thus primarily a problem-solving and enabling process; it involves the making of decisions; and if only because present decision affect future functioning, it is directed towards the future.10 While reviewing the various definitions of social welfare istration, we find that it is a process which has definite knowledge, understanding, principles and ways of interaction. Its main focus is on the suitability and accessibility of social services to the public. Social work enables the process of istration through guidance, planning, stimulation, organization, creating structure, coordinating, and through research. To fulfil the well defined main objectives of istration, policies are suitably amended; . programmes are formulated and budget, finance personnel selection procedures are made. In conclusion of the nature of istration the following points may be recapitulated: 1. istration is the process work done. 2. Although certain roles are member of an organization, the istrative structure,

of

organizing

resources

to

get

specifically istrative, every specialists included, is part of

3. The setting of istration which it must do the istrative

is

the

organization

through

work. 4. Leadership, decision-making, authority are essential ingredients of the istrative process. 1. SOCIAL WELFARE ISTRATION 301

and

communication

j.

Social Work istration is concerned primarily with the following activities:1 1. Translation of social mandates into operational policies and goals to guide organizational behaviour; 2. Design of organizational structures and processes through j which the goals can be achieved; 3. Securing of resources in the form of materials, staff, clients,t and societal legitimation necessary for goal attainment and j organizational survival; ¦j 4. Selection and engineering of the necessary technology, ' 5. Optimizing organizational behaviour directed toward j increased effectiveness and efficiency, and • 6. Evaluation of organizational performance to facilitate ¦ systematic and continuous problem-solving. j FUNCTIONS OF ISTRATION

I

Talcott Parsons identifies variable functions for istration at ¦ i • •i three different levels in the organization: I 1. The institutional level refers to istrative activities in the i translation and implementation of social goals into social action. \ Attention is also directed to political aspects because social values (jare always involved in this level. s are expected to ; personify organizational goals, to give leadership to boards, staff, and ; clients in policy formulation . . . The determination of the specific j social problems to be addressed by the agency and the establishment t of the organizational domain are also functions of istration at 1' the institutional level. The determination of organizational • boundaries and the management of organization-environment j, relations are particularly significant at this level although they also ! appear as activities in modified form at the other levels. Reporting \ and interpretation to the community and the development particular public image are other institutional level activities. i 2. Managerial-level activities comprise the second level and < involve mediation between the consumers and the technical sub- , organization. Included here are tasks directed toward procurement and allocation of resources, structural design, coordination, and direction of staff to optimize effectiveness and productivity. The : overall recruitment, selection, training, and supervision of staff fall at the managerial level. Given the goals and domain, managerial level

-»'

i

( j j j j

of

\ \ a

302


activities include decision-making about the variety of alternative means through which ends can be achieved.... 3. The technical level is the third level in analysis of the functions of istration. It includes the sub-organization concerned with performance of the technical activities—counselling clients, referral, teaching, or provision of material resources. Selection, implementation, integration and maintenance of viable technologies to atttain organizational goals, all are involved. Short and long term programming includes problems of standardization, routinization, periodic assessment of programme achievement, and personnel effectiveness. s must deal directly with contradictions and priorities among goals. They must also provide mechanisms for continuous staff development so as to attain the goals. THE FUNCTION OF THE SOCIAL WORK ISTRATION The social work 's job is not of the agency but to maintain the agency He is supposed to perform the following functions.

only to perform the work moving in positive direction.

1. Formulating the Agency's Objectives He is required to implement the policy decisions. Policy can be given system expression only through the istrative processes. He takes part in formulating the policy also so that coordination may be maintained between the objectives of the agency and policy on the broader level. 2. The Provision of a Formal Structure His second function is to make provisions of a formal structure to serve as an effective communicable system. Hierarchy is determined in the staff and the emphasis is laid of relationship accordingly. 3. The Promotion of Cooperative Efforts The 's functions is to attempt to lessen the conflict between the needs of the agency as -an organization, and the separate needs of its individual and to enhance that widespread sense of commitment to the agency, whether of social workers or clerks, which constitutes high morale. SOCIAL WELFARE ISTRATION

303

4. Finding and Deploying Resources

To perform its work an agency needs resources—human material, and time. The common denominator is money, adequate not only to maintain standards, but for development. Tê direct responsibility which the executive takes for money raising will depend on the

nature of the agency. Resources once

obtained have to be deployed. Authority itself may be defined in of control over resources. The executive's authority is a correlate of his control over the total resources of the agency, and when he delegates authority, what he is in fact delegating is the power to use resources. The controls resources external to himself. He deploys them efficiently in pursuit of the agency's purposes, and for identifying and acting upon the need to increase them. 5. Supervision and Evaluation He is able for agency performance and must oversee its activities. He is required to help social workers to function more effectively as agency . As an , he has the supervisory function of allocating work, or seeing that it is done; and how it is done. He evaluates the total performance of the agency. Luther Gulick15 has given a magic formula (POSDCORB) to express the functions of social welfare istration. It means planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting. PLANNING * Planning is fundamentally an intellectual process, a mental predisposition to do things in an orderly way, to think before action, and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses. Planning is the provision to implement guaranteed minimum of resources, both physical and social accordmg to the needs and necessities for better life conditions arid adjustment. The work cannot be done without continuous, thoughtful and comprehensive planning. Planning is essential for hip and client selection, personned and supervision, the management of resources, programme making and finance. The first task of planning is that its objective should be defined clearly. After the objective has been defined the next step in effective planning is to formulate broad policies governing its achievement.

-_r...

304

SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY ANM1ETHODS

The third step in planning is the analysis of achieving the objective within the framework analysis of ways and means, organization achieve the objective. Responsibilities are continuous assessment of the work done is evaluate the progress made by the agency.

the ways and means of of policies. After the is made responsible to assigned. Procedure of evolved and applied to

ORGANIZATION (ORGANIZING)

The organization has been referred to as the 's raw material. Social agency involves dearly defined patterns of activity in

which every series of actions is functionally related to the purposes of the organization. In such an organization or agency there is an integrated scries of offices, or hicrarchal statuses, in which a number of obligations and privileges are closely defined by specific rules. Each of these offices contains an area of imputed competence and responsibility. Official action ordinarily occurs within the framework of pre-existing rules of the agency. The istrative job in the modern social agency differs from that of the istration of educational, governmental or business organizations. The following are the important factors to be taken into in organizing to do any job: 1. The istrative worker in the social agency must organize his work not solely as an individual but always in relation to many other people... 2. The istrative worker in the social agency must organize his work in relation to a dear set of goals and purposes which are inherent in the nature of the agency which he represents. 3. The istrative worker in the social agency must organize his work with a comprehension of the whole job to be done ... 4. He must organize his job with a special regard for priorities and arrangement of tasks in of significance and importance. 5. He must organize his job with a particular awareness of the degree to which channels of communication have been established and are open throughout the whole agency. 6. He must organize his job so as the take into his own need and the needs of others to divide large assignments into manageable units so that a sense of productivity is forthcoming without excessive delay. 7. He must organize his job so as to consider his own readiness to do a certain thing and the readiness of others to respond. 1. SOCIAL WELFARE ISTRATION 3Q5/ 8. He must organize his job so that there is a systematic arrangement of task in relation to the capacities and capabilities of his associates. 9. He must recognize the factor of self insight and self understanding as being control in the task of organizing to do the job. 10. He must organize small units for smooth functioning. Staffing Staffing means the istration of staff. It is an important istrative function as the abilities and sincerity of staff determine the qualities of service provided by the social welfare agency. Staffing includes recruitment, selection, service conditions, promotion, leave, working conditions, welfare etc. Staffing also includes training, orientation, supervision grievance procedure, retirement rules etc. In relation to staff, the executive's role involves at least the following aspects.

1. Personnel practices: Sound istrative practice calls for three essential elements of personnel policy—clarity of formulation, machinery for fair dealing of grievances, and reserving to the executive the final authority in matters where judgement of competence and discipline are involved. 2. Staff coordination and development are essential works for the . Each employee should be assigned clear responsibility in relation to the authority. 3. Channels of communication: Two-way channel is essential for proper istration. The best channel is the staff meeting where the executive and staff can, in face to face , take up problems and plans for discussion and decision. Directing Direction of the staff is also an important task objectives of the agency. The purposes of direction are the following: 1. To see that the work which has been agreed upon out in accordance with the instructions and rules, 2. To assist staff in keeping work being done, 3. To harmonise team work between employees, 1. 306 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

to

fulfil is

the

carrieTd

4. To maintain and develop standards of performance, 5. To produce orderliness in performance, 6. To get acquainted with the weaknesses of the programme and to correct them. The should have in mind the personalities strengths and weaknesses of his staff . He instead of criticizing should suggest the ways and means which are suited to the programme. He should develop in his staff that he is there as helper and advisor rather than as director. Coordinating Coordination is an essential ingredient in efficient and effective istration. Effectiveness of an individual in achieving his aims in any social situation will depend not only upon his own activity, but also on how well that activity relates to what the other individuals concerned are doing.1 Coordination means to bring into a common action, movement or condition to relate and combine separate parts in harmonious balance and adjustment. Coordination in any agency denotes two things: Unity of purpose and unity of action. This can be achieved only when every staff member must hold the same view concerning the objectives of the agency. To secure unity of action it is important to provide an orderly arrangement of individual and group effort in pursuit of common goals. Reporting

A report is an official presentation of facts. It is a summary of activity covering a specific period of time. Reports are made periodically. They are the tools or devices for use in carrying on the work of the agency. Reports are prepared on the basis of the records maintained by the agency. Reports enable the agency to discover to what extent it has accomplished the objectives. They enable to summarize the results of work together and help the board to formulate new objectives. Agency planning can be sound only when it is based upon an adequate reporting. Budgeting The process of preparing and presenting an annual technical knowledge and has no concern with the social work SOCIAL WELFARE ISTRATION

budget

needs

307

activities. But it has been thought as an important task of social work to promote the function of the agency in accordance with the objectives of social work. Its significance is that it is a statement of the agency's intended programme translated into fiscal . BASIC UNDERSTANDINGS NEEDED IN ISTRATION Trecker21 has mentioned the following understandings any :

essential

for

1. Understanding of self and meaning of being an executive, feelings about authority and responsibility. 2. Understanding of the agency and its basic purpose in the community. 3. Understanding of the individuals who make up the agency; their needs, abilities and motivations. 4. Understanding of groups, i.e. board, staff, consituency, how they define their function, and approach to their work. 5. Understanding of how the individual is related to his group, his background, what he brings to the work with the group. 6. Understanding of kinds of help the group need in doing its work; how group asks for and accepts help; how it evaluates its own progress. 7. Understanding of how the individual receives basic satisfaction from his work; how to provide recognition for genuine accomplishment. 8. Understanding of how the group relates to and works with other groups in the agency and the community. SKILLS OF SOCIAL WELFARE ISTRATION satisfactorily: 1.

Skill

should in

have

Establishing

the and

following

skills

Maintaining

to

perform

Relationships

his with

job the

Staff and Boards

should

be

skilful

in

accepting

the

ability

of

the

staff

and have faith in their capacity to do their job. Relationship is the core of any work and, therefore, he should be skilful in establishing effective and comfortable relationship with the staff and other groups. He should clarify his own role and be able to changing and 308 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS modifying his role as the needs be. The language is an important medium for communication and hence he should be skilful in using language for easiness of communication. He should be skilful in encouraging group to express negative as well as positive feelings, in keeping his feelings under control and controlling his own feelings even the decision of the staff and other groups is contrary to his personal wishes, being flexible and willing to alter his advance plans in keeping with the group's response, in cultivating cooperative work atmosphere, and in managing his total job. 2. Skill in Selection of the Staff The must be skilful in , in providing a written statement group, in helping the staff another and develop group feelings, in of group and in helping the integrate different points of view.

the selection of of the function of become acquainted utilizing the past staff and other

the staff the staff with one experiences groups to

3. Skill in Defining Purposes and Objectives of the Agency He should be skilful in helping the staff understand its responsibility, in helping the staff stay within the limits of its assignments and place limitations on its efforts, in helping the staff keep a sharp focus on the work to be done and in helping the staff to take steps in accordance with the needs of the clientele. 4. Skill in Helping the Staff Organize for Effective Work The should always try for creating a good and healthy atmosphere for working of the different categories of employees and workers. He should help the develop enthusiasm regarding the assignment it had undertaken. He should be skilled in helping them divide its work into progressive units. 5. Skill in Developing a Work Methodology The must be efficient in suggesting methods and procedures to the to follow. He should be skilful in planning and organization of different activities in the agency. He should show his skill in helping the staff and others to use records as tools in facilitating the work, in using community resources, in SOCIAL WELFARE ISTRATION

309

making them self-determining and able helping them to get recognition and esteem

to

make

its

own

decision,

in

for work well done. 6. Skill in Helping Individual Sometimes due to personal reasons one fails to perform one's duties well. Therefore, he is in need of external help and this help should be given by the . He should solve his problems and help to become an active member of the agency. REFERENCES 1. Street, Elwood : A Handbook of Social Agency istration, Harper and Brothers, New York, 1948, p. 4. 2. Spencer, S : Tiic istration Method in Social Work Education, Council on Social Work Education, New York, 1959, p. 12. 3. Tead, Ordway : "istration and Freedom" Survey Graphic, Oct. 1939, p. 619. 4. Mayo, Leonard : 'istration of Social Agencies Social Work Year Book, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1945, p. 15. 5. Johnson, A : "istration of Social Agencies" Social Work Year Book, 1947, p. 15. 6. Beavers, H.D : Quoted by Trecker, H.B. aGroup Process in istration, Women's Press, New York, 1950, p. 2. 7. Dunham, A: "istration of Social Agencies' Social Work Year Book, 1949. 8. Kidneigh, John C: istration of Social Agencies'. Social Work Year Book, 1957, p. 75. 9. Friedlander, WA op. cit. p. 567. 10. Warham, J : An Introduction to istration for Social Workers, Routiedge and Kegan Paul, London, 1970, p. 47. 11. Warham, H : An Introduction to istration for Social Workers. Routiedge and Kegan Paul, London, 1970, p. 58. 12. Sarri, Rosemary C: istration in Social Welfare, Encyclopaedia of Social Work, National Association of Social Works, New York, Vol 1.1971, pp. 42-43. 13. Parsons, Talcott : Structure and Process in Modem Societies. Free Press, New York, 1960. quoted by Sarri, Rosemary Cop. cit. pp. 44-45. 14. Warham, J : An Introduction to istration for Social Workers, Routiedge and Kegan Paul Ltd. New York, 1967, pp. 85- 92. 15. Gulick, Luther and Urwick, L (ed) : Papers on the Science of istration, Institute of Public istration, New York, 1937, p. 13. 16. Urwick, L: The Elements ofimstration, Harper, New York, 1 >43, p. 35. 17. Trecker, II.B. op. cit. pp. 180-183. 18. Kidneigth, John Cop. cit. pp. 81-82. 19. Simon, H.A. op. cit pp. 103. 20. Kidneigh, John C. op. cit. p. 76. 21. Trecker, H.B : Group Process in istration, Women's Pr ss, New York, 1950, p. 48. 1. 14

Social Action

Tub first Review Committee on Social Work Education (1965) felt that "for half a century the role of the social worker in India was that of the social reformer.. . Now that the main aim of social reform has been achieved, the task of the social worker has taken on a different form ... he has to look after the needs of children in orphanages, to rehabilitate the unmarried mother and to save children from the stigma of illegitimacy . .. With Independence has developed also the consciousness of other evils in society : poverty, insanitation, prostitution, drunkenness. These evils are beyond the capacity of individual and social workers to remove ... Today the field of social

work coalesces more or less with the field of the social worker in the West. Now that the social worker has ceased to be the social reformer in the old sense, it has become possible to benefit from the experience of social work training institutions in other countries." The Second Review Committee on Social Work Education (1978) in its report staled that "an inquiry into the causes of poverty and evolution of measures for its elimination was the responsibility of social work"." Unfortunately this emphasis was not given anywhere in the work. Our present model of social work is based on capitalistic model which takes up the cause of assisting people in their adjustment to the social environment. It is not working for the identification of the cause of poverty and removing these. It has been now realized that industrialization cannot eliminate poverty even from the affluent societies. Therefore, now the emphasis is being given to teach social action, social policy and social istration. Mary Richmond was the first social worker and writer who used SOCIAL ACTION 311 the word 'social action' in 1922, it could not get due place among the methods of social work but it has received much attention in the developing countries. "In developing countries, social action is crucial and must precede social work. It is wasteful in a developing country to start with social work and leave social action behind. Social action . . . creates the necessary conditions and climate in which social work could be done more effectively". I. DEFINITIONS Some of the definitions of social action are being given below: RICHMOND MARY (1922) Social action legislation.4

is

"mass

betterment

through

propaganda

and

social

LEE, PORTER R. (1937) Social action seems to suggest efforts directed toward changes in law or social structure or toward the initiation of new movements for the modification of current social practices. COYLE, GRACE L. (1937) Social action is "the attempt to change the social environment in ways which ... will make life more satisfactory. It aims to affect not individuals but social institutions, laws, customs, communities." FITCH, JOHN (1940) Social

action

is

legally

permissible

action

by

a

group

(or

by

an

individual trying to promote group action) for furthering objectives that are both legal and socially desirable.

the

purpose

of

HILL, JOHN L (1951)

Social action might be described as organized group effort to solve mass social problems or to further socially desirable objectives by

attempting practices.

to

influence

basic

social

and

economic

conditions

or

WICKENDON, E. (1956) Social action is a term applied to that aspect of organized social welfare activity directed towards shaping, modifying or maintaining the social institution and policies that collectively constitute the social environment. 312

SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS SOLEND1-R, S. (1957)

Social action in the field of social work is a process of individual, group or inlcrgroup endeavour, within the context of social work philosophy, knowledge, and skill. Its objective is to enhance the welfare, of society through modifying social policy and the functioning of social structure, working to obtain new progress and services. FRILDLANDLR, W.A. (1963) Social action is an individual, group or community effort, within the framework of social work philosophy and practice that aims to achieve social progress, to modify social policies and to improve social legislation and health and welfare services. ' NA\'AVATI,M.C(1965) Social action is a process of bringing about the desired changes by deliberate group and community effort. Social action does not end with the enactment and g of socal legislation, but that the execution of policies was the real test of the success or failure of social action. BALDWIN (1965) Social action as "organized effort to change social and economic institutions as distinguished from social work or social service, the fields of which do not characteristically cover essential changes in established institutions. Social action covers movements of political reform, industrial democracy, social legislation, racial and social justice, religious freedom and civil liberty, its techniques include 1 propaganda, research and lobbying." SINGH, S. (1986) Social action is a process in which conscious, systematic and organized efforts are made by some elite(s) and/or people themselves to bring about change in the system which is instrumental in solving problems and improving conditions which limit the social functioning of weaker and vulnerable sections, it is, on the practical plane, nearer to social reform than to social revolution which aims at smashing the entire existing social structure and to build up a new social set-up. It is conflictual in nature but at the same time non-violent.

SOCIAL ACTION 313

Social

action

should

be

seen

as

an

endeavour

to

bring

about

or

prevent change in the social system through a process of making people aware of the socio-political and economic realities conditioning their lives and by mobilizing them to organize themselves for bringing about the desired change, or to prevent the change that adversely affects them, through the use of whatever strategies they may find workable, with the exception of violence. Social action is a confiictual process of varying intensity, initiated and conducted by the masses or by a group of elites, with or without the participation of the masses in the action against the structures or institutions or policies or programmes or procedures of the government and/or relevant agencies and/or power groups to eradicate/control any mass socio-economics political problem with a view to bringing betterment to any section of the underprivileged at a level larger than that of a sociologically defined community. II. OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL ACTION The objective of social action is the proper shaping and development of socio-cultural environment in which a richer and fuller life may be • ¦ 17 possible for all the citizens. The following goals have been identified, prevention of needs, solution of mass problems, improvement in mass conditions, influencing institutions, policies and practices, introduction of new mechanisms or programmes, redistribution of power, resources (human, material and moral), decision-making, effect on thought and action structure, and improvement in health, education and welfare. HI. FORMS OF SOCIAL ACTION Britto19 has identified two types of social action: 1. Action initiated and conducted by the elites for the benefit of the masses. 2. Popular social action. He identifies three sub-models of each the first model he has mentioned the following types:

type

of

social

action.

In

(a) Legislative action model: In this model elites try to modify 314 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS the social policy by creating public opinion against the problems. (b) Sanction model : The elites by gaining control over some economic, social, political or religious weapon try to obtain benefits for the society.

(c) Direct physical model responsible for the cause of

:

Elites

take

action

and

punish

those

injustice. The second type of social action has the following three sub- models: (a) Conscienlization model based on Paulo Friere's concept of creating awareness among masses through education. (b) Dialectical model promoting conflict to exploit the contradictions in a system, with the belief that a better system will emerge as a result. (c) Direct mobilization whereby specific issues are taken up by the aclionists and the masses are mobilized to resort to protests and strikes to achieve the objectives. IV. PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL ACTION Bntto" has described the following principles of social action which emerged out of the analysis of the methodology used by Gandhiji to mobilize, the masses during the freedom movement. 1. PRINCIPLE OF CREDIBILITY BUILDING It is the task of creating a public image of the leadership, the organizEtion and the participants of the movement as champions of justice, rectitude and truth. It helps in securing due recognition from the opponent the reference-public, and the peripheral participants of the movement. 2. PRINCIPLE OF LEGITIMIZATION Legitimization is the process of convincing the reference public and the general public that the movement objectives are morally right. The ideal would be making a case for the movement as a moral-imperative. Movement makers might use theological, philosophical, legal-technical, public opinion paths to establish the tenability of the movement's objectives. SOCIAL ACTION

315

3. PRINCIPLE OF DRAMATIZATION Dramatization is the principle of mass mobilization by leaders of a movement galvanize the population into emotional appeal to heroism, sensational news — novel procedures, pungent slogans and such other techniques.

which the action by management,

4. PRINCIPLE OF MULTIPLE STRATEGIES There are two basic approaches to development : Conflictual and non-conflictual. Taking the main thrust of a programme, one can classify it as political, economic or social. Four developmental strategies have been identified by Zeltman and Duncan. These are: (i) Educational strategy — (a) adult education (b) education by demonstration, (ii) Persuasive

strategy,

(iii) (iv) Power strategy.

5. PRINCIPLE OF DUAL

Facilitative

strategy,

APPROACH Any activist has to build counter-systems or revive some moribund system which is thought to be beneficial to the needs of the mobilized public on a self-help basis without involving opponents. Countersystem must be built up and traditional systems must be transformed or humanized in any developmental operation. 6. PRINCIPLE OF MANIFOLD PROGRAMMES These are of three categories: (i) (ii) (iii) Political programmes

Social

programmes Economic

• programmes

V. PROCESS OF SOCIAL ACTION Lees has suggested nine tactics which are used by social actionists. Tactics Stage 1. Research —> 2. Education I Developing awareness 3. Cooperation —i 4. Organization I Organization 1. 316 SOCIAL WORK-PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS Tactics 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Stage Arbitration —¦ Negotiation

Strategies

Mild coercion — Violation of legal norms — t Action ' Action

The first step in the social action process is to make people aware about the social problems and situations responsible for these problems. The next step is to develop an organization to deal with these situations. He will suggest certain strategies to achieve the defined goal. Now the efforts are made to mobilize people to organize activities on the lines of strategies to achieve the goal. VI. STRATEGIES OF SOCIAL ACTION Lees"

had

identified three types of strategies for social action: 1. COLLABORATION In this strategy the social workers collaborate with the local authority and other authorities or agencies in order to bring about improvements in the existing social policy. The basic assumption of this approach is homogeneity of values and interests, through which substantive agreement on proposals is obtainable. No one stands to lose a great deal of power, authority or money, since change occurs within a consensus that includes both values and interests. 2. COMPETITION

In

this

strategy

contending

parties

utilize

commonly

accepted

campaign tactics to persuade, to negotiate and to bargain, with a willingness to arrive at a working agreement. 3. DISRUPTION This strategy signifies more militant approach and it may include strikes, boycotts, fasts, tax-refusal, sit-ins, etc. Richard Brynt23 postulates two sets of strategies — bargaining and confrontation. Bargaining means lobbying, submitting petitions, SOCIAL ACTION 317 information and publicity campaigns, etc, whereas confrontation includes strikes, demonstrations and 'sit-ins'. Hornstein has mentioned the following strategies for social intervention : individual change, techno-structural data-based, organizational development and cultural change, violence and coercion, and non-violent action—accommodation, exposures, living examples, public , presentation of proposals, competition, lobbying, agitation and subversion, etc. Sharp has identified as many as 198 methods of non-violent action.25 Hornstein26 has classified them as under: 1. Direct action tactics : Picketing, haunting, leafletting, and renouncing honours. 2. Non-cooperation: Strike, boycott, tax refusal 3. Intervention: Sit-in, fast, reverse strike, obstruction.

marches,

fraternization,

VII. MODELS OF SOCIAL ACTION 27 • * Smgh has mentioned the following models of social action: 1. INSTITUTIONAL MODEL (STATE) The state generally takes an indirect action and is directed for the benefit of the people with or without their participation. The approach is parliamentary, representational, bureaucratic and elitist. The action is organized or sponsored within the framework of law, or may be legalized subsequently i.e. regularization of unauthorized sattlements. State action may include residual/institutional (mixed) models. 2. INSTITUTIONAL SOCIAL MODEL It visualizes social action by non-governmental institutions aided or unaided which initiate action directly or otherwise and in the course of time secure people's active . In the beginning the action is initiated for the people but subsequently it progresses with and, through them. The thrust of such action maybe welfare or normative and may take place within the framework of law.

3. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONAL

MODEL Here the social action may be organized by the groups, elites, the deprived, and others for their benefit but in its 318

citizens,

self-help


progression and development may seek and institution(s) which may like to espouse upon its success it may institutionalize itself formally.

from formal groups its cause. Depending

4. POPULIST/MOVEMENTAL MODEL It relies on popular social base and power, rejects dependency, and stresses self-reliance through collective effort, active participation and continuing education. This is an ideal form of social action, in that participants experience thinking, deciding and working together in helping themselves and in the process also strengthen their social base and power. 5. GANDHIAN MODEL This model emphasizes on spirituality, purity non-violence as a creed, austerity (limitation rearmament of people.

of of

means want),

and and

ends, moral

in

social

VIII. ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKER IN SOCIAL ACTION Clarke" action:

has

mentioned

the

following

role

of

social

worker

1. All social workers are interested in promoting the welfare of the individual and as a consequence every social agency sooner or later is concerned with some aspect of social action ... Social work practitioners have the responsibility of keeping their constituency informed of conditions creating the problems they handle so that the agency which is composed of ers, staff, and clients, can share in achieving social change. 2. It is agreed that every social worker as a citizen has a constitutional right to participate in any form of legal social action that he chooses whether it be as a trade union member fighting for the principles of his group; as a member of neighbourhood camp, advocating slum clearance; as an individual espousing the cause of religious freedom, racial equality, civil liberties, free birth-control clinics, disability and health insurance; as a member of a political party; or as a member of a citizen's political action group ... 3. The Rev. Mr. Dwight J. Bradley, Director of the Religious Association of the National Citizens Political Action Committee, urged an active participation in political movements. It was then that in a democratic society all reforms are eventually bound up with 1. SOCIAL ACTION 319

political action, hence if we are to be realistic about social change we cannot evade association with political

action groups. 4. Social workers as individuals or professional persons will specific programmes because they believe in them, not because they have professional expertise of them. 5. Social worker may participate in social action as a primary or secondary activity. The profession of social work in India has hitherto not paid an adequate attention either to education or to practice of social action. Major concerns of the professionals in this area have revolved largely Around Disaster Situations or Disturbances. REFERENCES 1. Quoted by Siddiqui, H.Y. {cd) Social Work and Social Action, Hamom Publications, 1984, pp. 3^1. 2. Ibid. p. 5.3. Kulkami, V.M : "Social Workers are not Revolutionaries" in Towards a Philosophy of Social Work, Das Gupta (ed) Popular Book Services, New Delhi, p. 112. 4. Richmond, Mary E: Whal is Social Case Work? Russell Sage Foundation, 1922, p. 23. 5. Lee, Porter R : "The Social Worker and Social Action", in Porter R. Lee (ed) Social Work as Change and Function, Columbia University Press, New York, 1937, p. 270. 6. ' Coylc, Grace L : "Case Work and Group Work, Social Workers and Social Action", Survey Midmonthty, LXX1II May 1937, pp. 138-139. 7. Fitch, John: "The Nature of Social Action" Proceedings, National Conference of Social Work, New York, I940,*p. 488. 8. Hill, John L: "Social Action" Social Work Year Book, A.A. S.W. 1951, p. 455. 9. Wickendon, E : 'Social Action', Encyclopaedia of Social Work, NASW, New York, 1956. 10. Solender, S: 'Social Action', Social Work Year Book 1957, pp. 517-18. 11. Friedlandcr, W.A : Introduction to Social Welfare, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 1963, p. 219. 12. Nanavati, M.C : "Social Action and the Professional of Social Work "Social Work Forum, Vol. Ill, No. 2,1965, pp. 26-29. 13. Baldwin, Roger N. (1966) quoted by Siddiqui, H.Y. (ed) Social Work and Social Action, Harnam Publication, New Delhi, 1984 p. 12. 14. Singh, Surendra : 'Social Action" in Horizons of Social Work (ed) by Surendra Singh & K.S. Soodan, op. cit. p. 161. 15. Siddiqui, H.Y («*•): Social Work and Social Action, Hamam Publications, New Delhi, 1984, p. 16. 16. Britto, GAA : "Social Action and Social Work Education in the Eighties" in Social Work and Social Action (ed) Siddiqui, H.Y. op. cit p. 50. 7. 320 SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS 17. Jacob, K.K: Methods and Fields of Social Work in India, Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1963, p. 69.

18. Singh, R.R: Social Action: Soine Reflection in Siddiqui Book, op. cit, p. 107. 19. Britto, G.A.A: Social Action and Social Work Education in the Eighties' paper Presented s&ASSWI Seminar Kalanassery, Kerala, 1980. 20. Britto, G.A.A. Ibid pp. 33-18. 21. Lees, R : Politics and Social Work, Routledge and Kegan Paul, Lcmdon, 1972 by Siddiqui, H.Y. op. cit. p. 19. 22. Ibid. p. 21. 23. Bryant, R : Community Action, British Journal of Social Work, Vol. 2, No. 2, 1972, quoted by Siddiqui, H.Y. op. cit. p. 21-22. 24. Hornstcin, H.A. («/) : Social Intervention : A Behavioural Science Approach, Free Press, New York, 1971, pp. 1-5. 25. Sharp : The Politics of Non-Violence, p. 117 quoted by Singh, R.R. op. cit p. 121.

26. I lornstein, I I.A (ed) op. cit. 558IT. 27. Singh, R.R : ti-Social Work and Social Action : Some Reflections' in Siddiqui's Book op. cit. pp. 117-19. 28. Clarke, Helen, 1 : Principles and Practice of Social Work, Appleton - Century Crofts, Inc New York, 1947, pp. 170-175. 29. Ibid p. 127. 17. 15

Social Work Research

RESEARCH is a method, applicable in certain circumstances, for achieving the objective of transforming the indeterminate situation into a determinate one. Research may be defined as systematic investigation intended to add to available knowledge in a form that is a communicable and verifiable. Social work is a new profession and hence it needs a variety of knowledge of theory and practice to make it more valuable to the mass population. I. SOCIAL RESEARCH Social Research is a studious enquiry, usually, critical and exhaustive investigation or experimentation having for its aim the revision of accepted conclusions in the light of newly discovered facts. (Webster Dictionary). YOUNG (I960) Social research is "a logical and systematized old facts, and to causal explanations and (1934)

scientific undertaking which, by means of methods, aim to discover new facts or analyse their sequences, interrelationship the natural laws which govern them" .

SLEISINGCR AND STEVENSON Social research may be regarded analysing and conceptu^'izing social or knowledge, whether that of a theory or in the practice of an art."

as "a method of studying, of life in order to extend, correct knowledge aids in the construction

MUbtiK (I'm) "Systematized investigation to gain phenomena and problems, we call social research.

new

knowledge

about

social

BOGARDUS (1953) Social research is the investigation of the operative in the lives of persons who are in association. By the analysis of these definitions, we find the following characteristics of social research:

underlying

processes,

1. Social research is related to acquire knowledge in connection with the social life and social phenomena. Human beings are studied as of society. 2. New facts about social life are investigated in social research. Old facts are also verified.

3. Laws are formulated in connection with social life and phenomena. 4. Social research investigates the interrelationships different social facts. ¦ 5. Knowledge about the control of social phenomena is promoted through social research.

social among

II. SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH FRIEDLANDER (1957) Social Work research is the systematic, critical investigation of questions in the social welfare field with the purpose of yielding answers to problems of social work, and of extending and generalizing social work knowledge and concepts. RIPPLE (I960) Social work research begins objective is to produce knowledge or carrying on social work programmes.

with practical problems, and its that can be put to use in planning

BRIJ MOHAN (1986) Social work research established professional of human behaviour system of interventions.

as an organized scientific endeavour is an activity toward building up a general theory and social functioning involving a coherent

MACDONALD (1957)

I

Research in social work may be taken to encom those questions which are encountered in social work practice or in planning or istering social work services, which are solvable through research, and which are appropriate for investigation under social work auspices. FLETCHER (1949) "Research in social work has been defined as the scientific the validity of social work functions and methods. On the analysis of the various definitions we find that social work research has certain points.1

testing

of

1. Social work research is applied research, in that it derives from and contributes to the practice of social work. The body of social work knowledge, while not a science, may be made more scientific by means of social work research.

2. Social work research may be addressed to problems of varying degrees of generality. At one extreme the product may be quite abstract, for example; a test of the hypothesis postulating a positive relationship between acceptance by the case worker and lowering of protective defensive

mechanisms by the client, structure by the group worker

or

between

the

of

group

and

3. 4. •

5.

increasing cohesion of the group. At the other extreme, a private agency may wish merely to know how many of its clients are non-residents so that the director may use this fact when he testifies before a legislative commission. The resulting figure is an infinitesimal contribution to social work knowledge, and it may be pretentious to label as research the simple inquiry that resulted in this discrete item of information. Information is inert knowledge . . . and theories are proposed to for relationships among the facts ... While the function of research in social work is to produce useful knowledge, the function may be discharged sequentially. One investigation may build on others, later investigations may incorporate the findings of earlier ones.... The function of social work research may be conceived to include production of knowledge of different sorts. The functions will be fully discharged only as knowledge is increasingly systematized, mis implies tuc ucvciupmcm ui useful concepts and the explication of their relationship, i.e., theory building.

III. OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH Social work research facilitates the use and generalizability of systematically arrived at facts and explanations which help solve social problems and enhance human functioning. Mass indicates two purposes of social work research: (1) to achieve a better fit between human needs and welfare goals; (2) to increase the likelihood that these goals can be attained Macdonald's view is that the function of social work research is to contribute to the development of a dependable body of knowledge to serve the goals and means of social work in all its ramifications. Fletcher has mentioned the following objectives of social work research: 1. To improve and enlarge the techniques of diagnosis and treatment as they are used in social work practice. 2. To develop the efficiency and define the function of social work agency as the medium through which social work is practised. 3. To appraise and measure the community's needs for social work service. 4. To add to the general knowledge of the etiology of social pathology so that social action can be directed toward the prevention of problems that might later require social work treatment.

IV. TYPE OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL WORK Phillip Klein has mentioned of research in social work:

the

following

classification

of

the

types

1. Studies to establish, identify and measure the need for service. 2. Studies to measure the services offered, as they relate to needs. 3. Studies to test, gauge, and evaluate results of social work operation. 4. Studies to test the efficacy of specific techniques ... of offering service. 1. 5. Studies in methdology of research. Friedlander18 has mentioned the following types: 1. Studies to establish and measure factors that produce social problems and call for social services. 2. Studies of the history of charitable institutions, social welfare legislation, social welfare programme, and social work concepts. 3. Studies of the expectations, perceptions, and situation evaluations of social workers. 4. Studies of intentions, goals, and self-images of social workers. 5. Studies of relationship between the social worker's expectations, his intentions, and his actions. 6. Studies of the content of social work proceses. 7. Studies that test the adequacy of available social services in relation to the needs of the individuals, groups, and the community. 8. Studies that test, gauge, and evaluate the effects of social work operations and investigate the competence required for social work practice. 9. Studies of client's expectations, goals, perceptions, and evaluation of situations. 10. Studies of client's behaviour in relation to their reactions of social work practice. 11. Studies of formal and informal definition of the role of social workers, their interrelationships. 12. Studies of the values and priority preferences of social groups in the community upon which social welfare practice relies for and development. 13. Studies of the "patterns of interaction between the different components in social agency settings and of their influence upon clients and agency staff. 14. Studies in the methodology of social work research.

It

has

been

recognized

that

social

work

research

needs

to

develop and define its own conceptual

tools, selecting concepts from the social sciences.

and

adapting

V. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOCIAL RESEARCH AND SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH General social research and social work research have not much distinction as both are concerned to promote the welfare of humanity by the results of their investigation. Social work research begins with practical problems whereas social research may be concerned with any aspect of social life. The objective of social work research is to produce knowledge that can be helpful in planning and executing social work programmes, whereas the objective of social research is to accumulate the knowledge for understanding social life of human beings. Social work research is an applied research which is directed toward the acquisition of knowledge in order to control or change human behaviour. Social research may be basic as well a applied. Social work research serves the goals of social work whereas, social research has no specific goal. It increases the knowledge of any of the social sciences. Social work research helps the social workers in dealing with social problems or problems relating to their clients (individual, group or community). Social research may belheipful to social,work as it helps in increasing the knowledge of human behaviour. VI. RELATIONSHIP OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH TO OTHER DISCIPLINES

Social work Operates on the basis of variegated bodies of knowledge. Important contributions have been, made by social and biological sciences, i.e., sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, education, public istration, medicine, psychiatry, biology and law to develop social work as a profession. Social Work research is the formulation and testing of social work knowledge but its achievements are peripheral to the developing body of knowledge. "Social work knowledge in the coming years either must formulate and test its own knowledge on a substantial scale, supplementing it with critical use of social science^knowledge, or it must surrender its professional functions to new and more vigorous disciplines, hereby asg its practitioners to the role of useful technicians and abandoning the hope of attaining full professional status for the field. Social work research has so far developed its knowledge of the following areas: knowledge of the

history of social work and the relationship of social work, as a profession, to the society in which it operates, knowledge of social agency organization, istration, operation and function; skill in interpreting social welfare programme and^ services; knowledge of community resources relevant to problems that clients bring to social agencies; knowledge of the nature of human needs which social welfare, programmes are designed to meet; knowledge of the relationships between the different units of network of social services in the community and skills in using this network on behalf of the social agency client; knowledge of an appropriate professional behaviour in relation to clients, colleagues, and other professional persons; knowledge and acceptance of the values and philosophical orientations of social work and of the ethics of the profession; knowledge and acceptance of the role of social work and the social worker in relation to the client; skills in developing, sustaining, and managing a relationship with clients of social agencies; skill in the application of the scientific method — study, diagnosis and treatment in helping the social agency client; skill in interviewing, discussion, leadership, committee chairmanship in a social agency setting for social work purposes; skills in constructively using social work supervision and consultation and knowledge about such supervisory, consultative relationships; skill in recording in line with the agency's needs." VII. THE PROBLEMS IN SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH

The great problem in social work research is to bring together knowledge of the field and knowledge of rhethod. The researcher must have the thorough knowledge of practice, practice theory, other relevant theories, concepts and findings of other researches in the field. This knowledge can be achieved only through the study of social work or its any branch and other related social sciences. But the problem is, that the authorities of social work have never been researchers and experts in research field and have seldom been expert in some branch of social work. This has created new types of problems in the research field of social work. The first one is the abortive study that fails for lack of competence in application of an appropriate research method. The second type is the irrelevant study that fails to contribute to social work knowledge because the research design does not utilize concepts and variables that are meaningful in of social work

theory. Optimum conditions for the advancement of research in social work suggest three requirements: (1) an intimate and profound grasp of social work knowledge relevant to the problem; (2) grasp of relevant knowledge from other disciplines or professions, (3) methodological competence in undertaking the given inquiry.

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