Report Writing For Readers With Little Time 2l5a4z

© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

Rien Elling Bas Andeweg Jaap de Jong Christine Swankhuisen Kim van der Linden · First edition Noordhoff Uitgevers Groningen/Houten

© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

cover design: G2k Designers Groningen/Amsterdam Cover illustration: iStockPhoto

© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

Preface

Any comments about this publication or others may be addressed to: Noordhoff Uitgevers bv, Afdeling Hoger Onderwijs, Antwoordnummer 13, 9700 VB Groningen, e-mail: [email protected] Despite strenuous effort, it has proven impossible to trace all those who possess copyrights to the texts and/or illustrations. Anyone who believes that (s)he possesses such copyrights is requested to the publisher.

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© 2012 Noordhoff Uitgevers bv Groningen/Houten , The Netherlands. Subject to the exceptions in or pursuant to the Auteurswet (Copyright Act) of 1912, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in an automated retrieval system or made public in any way, either by electronic or by mechanical means, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. To the extent that reprographic reproduction of this publication is permitted pursuant to Article 16h Auteurswet 1912 (Copyright Act 1912), the compensation payable is to be made to the Stichting Reprorecht (postbus 3060, 2130 KB Hoofddorp, www.cedar.nljreprorecht). Anyone wishing to reproduce part(s) of this publication in anthologies, readers and other compilations (Article 16 Auteurswet 1912) may apply to the Stichting PRO (Stichting Publicatie- en Reproductierechten Organisatie, P.O. Box 3060, 2130 KB Hoofddorp , www.cedar.nljpro). All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISBN 978-90-01-81259-1 NUR 810

Writing workshops are popular with companies and other organisations . Writers who spend a lot of time writing often find that despite their efforts they do not obtain the desired result. Their readers and they themse.lves suffer from infobesity: drowning in the vast amount of paper and digital information. Students are often badly prepared for their professional careers . The many papers that they write often start with the assumption that much is good (the more pages , the higher the mark) and the Internet is a good source of information. In professional situations we tend to hear Can this be reduced to one page? and Who guarantees that the information is reliable? Efficient writing is, therefore, partly a matter of unlearning things. You will have to distantiate yourself from all the interesting information that you have collected and start with the question of why readers with limited time would want to read your text. What do they really need and why should they believe what you tell them? It is also partly a matter of learning new things such as knowing what the conventions are regarding quotation of sources and what exactly a reader expects in an introduction . These matters can be easily learned from a book and as such , Report writing is suitable for self-study. For strategic elements such as writing for a specific audience, from readers (lecturers, colleagues) remains a valuable source of additional information. Writing reports for readers with little time is a translation and adaptation of the fourth edition of Rapportagetechniek. It is suited to students majoring in a broad range of technical, engineering, business, and other specialized fields . Professionals in these fields could benefit too from the guidelines. Delft, September 2011 Rien Elling Bas Andeweg Jaap de Jong Christine Swankhuisen Kim van der Linden

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Contents

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Introduction g

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Writing effectively in professional situations · 13

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

The importance of writing in professional situations 14 Strategic factors 14 An absence of internal instructions 17 lndispensible writing skills 18

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From assignment to text

3 .1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3 .5 3 .6 3 .7

Determine the main question 22 Formulate background and key questions 27 Establish the structure via a preliminary table of contents 29 Draw up a time schedule 31 Write the first version quickly 31 Revise the first version systematically 33 Collaborate efficiently 37

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Dealing with sources of information

4.1 4 .2

Referring and quoting conventions 44 Frequently asked questions 45

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Structuring

5.1 5.2 5 .3

Three ways to read a report 56 Division into chapters and sections 57 Division into paragraphs 61

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Requirements for each part of the report

6.1 6 .2 6 .3 6.4 6.5 6.6

Cover and title page 7 4 Preface 76 Table of contents 76 Summary 77 Introduction 80 The chapters between introduction and conclusion 85

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6.12 6.13 6 .14

Conclusions 85 Recommendations 88 Bibliography 90 Appendices 90 Notes 91 List of symbols 91 Glossary 91 Index 92

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Special types of text

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8

Feasibility study 96 Policy paper 101 Advisory report 105 Literature report 108 Progress report 111 An experimental research report 114 A qualitative research report 116 Design report 119

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Letters, emails and memos

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4

Business letters 128 Letters of application 139 Email 146 Memos 149

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Putting ideas into words

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9 .5

Writing clearly 154 Writing concisely 158 Writing compellingly 161 Writing correctly 164 Use of dictionaries and thesauruses 173

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Persuasive writ ing 177

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4

Aim the report at decision-makers with little time 178 Answer the questions of readers whose opinion counts 181 Formulate persuasively 186 Techniques that border on deception 188

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Illustrations

11.1 11.2 11.3

The importance of putting things in visual form 194 General guidelines 194 Suitable material for illustrations 197

6 .7 6 .8 6.9 6.10

6.11

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Layout

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5

Layout requirements 210 The basic layout of a report 212 The layout of text elements 214 The layout of individual parts of a report 219 Common layout pitfalls 225

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Presenting a report orally

13.1 13.2

Preparing your presentation 230 Delivering a presentation 244

209

Recommended literature 250 Appendix 251

Evaluation report form 251 About the authors 254 Index 255

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1 Introduction

What do you need to know to be an effective writer? It can be summed up as follows: do not use more words than necessary, make sure the text has an introduction, a main body and a conclus ion, and avoid jargon . These ru les are deceptively simple: you probably know them already and if you do not, it wi ll not take you long to learn them off by heart. Using these rules, however, may be qu ite a different matter. If the ass ignment given by the person in charge is unclear, if the readers for whom you are writing have wide ly different backgrounds, if the mass of data that you have to incorporate is complex and the deadline is set in concrete, then most of these rules may turn out to be purely academic .

With these considerations in mind, th is book sets out to provide an approach - a systematic way of going about writing - rather than a set of simple rules . The first requ irement for an efficient approach to a writi ng task is to adopt the right attitude towards your readers . As a rule , your public wi ll consist of a number of different groups, varying from specialists in the field to managers. While the information these readers wi ll be looking for will vary, what they will have in common is a chronic lack of time and a dislike of lengthy reports. As well as that they are like ly to be critical readers and you will have to convin ce them that your information is important and reliable. The approach we take in this book wil l increase the chance that you wil l produce an end product th at is satisfactory for all parties. There wi ll be times , however, that you wi ll look in vain for a remedy for your particular writing problems. Everybody has developed their own way of writing texts , and these ways may be confused , laborious or incorrect. Not even the most comprehens ive advice will be ab le to solve all problems . This book may not meet all your needs, therefore - some things may need additiona l practice and you may need

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from experienced readers. If you do not have the opportunity to follow a writing course you should make use of every opportunity to obtain comments from critical colleagues . This book was written for people with littl e time: if you wish, use it selectively. The following table shows where to find the answers to some important questions. The order is based on the five questions we are most frequently asked in our own situations . Five frequently asked questions - and where to find the answers

What individual parts should a report contain? What are the requirements for each part of the report?

Chapter 6 Requirements for each part of the report.

How do I approach writing effectively right from the start?

Chapter 3 From assignment to text

How can I convey my ideas convincingly?

Chapter 10 Persuasive writing

What is the best way of structuring my report?

Chapter 5 Structuring (chapters, paragraphs)

How can I use the information I have gathered correctly?

Chapter 4 Dealing with sources of information

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Writing effectively in professional situations 2. 1 2 .2 2.3 2.4

The importance of writing in professional situations Strategic factors An absence of internal instructi ons lndispen sib le writing skills

Some people see writing re ports and memos as someth ing that is keeping them from their real work. In thi s chapter we will see that writing should, instead, be regarded as a core task . Strategic factors that strongly influence writing in professional situations are also dea lt with. Beca use useful guidelines for writing texts within compa nies are a rare thing, writers usually have to f ind their own way. They have to be able t o create norms for effective and convincing writing th emse lves . The skills needed for this wi ll be briefly dealt with .

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The importance of writing in professional situations Highly trained people usually find that writing takes up more of their working hours than many of them had imagined at the start of their careers. Take engineers, for instance: of course they have mainly been trained to develop or optimize technical products and processes. But before there is a product, feasibility studies have to be written, research reports produced, progress reports published and a lot of memos sent back and forth. No matter how brilliant your idea for a new product was, how clever your research plan or how decisive the conclusion of your feasibility study, nobody will ever put it into practice if you are not successful in conveying your findings clearly and convincingly to others: to your colleagues, to those in charge and to your clients. And even though oral communication is very important, you will find that you will have to communicate largely on paper. That will take up a lot of time: sometimes up to a third of your working time . It will take up so much time that it is fair to say that very often the primary result of an engineer's work is not the apparatus or a system , but text. It is not surprising, therefore, that employers often ask in employment ments for "good oral and written communication skills". And it is also not surprising that shortcomings in this field are often a cause for complaint by employer organisations.

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Strategic factors Why do so many people experience problems with writing at work that they did not, or only to a minor extent, encounter during their studies? The reason for this is the role that texts play in professional situations, a role that is different from that in the educational setting. The following three factors are characteristic of professional situations: • The writing is primarily aimed at measures and decisions . • There are a variety of readers, each with different interests. • Readers are not prepared to spend much time on reading. Many writers are insufficiently aware of the consequences of these characteristics. We will deal with them next.

2.2.1

Action-directed writing

The reports that students write during their study serve an educational purpose. They are designed to exercise the student 's skills and demonstrate that the writer is more or less able to independently analyse a problem and can indicate ways of solving these. Technical data and analyses form the core of a text. The things you write in a work situation are usually directed towards action: measures to be taken or decisions to be made. The technical data and analyses you provide will be indispensible for this, but mainly as a vehicle for basing the necessary action on. This underlines the importance of firstly

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WRITING EFFECTIVELY IN PROFESSION AL SITUATIONS

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making it clear to the reader why something should be done (in other words, why they should read the report). That should be emphasized in the introduction. Another central aspect is what the reader is supposed to do with the results. This is why there is a strong emphasis on the conclusions and especially the recommendations . The action concerned will almost always have repercussions for various departments and individuals. A measure in the field of production can have consequences for the purchasing, inventory management and marketing departments. Decisions with far-reaching consequences presuppose the involvement of several people within the firm's hierarchy, or at least prior knowledge on the part of these people. This means that it is unlikely that your report will only be seen by those who issued you with the assignment. For many readers, the technical data will at most be regarded as background information only, and not something they need to delve into in detail.

2 .2.2

Writing for a variety of readers

The readers who will look at your report will usually either be readers with specific background knowledge or readers who read the report only partially or with a specific purpose in mind: • Decision-makers. These are the people who will decide whether the recommendations are to be implemented (managers and other generalists). • Specialists. These are the people who are especially interested in the technical basis and the method adopted (the people who are responsible for implementing the recommendations: staff who advise management). The person who assigned you the task of writing the report will very often be an intermediary. This will be the case if it is their task to test your findings globally and subsequently send them on to others within the organisation. Your report will only be effective if you bear all your readers in mind equally, or in other words , if your report can be read in several ways . The following advice can improve the efficiency of your report. Do not just focus on the person who commissioned the report. A onesided concentration on the person who gave you the assignment can result in the report being useless for other important readers. It is also very possible that the situation will change after you have received your assignment. The more time your research takes the greater the chance of that happening. The original person may have been put onto a different project. Chances are that the person sitting on his or her chair will be less well informed. The successor may perhaps not understand your report if you have left out those things that would have been clear to his predecessor. Do not write the report for a once-only use. A project relating to new oil-extracting techniques might be put on ice for a while because oil prices are too low. Your report on those techniques might resurface a year later, but will not necessarily be seen by the person who commissioned the report originally. The report should be usable independent of the original context - for example, because you have defined the problem fully and clearly in your introduction.

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Be careful about omitting things that you regard as obvious. Even if you are confident that the person who commissioned the report will be the reader of your report (and perhaps even the only reader), you should be careful not to omit seemingly obvious details (such as the problem that gave rise to the research and the preconditions that had to be kept in mind). Since giving you the assignment, that person may have dealt with a multitude of other matters. You cannot expect that person to have instant recall of all the details of the assignment one or two months later. Moreover, sometimes you will have to do some background research before the assignment can be formulated clearly. You will have to notify the person who commissioned the report of the exact formulation .

Even if the person who commissioned the report still re exactly how things were , your report will be all the more authoritative if you show that you have an overview of the whole problem.

© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

WRITING EFFECTIVELY IN PROFESSIONAL SITUATIONS

• We are dealing with a quality problem because the final product does not satisfy the desired specifications. This means that the quality control and sales departments should at the very least be involved in the matter. There is potentially a conflict with the environmental protection authority because the discharged liquid waste (polluted with oil and dirt) does not comply with the legal requirements . • There is a cost problem because a fourth filter will be necessary. An accompanying letter or an oral explanation of the report may, of course, address these issues. But by the time the various readers get down to actually reading the report, the letter may have been lost or the explanation forgotten . The following introduction would therefore be better for decision-makers.

AN INTRODUCTION THAT A DECISION-MAKER WILL FIND USEFUL

2.2 .3

Writing for readers with little time

Most people find that they have little time or inclination to read voluminous texts. This is especially true of managers, who have to digest large amounts of oral and written information daily. With everything they read they will ask themselves: • What is this? • What should I do with it? • Who should I involve in this?

Acute problem

If the text does not answer their own questions quickly, readers become irritated or will not digest the information properly. The following introduction will mainly raise questions in the mind of a decision maker:

Long term

Recommended action

The new installation for recycling waste oil that was put into operation in May has been found to insufficiently remove pollution from the waste oil. As a result, the end product does not comply with the standards for high-grade heating oil and only fetches 60% of the normal price. This report provides recommendations for a few adaptations to the production process that will bring the quality to the required level within two weeks. The literature was also researched with a view to the future (within a year or two, say) possibility of adopting a totally different process, namely re-distillation in two stages or the re-refining process patented by KTI (Kinetics Technology International).

AN INTRODUCTION THAT A DECISION-MAKER WILL NOT FIND USEFUL

Problem?

Action needed?

The new installation for recycling of waste oil that was put into operation last May has been shown to only remove particles to 0.2 mm in the three-stage filter for the batch tank. This report describes the results of a study into increasing the amount of catchment. As well, the possibility of re-distillation in two stages and the re-refining process of KTI will be looked at. During that process, de-gassing and vacuum distillation are used .

Why was the research done?

The way in which this introduction sketches a technical problem is suitable for a specialist reader who is well-versed in the recycling process. For decision-makers, the text is less easily accessible . What is more serious is that it is completely unclear to the readers why they should read the text. Because the text does not address this , they will not be able to assess the valu e of the information or put it into perspective. There are , after all, several possibilities:

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You will rarely find that readers peruse a report of a hundred pages carefully from the first to the last page. But it is still sometimes necessary to write reports like that. A well-set-up report has parts that are important to each category of readers. Appendix 7 might be looked at intensively by the head of the marketing department, who is not at all interested in the rest of your report. It is of the utmost importance that the various categories of reader can select the information that is relevant to them . A conveniently arranged table of contents, informative chapter and section headings and a summary that can be read independently will contribute to this .

Ul An absence of internal instructions New employees who have been asked to write a report sometimes ask their department for instructions on how to do so. Many companies have directions for the formatting of reports , laid down in the house style. Some companies have directions for the content of reports, such as what should go in each section of a report. These directions are often all too vague and offer little to go on. Often there will be no guidelines at all.

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Each reader will, of course, have his or her own ideas about what a report should contain, but they rarely get around to formulating these requirements explicitly. The various different readers within an organisation may even have different norms . Readers are not always by definition right. They might have unreasonable demands. of a communication consultancy firm discovered that when they were asked for advice by a company whose managers complained regularly about the quality of the reports they received from their employees. It became obvious that the managers expected information in the reports that was superfluous considering the aim of the text. They were expecting to see all kinds of marketing details, which they regarded as extremely interesting because they themselves had a marketing background. However, they did not need these details to make their decisions. Instead of a writing course for the employees, something else was needed here: either explicit instructions on the part of the readers about what they expected in a report or the dropping of obviously unreasonable demands. The moral of the story is that you will have to develop your own ideas about what constitutes an effective text. While it is not advisable to deviate radically from existing traditions in the department, you can count on it that good communication will be recognised as such. And, of course, you can avoid many problems by consulting with the person who commissioned the report. For example, you could provide him or her with a preliminary table of contents.

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lndispensible writing skills What is required to cope with the problems described in the previous sections? • A systematic approach. If you want to maintain your grasp on what you are doing you will need to adopt a systematic approach. The main thing is to pay attention to what is needed at that particular moment in time. If you try to keep all the important factors (prior knowledge of the reader, structure , clarity, correctness, etc.) in mind at the same time you will get writer's block. If you try to write coherent sentences too soon (that is to say, when you are still struggling with the contents) you will waste too much time. If you structure your report too late you will usually fail to create a clear outline. • Attention to the reader. A capable writer will regularly ask himself who his readers are and what they need, bearing in mind the use they will make of the text within the organisation. The writer will be able to tune in to the various readers as th ey ask themselves "what do I have to do with this?" Because the reader's demands are not always clear, it may be useful to the person who commissioned the repo rt or some of the other readers once or twice during the course of the writing process. • Knowledge of writing techniques. A writer who is aware of what aspects make for clarity of structure and text legibility will be able to produce an accessible text relatively quickly. • Setting priorities. Writing is almost always more time consuming than is thought at first. Compared to educational settings , deadlines are usually tighter. Being too late may make a report useless by that fact alone. Points of special interest have to be chosen carefully. Instead of skimping on your conclusions it can sometimes be better to leave a chapter in a summary state.

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3 From assignment to text ,.l· ,,,. '

3.1 3 .2 3 .3 3. 4 3 .5 3 .6 3 .7

Determine the main question Formulate background and key questions Establish the structure via a preliminary table of contents Draw up a time schedule Write the first version quickly Revise the first version systematically Collaborate efficiently

After a report is finished the writer often realises it could have been done far more effi ciently. In hindsight it may seem incomprehensible that it took so long to get the broad outlines of the report and inexplicable that it took so much staring at the computer screen before the right formulations came to mind. And yet again , the deadline was not met. If the person who commissioned the report is happy with the result there is not much to worry about. But what if he makes all kinds of comments , comments about which the writer t hinks "why didn 't he say at the start exactly what it was that he expected?" Incorporating t he "new" wishes will cause even more delay. Probl ems of this type cannot be avoided entirely. Things often only become clear to a writer when he puts them to paper. The person who assigned the report often only knows exactly what he or she wants after the report is on paper. Still, most people can write more quickly th an they do and also produce results that are more in accordance with the wishes of the readers. It is a matter of writing systematically, something that this book will describe in seve n steps. It is not necessary to have finished one step before beginning on the next. While writing th e text you may discover that the main question has not been defined properly or that the

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table of contents needs to be adapted. Writing is a cyclical process. It is important that certain activities - such as clear and accurate phrasings should not be started too early because you will only make more work for yourself. Other things, such as determining the exact structure, however, should not be left too late because making changes in this area could prove to be very complicated and time-consuming.

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Determine the main question A systematic approach means getting a clear picture first of the assignment you have been given, then analysing the needs of the readers and on the basis of that, formulating a precise main question, ending with a question mark.

3 .1.1

Make sure you know what you have been assigned to do

Usually you will have been asked to write the report in question, though sometimes the initiative will have come from you yourself. If the latter is the case, you will be formulating your own assignment. When people request a written report they often fail to make clear what exactly it is that they expect from you as a writer. Writing assignments are often vague and too broadly formulated. While it may seem like a luxury to work on a vague assignment (because it offers you a great deal of freedom), vague assignments have a habit of working out badly and chances are that the report will not meet the expectations of the readers. You might delve deeply into problems the person who gave you the assignment does not want dealt with at length , or your text leads to conclusions that he or she does not want. Only upon completion of a vague assignment will it become clear that the person who commissioned you has definite ideas about the desired contents . Either your text will fail to meet expectations and disappear into some drawer or other, or you will have to largely re-write it.

A VAGUE ASSIG NMENT

Ms Annet Weverlingh, who works for a manufacturer of electronics , is told the following during a meeting with production chef D. Jansen: "You know there are a number of problems with the Data Recorder production process . Can you find out what the possibilities are for dealing with them and put it all on paper?" Initially she thinks that the assignment is pretty straightforward . As she sees it, what came out of the meeting was that the main problem is that the production process is not efficient at the moment and therefore too expensive. She investigates the matter and concludes in the report that the same work could be done by 10% fewer employees if the tasks are distributed more efficiently.

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Mr Jansen is very dissatisfied: after the problems the company has had with trade unions in the recent past she could have known that a reduction in the number of jobs is completely out of the question. What he had expected in the report was an investigation of new, more advanced production machinery. Expansion of production was for him the desired way of solving the problem - something Ms Weverlingh could have known if she had asked more questions when she took on the assignment.

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FROM ASS IG NMENT TO TEXT

As in this example, there is often uncertainty about an investigation's and conditions and other parameters, not to mention what is required in of the report's content. It is a good idea to consult with the person who asked you to do the assignment before you start on it and also during the course of writing it. If you do this you will be sure you know what he or she requires by way of a text. You could use the following checklist to make sure you have all the information you need. Using a checklist like this is a good way of clarifying a vague assignment, and you can talk the result through with the person who asked you to do the assignment. If you hand out writing assignments yourself, you could, of course , also use the checklist in Fig 3.1 as a starting point now and then.

FIGURE 3 .1

Assignment checklist

D What purpose should the report serve? D What function should the report serve when it is finished (is it a discussion report, or will measures be taken on the basis of the report)? D What and conditions and other parameters govern the report? D Who will read the report? D When does the report have to be finished? D When and whom can you consult about draft versions? D What size and format should it have?

We will use the Data Recorder assignment as an example.

TH E ASSIGNMENT IN CONCRETE FORM

to underpin a decision relating to extending the production of the Data Recorder Starting points: number of jobs to stay the same; investigate possibilities of advanced systems Readers : management, works council Deadline: 10/12 Consultation: Ms Jansen will receive the draft 26/11; discussion 3/12 Size: no more than 10 sheets A4

Aim:

If you start out with a draft of a research proposal or a report, you could, naturally, base your checklist discussion on that. Th e advantage of a draft is that a number of things are already down on paper. If the final report conforms to the interim report, the reader cannot say in retrospect that he or she had expected something different to what was presented .

3.1 .2

Analyse your reading audience

Everybody who wants to write an effective report must take note of the readers for whom it is intended, and do so at an early stage. As we discussed in the previous chapter, in real-life situations you will be dealing with the people who have comm issioned the report (decision-makers) and

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most probably others as well (those with specialist knowledge, for example). The next three questions will help you analyse your reading public: 1 For what purpose will they be reading the text? 2 What questions will they want answers to? 3 How will they be reading the text, or in other words, what reading strategy are they likely to use? The answers to these questions for the two main reader groups, the decision-makers and the specialists, are shown in Table 3.1

TABLE 3.1 Writing for decision-makers or specialists

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In the introduction and the summary you should dwell at length on the organisational side of things: specify the organisational problem that has arisen from broadly described technical problems. • In your conclusions, recommendations and summary you should provide concrete information about the extent to which your solutions comply with decision-making criteria: effectiveness, costs, possible savings, the time required for implementation, legal and conditions, etc. • Put some effort into visualisation: use attractive diagrams and graphs that can be understood without reading the text.

SUMMARY AIMED AT A DECISION-MAKER

Decision-makers

Specialists

• decision-making

• advice to decision-makers

• management

• control

Organisational problem Purpose

• implementation Questions

Reading strategy

FROM ASSIGNMENT TO TEXT

• What are the problems within our organisation that are being addressed? • What are the conclusions and the recommendations? • What advantages do the recommendations carry and what are the risks involved? • What are the costs and the benefits?

• What method has been used to obtain these results? Is this method sufficiently reliable? • What technical problems could arise? • If a solution is found, what is the best way of implementing it?

The report will be read to obtain the broad thrust though some parts will be read in greater detail, especially the summary, the introduction, the conclusions and the recommendations. The rest will be skimmed through; illustrations will attract the attention.

The report will be read selectively, with certain details (often those found in tables) and some appendices read intensively, depending on the reader's area of expertise.

Tuning into the decision-makers

To ensure that decision-makers get the main thrust of the report (and not the technical details or other parts that they are not primarily interested in), you should insure that certain crucial parts - such as the summary - are directed specifically at them. The following instructions will help you to meet their demands. • Avoid presenting technical problems. It is organisational problems - in other words, a problem relating to costs/benefits, quality, management, safety, etc. - that they will be interested in. Rather than a question such as "What techniques may be used to remove impurities more efficiently from waste oil?" they will want to read "How can we turn waste oil into heating oil of a sufficiently high quality to attract the same price as high-grade heating oil?" • Avoid jargon in the summary, the introduction, the conclusions and the recommendations, and do not dwell on technical details.

Solution meets the criteria

The new installation for recycling waste oil that was put into operation in May has proven to eliminate the impurities from the waste oil insufficiently. As a result the end product has failed to comply with the specifications for high-grade heating oil and is fetching only 60% of the normal price. This means a monthly loss of about €300,000. This report describes experiments that show that the quality can be raised to the required level by installing an extra filter in the installation, provided there are no abnormal disturbances in production such as those that occurred last May. It is recommended that this filter be installed as soon as possible. Our technical services can make the filter operational within four weeks. The money invested will be earned back within the period of a year.

Tuning in t o t he specialists

Specialists will only be able to read selectively if the report is clearly structured. The required information can be found easily if the writer adheres to the following instructions: • Start every chapter with a short introduction to allow the reader to see quickly what the chapter is about. • Make sure there are appendices showing the technical details. These should be able to be read independently of the text. Anticipate typical specialist questions: • Give a careful of the methods used. • Refer to the literature correctly and often enough. • Give detailed results, preferably in the form of tables.

3.1.3

Formulating the main question

The main thrust of the report needs to be made obvious at an early stage, and is best done in the form of a question. Formulating a precise question will bring your readers to mind: what is the question that you will be answering for them? You also force yourself to work in a more goal-oriented way. The central question of the report is termed the main question. It should be carefully worded.

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FROM ASSIGNMENT TO TEXT

CAREFULLY WORDED MAIN QUESTIONS

INCORRECT: YES/ NO QUESTION

CORRECT: OPEN QUESTION

1 To what extent is it possible to use nanocomposites instead of conventional materials in building the Air Tech 100? 2 What is the best method of preventing the measuring and samp ling points of the production line from freezing over? 3 What are the main causes of leaking losses at the propylene storage at the plastics facility in Geleen?

Can the General Intelligence and Security Service formulate a policy that combines openness with the required confidentiality?

What policy decisions can be taken within the General Intelligence and Security Service to provide openness about its activities without jeopardising the required confidentiality?

These three questions give a good indication of the central subject of the text, and as well as this, show the aim of the text. The reader will know immediately after reading main question 1 that it is a feasibility study. In the case of main question 2, it is immediately clear that the text has an advisory function and will conclude with recommendations. Question 3, however, is indicative of a preliminary analytical study. The following main 'questions' have been less carefully formulated.

MAIN QUESTIONS THAT ARE TOO VAGUELY WORDED

4 This report deals with improvement in the output of the gas turbine. 5 In this memo we will look at sealing the basis of the dumping place by means of a layer of foil. 6 In this report we will treat the way emails are dealt with in our organisation.

By the way, there is no truth to the idea that you cannot adjust the main question as you get further into the report: the main question can always be reformulated on the basis of new information or ideas.

~

Formulate background and key questions From the main question background questions and key questions have to be deduced: questions to which the reader needs an answer in order to understand the writer's response to the main question. Background questions create the framework with in which the main question is answered. They elucidate the main question and its significance. The following questions are almost always indispensible ones to ask: • How have the of the main question been defined? • What is the significance of the main question? • What research method will be used? • What are the and conditions? • Wha t are the main considerations? We wi ll illustrate this with an example.

The wording of formulations 4-6 will be problematic for the readers. They will be unable to ascertain from the main question what the aim of the text is. Expressions like "deal with" , "look at" and "treat" are popular for a reason: they are vague and allow the writer to keep his options open. If you write that you will be dealing with improvement in the output of the gas turbine (formulation 4) it can mean at least three things: • You intend to describe the improvement in the output (to what extent and when does it occur?) • You intend to explain it (what are the causes of the improvement in the output?) • You intend to give advice relating to the output (how to increase the output?)

BACKGROUND QUESTIONS

Main question: Definition: Importance: Method: Specifica tions:

It is preferable to use an open question rather than a question requiring a yes/no answer. Readers very rarely want yes or no as an answer; they are more interested in how, why and wherefore. Furthermore, an open question gives you more to go on during the writing process.

Assumptions:

To what extent is it advisable to use nanocomposites instead of conventional materials when building the Air Tech 100? What do we mean by conventional materials and what are nanocomposites? What components are we mainly talking about? Why is this comparison important? (Are there any alternative ways of deg Air Tech 100?) How have the characteristics of the materials been compared? (Experiments) What type of plane falls within the scope of the investigation? (Only the civilian version) What aspects do not need to be considered? (Costs)

Background questions will mainly be answered in the introduction. Key questions are questions of which the answers form an answer to the main question. They form the basis for the chapters after the introduction. You will announce them in the introduction when you explain the structure of the report. In the example above, the following key questions could be asked in relation to the main question:

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Key questions • What are the criteria for choosing the most suitable process? - effectiveness (the amount of compounds should be reduced to such an extent that the water complies with government norms) -7 what are these norms? technical feasibility (the process should be easily implemented in the purification process) -7 what demands does this place on the process? - affordability (the constant and variable costs should be kept to a minimum) -7 what factors determine these costs? - reliability (sudden rises in the level of noxious compounds in the water should not halt the process) -7 what is the chance of these sudden rises happening? - flexibility (the process should be able to deal with varying waste water flows) -7 how often do variations in the flow occur? • To what extent do the various processes satisfy the criteria? - according to literature - according to the tests

KEY QU ESTIONS

Main question: to what extent could nanocomposites be used instead of conventional material s for the building of Air Tech 100? Does the construction using nanocomposites comply with all the current laws and regulations? • Have all the other criteria that determine feasibility been met? • What, according to the experiments, are the relevant properties of nanocomposites in comparison to conventional materials? How were the experiments conducted?

The type of key questions yo u include depends largely on the type of report you are writing. The text models in Chapter 7 could be of use in determining what key questions to include. As a further illustration, we wi ll look at an example of a question-based plan with a main question, background questions and key questions. It concerns an advisory report in wh ich three water purification processes are compared. The key questions deal with the choice of assessment criteria, with using the criteria to eva luate the alternatives and with the final selection of the best alternative. Providing global answers in the form of key words will facilitate the posing of subsets of questions .

QUESTION PLAN

Subject Removing traces of organic-chemical compounds from water: a comparison of the three main purification processes (the biological process, the active carbon process and the silicalite process). Main question What purification process is the most suitable for removing traces of organic-chemical compounds from water?

FROM ASS IGNMENT TO TEXT

~

Establish the structure via a preliminary table of contents The next step is converting the question plan into a preliminary tabl e of contents. You have globally determined the content of the report and now you shou ld try to find the right structure to make the contents accessible to your readers. The table of contents you draw up at this stage of the writing process will probably have to be adjusted at a later stage. At this point it is important to work out how to arrange the core of the report (usua lly in numbered chapters). You could draw up a preliminary table of contents or one in which you use key words to indicate what should be dealt with in each part of the text. The latter method will provide more to the process of writing (see the following example of a preliminary table of contents) .

PRELIMINARY TABLE OF CONTENTS

Background questions • What are the organic chemical compounds involved? - mainly solvents and pesticides • What are the three purification processes like? - biological (micro-organisms break down compounds) - active charcoal (compounds adsorbed to the charcoal) - silica lite (compounds adsorbed to the silicalite) • Why is it important to compare the processes? - new statutory norms make more effective removal of noxious substances imperative; it is unclear which method is preferable • How are the processes compared? - via literature research and laboratory tests • What restriction is observed? - no attention is paid to interactions with purification processes for other substances

Hea lthy offices Preventing and reducing complaints about the climate inside offices Preface • information package developed by RBB on behalf of DGA • intended for: building manager, works council and personnel department Summary 1 Introduction Background and problem: many employees complain about headaches, dry throats; doubt about causes (is it the employees themselves or the building?). Importance: there is the need for an objective verdict; the complaints have consequences (absenteeism, discontent, loss of productivity); have to comply with the new health and safety regulations.

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-

Main question: what is the best way of analysing complaints about the internal climate and the working space in offices, and how can the complaints be reduced? Procedure: advice on the basis of scientific research and expertise of experienced advisers Structure (key questions): complaints and causes; procedure for determining causes and taking measures etc .

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FROM ASSIGNMENT TO TEXT

0 ) Draw up a time schedule Once the assignment has been trans lated into a table of contents , the next step is drawing up a time schedule. This schedule indicates to you when certain tasks shou ld be finalised . Apart from fixed dates (such as the date that the final version of the report has to be handed in), you can determine for yourse lf when you want to submit a draft version.

2 Building-related complaints and their causes 2 .1 Introduction Chapter contains information about types of complaint (per section the main complaints, the environmental factors leading to the complaints and the background causes) 2 .2 Complaints about heating and cooling 2.3 Complaints about air quality 2. 4 Health complaints

In the next example - a time schedule for a research report with a number of contributors - the writers have six weeks for the research and the writing of the report. The names of the of the group are mentioned to ind icate who is responsible for what. Examp le of a time schedule Time sc hedule

3 Procedure for dealing with complaints 3.1 Introduction - dealing with lodged complaints usually not structurally regulated: examples (lodge with whom? no systematic registration, neither of corrective measures nor effect) - procedure: 4 steps in diagram 3.2 Central desk - place of desk within the organisation , tasks, requirements 3.3 Step 1: Registration - standard complaints registration form : what it contains and how to use it (appendix) 3. 4 Step 2: Choice of complaints manager - considerations relating to choice of a suitable complaints manager 3.5 Step 3: Diagnosis and measures - example of a diagnosis and determination of the appropriate measures 3. 6 Step 4:

Who

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. deadline (21 march)

4 Conclusion ········r·--

Bibliography Appendix: Complaints registration form

~ Making a prelim inary table of contents is not only useful in determining the structure of the report; you can also use it in consulting with the person who commissioned the report. A table of contents in its fina l form gives a fairly clear picture of what you want included in the text. You can use it to determine at an early stage whether your ideas match those of the person who commissioned the report. For you yourself, the table of contents will provide a good basis for effective planning when you draw up a time schedu le.

Write the first version quickly Even experienced writers rarely write a good text first off, nor is it useful to aspire to this: more time is lost by staring at an empty screen than by revi sing an imperfect text. Writing is best done in two stages. During the first stage, the accent is on putting the contents quickly into rough formulations. In the fo ll owing stages the emphasis is increasingly on formulating succinctly and on polishing up the text . During the research phase you should constantly keep the writing phase in mind . You shou ld be constantly aware that you wi ll eventually have to report on your research . You shou ld therefore carefully record all the data you will need later. How you do that will depend on the type of research .

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errors can be fixed up later. Indicate roughly where illustrations and other visual additions have to be put in, but avoid being too specific at this stage.

A report on experimental research should start with noting down all details in the lab journal. You should do that so carefully that you can later reconstruct the work done in detail. Date all your notes: later you will be able to see exactly when you made alterations to your experiments.

Hints for writing the first draft Keep the structure within chapters and sections clear by inserting headings . For the time being, skip complicated bits or parts for which you have insufficient information as yet. While you are working on the easier bits of the report you can allow your mind to go over the bits that still have to be written. The gaps that develop in the text you can mark with an asterisk( * ). Do a search for them later and then expand on these sections further. Do not bother writing out in full long words that occur frequently (specialist jargon). Instead, insert a simple sign (b$ for instance) in the autocorrect function of your word processor. This way you will avoid interrupting your stream of thought. The computer will automatically convert the sign into the word you want.

DATA TO BE RECORDED IF DOING EXPERIM ENTAL RESEARCH

• apparatu s used (note down type , brand and serial number, in case you have doubt s later on about whether the apparatus has fun ctioned properly) • materials used • setting up the t est • procedure: how was the test carried out, what did you measu re? How? Using what? • observations that have as yet to be evaluated • data needed to convert observations to measurements: zero settings, graduation units, ca libration factors, correction s to be applied observations in the form of end re sult s

~ With literature research , you should record the result of each reading activity carefully. This can be done in the form of notes, quotations, a summary or photocopies. If you fail to do this carefully enough it might not be clear in the report what your sources are and what points your remarks refer to. This will be detrimental to reliability and verifiability. Make sure, therefore , that you note down all the details of each title . There are special programs (such as Endnote) with which you can obtain details from catalogues , databases or from the Internet (from Google Scholar, for example). You can subsequently add your own remarks to the results. It may be useful to keep a separate file for random ideas that occur to you - ideas that you cannot use directly but that might come in handy later (during the writing of the discussion chapter, for example). The table of contents forms the framework for writing the text. This does not have to be done in the order presented: you could skip difficult chapters for the time being. It is important to keep up a high rate of writing and not to worry about exact wording. Some writers like to write a perfect version in one go. This is rarely an efficient way of doing things because you are dealing with two things at the same time: working on the content and formulating as clearly and attractively as possible. These two things can interfere with each other: attention to perfect formulations can be to the detriment of thinking clearly about the content, and conversely, the contents can overshadow the wording. It is also time consuming to formulate well in one go. It is usually less time consuming to revise a preliminary version. There is the added risk that you will put a lot of effort into formulating parts of the text that will change radically in of content later on.

FROM ASSIGNMENT TO TE XT

Revise the first draft systematically After you have finished putting the contents down in a rough form , it is often best not to start immediately on your second draft: put the first one away for a few days to create a bit of distance between yourself and what you have written. When re-writing the text, you could use the following questions as a guideline. 1 Is the broad outline clear? Read the introduction and the conclusion one after the other and see whether the question in the introduction really is answered in the conclu sion. Skim over all the chapters and the sections (only read the starting sentence of each paragraph) and check whether a global reader is likely to get a clear impression of your train of thought.

2 Has th e text been formulated understandably for your readers? Ask yourself at every piece of technical jargon whether your readers know what it means . Look at the text globally to see whether there are not too many long sentences (30 to 40 words) and whether long sentences alternate sufficiently with short ones (5 to 10 words) . 3 Is the tone suited to the readers? Ask yourself whether the tone is halfway between hesitant and imperative. If a new employee introduces a proposal for a more efficient division of task s on the work floor in the following way he will stand little chance of his proposa l being adopted .

TOO IMPERATIVE A TONE

You should therefore concentrate initially on the content and putting it down in a rough form, interrupting the stream of thought as little as possible. Do not waste time at this stage on improving the way you have formulated your ideas. Cumbersome bits of text, half sentences and spellings and stylistic

The division of t asks on the work floor is very inefficient at the moment. Management needs to introduce a completely new system of job classification, one which will also make it poss ible to reduce the number of employees on the work floor by twenty.

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Somebody who is new to a company can rarely afford to adopt such an imperative tone. It would probably also be wiser to formulate the problem (the present division of tasks is not efficient) a little more carefully: the readers of the report might very well be responsible for the present operating procedures.

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FROM ASSIGNMENT TO TEXT

If you can explain the report during an oral presentation a point-by-point notation is likely to be sufficient for your listeners. They and others will probably be thankful to you for being brief and to the point.

5 Have all parts of the preliminary and concluding pages been written? As soon as the contents have been put down on paper, things like the summary and the bibliography can be put into their final form.

Some more hints: Avoid wasting time on investigating advanced word processing programs or graphic programs you are not familiar with . Ignore them until you have plenty of time to experiment with them. Use those profiles or styles that come standard with your word processor (heading, title, subtitle, etc.). They are not only handy tools for the layout of your text but also for structuring and keeping an overview. Do make use of simple to learn and time-saving shortcuts: shortcut keys for quickly moving the cursor or the autocorrect function that enables you to write complicated words or phrases by means of a shortcut key.

Keeping the saying "two people see more than one" in mind: it is advisable to give the second version of the text to somebody else to read. Even if you yourself think that the text wil l be perfectly clear to your readers, a proofreader will often see at a glance that the text is lacking in one way or another. Do .tell the reader exactly what you want him or her to look at. If you are looking for comments on the broad outline of the text you will not want remarks about strange sentences or spelling mistakes. Those are mistakes that you would remove later anyway. If comprehensibility is what you are looking for, recommendations to add extra topics will be a waste of time for both reader and writer.

Make sure that you are concise When they have to plough through big stacks of paper many a reader of reports will sigh and say "Why don't they make these reports a bit shorter?" Many people still have the mistaken idea that a thick report is more impressive to readers than a thin one. In their view the time taken to do the research should be reflected in the size of the report. The result is vo luminous reports that strike terror into the hearts of the readers when they see them. Take a recent report on the proposed building of an electricity station on the Maasvlakte: 420 pages, of which only twelve pages are appendices.

With texts that are intended for a larger public (such as manuals, safety rules or informative material) it is always necessary to pre-test the text with part of the target group. Only by seeing how people use the text and asking them if they are missing anything or whether anything is unclear to them can you see whether your text functions just as well in practice as it appears to from your desk.

The t ime to check that you have been concise is after the first draft of the text is fin ished. The research has been done, the conclusions are known: now is the best time to determine what part of the information is essential. How do you write a concise report? By following these three directions:

4 Has the information been presented in a well-organised manner? A report becomes more accessible and attractive if you visua lise information. Where possible you should present. research results in the form of figures and tables, and use lists to break up blocks of text.

Many writers find themselves pressed for time on their way to the final version. It is therefore of the utmost importance to determine your priorities. Make sure that you have been succinct. In the final stage you should pay some attention to the report 's visua l design. Set your priorities when writing under time pressure Time pressure is something few writers can avoid. You will therefore have to set priorities, especially since deadlines are often set in concrete in professional situations. What these priorities are will depend on the types of readers and their requirements. Since there will always be non-specialist readers who are pressed for time among your public, you should certainly make sure that the summary, conclusions and recommendations are clear and convincing. If specialist readers request additional explanations or the scientific data on wh ich your findings are based you can always supply these later. If a scientific justification is an important aspect of your report you will have to describe your method very carefu lly and also pay particular attention to your references and the bibliography.

An attractive and timesaving option is to work out the chapters in point form only, in the way you would approach a PowerPoint presentation. After all, formulating complete, well-written sentences takes up a lot of time.

1 Make optimal use of appendices Put any information that is not relevant for all readers and that is not strictly necessary to the main thrust of the report into an appendix. Calculations, research results and details of how a design was arrived at are suitable for an appendix; essential information can be summarised in the main body of the report. Appendices can take up more room than the report itself as long as they can be used independently. 2 Determine what information is relevant Sometimes it is clear right from the start that certain information is not going to add anything to the report. Avoid bothering the reader with such information. Information that falls into this category includes historical rundowns: these are often includ ed out of habit although no consequences follow from what has been investigated. Extensive descriptions of decisions made earlier but that have in the meantime been superseded are better left out for the same reason.

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IRRELEVANT INFORM ATION

Make sure the design and fini sh look professional The "wrapping" will at least partly determine whether your text is looked at favourably. Here are some hints: • Spend a bit of extra time on the design. It is sometimes all you need to greatly improve the accessibility and attractiveness of a text: enough white on the page, consistent chapter and section layout, no titles or headings at the bottom of a page, here and there italics for emphasis . • In order to avoid mistakes in titles and page numberings, it is preferable to create the index automatically. • Use the spelling and grammar checker of your word processor. Even though not all mistakes will be picked up, you will avoid a lot of spelling and typing mistakes. • Check whether you have not forgotten figures or appendices and whether they have all been properly numbered and have a suitable caption.

"The first written reports about the Low Countries are by the Romans . Around the beginning of our era they wrote in horror about the marshy delta near the North Sea. Tacitu s wrote: 's ilvis horridus aut paludibus foetidus' ('horrible because of its forests and stinking because of its marshes'). The soldier Plinius Secundus describes the Low Countries as an 'eternal battle ground of nature, covering a landscape of which it is not clear to what it belongs: to the land or to the sea' Since Roman times the land scape of the Netherlands has changed a great deal. Even the area around the Hollands Diep no longer resembles the description given by the Romans.'' (Source: A Report on a dredging dump in the Hollands Diep)

It is sometimes only in retrospect (after the investigation has been concluded) that you can determine whether information is relevant or not. In a feasibility study, for instance, very often many alternatives are investigated and in the end only a few prove to be worth considering seriously. Consider, for instance, the high velocity train line between Amsterdam and Paris . More than twenty alternatives were investigated and in the end only three or four turned out to be feasible. What this means for a report is that the alternatives that have been dismissed do not have to be described in the same detail as the alternatives that are proposed for consideration . It is usually sufficient to point out why certain possibilities are not feasible. In short: there is no need for your readers to experience the entire research process. The fact that you only found out late in the piece that a certain alternative was not suitable does not mean that the readers of your report also have to hear that later on in the report .

TREAT AN ALTERNATIVE THAT IS NO LONGER APPLICABLE BRIEFLY

An engineering firm has been given the task of finding a suitable location for a digestion plant for organic waste in the municipality of Leiden . The choice is between three locations , all of which are investigated thoroughly during the course of the investigation. One of the locations was later bought by a project developer, meaning that it wa s no longer an option for the digestion plant. As such, it does not warrant extensive description in the report.

3 Make arrangements about the rough size An increasing number of organisations are attempting to limit the size of reports by giving an indication of the maximum number of pages when the report is commissioned. This usually applies to the main body of the report (the numbered chapters), not the appendices. It forces the writer to be very selective and to constantly ask whether the information really is essential for all readers .

FROM ASSIGNMENT TO TEXT

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Collaborat e efficiently Reports are often written by a group of people working together (perhaps because information from different specialists is required) . This often turns out to be a difficult situation because it is not always easy to get everybody to submit their material on time or stick to the agreed design conventions. There is always a certain art needed to make a convincing whole of the t exts of the various authors and without differences in style, overlapping ages or gaps being too obvious. This section will give some advice on how to manage writing by a group. 1 Appoint a project leader and an editor-in-chief Individual writers will often have their own interests and will not always be able to see the big picture. The risk may be that a good report is not ready in time . This is why it is a good idea to appoint a project leader with the authority to make decisions. The project leader will keep in touch with the person who commissioned the report, will monitor the time schedule, will ensure effective progress discussion meetings and will do or will supervise the final editing. For a group report, the final editing will need to be done particularly carefully. Appoint somebody as editor-in-chief responsible for transforming all th e texts submitted into a cohesive and uniform report. The editor can save himself a lot of work by making an agreement with the writers to observe a number of rules. They may include using certain con sistently, or sticking to a certain text layout. As far as wording is conce rned , some of the things that could be agreed on include not addressing the reader directly in the text (not "as you have seen in Table 5 " but "as Table 5 shows ") and that the writers can refer to themselves as "we .' 1

2 Make an action plan with a division of tasks and a time schedule Even more so than when you are writing a report on your own, a group writing effort requires a clear work plan. Each writer must have a clear idea of th e report's overall aim . Everyone has to have a clear idea of who the readers are and what use they will put the report to. It also should be clear wh o has to provide what at what moment, and what stages precede the

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completion of the report (talks with the person who commissioned the report, providing the draft to each writer, etc). The work plan should include: • the aim of the report and a description of its likely impact • the readers for whom the report is intended and the role of the report in decision-making • the and conditions and other considerations (such as what information is available/ has to be collected, the deadline for the final report) • a preliminary table of contents (contents indicated by catchwords) • planning and division of tasks The preliminary table of contents forms the best basis for a division of tasks and the timetabling. The project leader should appoint an author for all parts, including the summary, conclusions, appendices and the letter of recommendation. Otherwise these matters - the most widely read and therefore the most important parts - run the risk of being rushed through at the end. The writing of the report is frequently not an independent matter but part of a project. Within that project information has to be gathered, research done or proposals developed. Integrate the writing of the report into the overall planning of the project (see , for example, the time schedule in Section 3.4.). Make sure that the writing is done during the course of the project, when all the information is still fresh. This will save time. 3 Comment effectively on each other's texts The of the group will perform their tasks individually. As a time-saving procedure, everybody could write a draft version consisting of short topic sentences. Making a PowerPoint presentation is also a possibility. This way the group can easily determine whether the contents are correct and complete without having to wade through stacks of text.

SHORT TOPIC SENTENCES

• Di sadvantage of this approach: the road surface is more easily damaged. • Solution: apply extra metalling.

The second version can be in the form of fully written out texts. Everybody will read each text and provide detailed comments . During the meeting there should be no detailed discussion of individual contributions, just of the main outline and the contents of the report: do the chapters form a whole, are there parts missing or overlapping bits? Naturally, decisions will have to be made in relation to what to do with problematic bits of text. Detailed comments on paper can be given to each author after the meeting. Making effective comments on a text is not easy. Many writers are very sensitive about reactions to their work and take critical remarks personally. A couple of practical hints: • Do not forget to say what is good about the text.

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•

Do not discuss the details in person. Remarks about how something has been formulated are more effective if they are put on paper or emailed . Then the author can think in peace about whether to adopt a suggestion or not. Give concrete suggestions for improvement.

Don't write

Write

a Nonsense

a Amount is not correct: should be 54 679 . b On p. 34 you wrote .. ., therefore here too ... c I don't think the implications are as bad as that; I would play it down a bit. d e The text does not follow on from the last sentence (word processing fault??). f Agree!

b Do you mean that? c How's that? d Too little structure e ?? f !!

•

It is sometimes refreshing if somebody other than one of the authors turns the first draft into the second version. The project leader should not be hesitant about making decisions and scrapping weak ages. The report's goal is more important than keeping the peace. • Make sure the versions are managed properly. Make clear in the title of the document which version it is: for instance, by numbering them (Feasibility study container terminal version 3.docx) or by adding a date. 4 Appoint one person to turn the draft into a definitive text It is a good idea to make one person responsible for the final edition of the report. This could be the project manager or somebody who works under th at person 's direct supervision. The project leader should be involved in matters of content.

In turning the submitted draft texts into a good final report, the editor-in-chief will need to carry out a number of checks on the text: • Broad outline. Do the introduction and the conclusion link up perfectly? Is the report logical and consistent? This is the last chance to scrap non-relevant ages or to shift them to an appendix. • Persuasiveness for decision-makers. The editor has to check the persuasiveness and the intelligibility of the conclusion, tile introduction, the conclusions and the recommendations. Is the language in these parts intelligible to the non-specialist? Do they comply with the decision criteria of the decision-makers (often criteria such as effectiveness , feasibility - both financial and otherwise, advantages compared to other solutions)? • Reliable information for specialists. Specialists will want to know whether th e information is reliable and properly documented. Correct references and tables with detailed results are essential. The editor should check whether every author has stuck equally to the requirements. • Stylistic unity. The editor should correct the most serious discrepancies in style as much as possible. Lengthy reports would take too much time to check. The most frequently read parts - introduction, conclusion and summary - should be checked to ensure that they are written comprehensibly and in a readable style.

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•

Convincing and accessible presentation. One illustration often says more than an avalanche of technical details . During the checking of the draft the editor should decide whether there is sufficient visual material (graphs, illustrations, etc.) and whether this material is immediately accessible to the readers.

One task that often takes up a lot of time is the final layout. The editor should check whether all the individual authors have stuck to the stylistic instructions regarding titles and examples, whether there are any awkward page transitions and whether the spelling is correct and consistent.

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Dealing with sources of information 4.1 4.2

Referring and quoting conventions Frequently asked questions

In your work and in the academic world it is expected of you that you develop your own point of view, linking it with and comparing it to existing points of view. You need to be able to defend that point of view clearly and convincingly. As such, it is essential that a clear distinction can be made between vour ideas and those of others. Sticking meticulously to

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cg Referring and quoting conventions The following example is a demonstration of two types of plagiarism: the writer sticks too closely to the wording of his source, and it is unclear where the source ideas stop and his/her own ideas start. Although the author does not state that he/she is giving a personal view, the text suggests that sentences two and three represent the view of the author.

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Original Mason (1997: 298): "The personal benefits from working to agreed safety procedures are often non-existent in an organisation. By comparison, individuals may see many benefits of breaking rules and procedures, in addition to the financial gains which can often arise. Instances are often reported of people being praised for their initiatives if they improvise to 'get the job done' under difficult conditions. The violating of rules and procedures which this involves may appear to have been condoned as long as they did not result in unwanted events such as injury or plant damage. An attitude often develops where strictly adhering to the rules is seen as conflicting with the objectives of the organisation - e.g., where working to rule is an industrial or commercial threat". Source Mason, S. (1997). Procedural violations - causes, costs and cures. In: F. Redmill & J. Rajan (eds). Human factors in safety-critical systems (pp. 287-318). Oxford etc.: Butterworth-Heinemann. Writer (version demonstrating plagiarism) According to Mason (1997), working to agreed safety procedures often creates no personal benefits. On the contrary, people may see many benefits of breaking rules and procedures, in addition to the financial gains which can often arise. People are often praised when they improvise to get the job done under difficult conditions, by violating rules and procedures . Strictly adhering to the rules is often seen as incompatible with the objectives of the organisation. Writer (correct version: paraphrase) Mason (1997) argues that violating safety rules and procedures often has advantages, according to the organisation and workers themselves. He sees it as a danger that following the rules is interpreted as harming the interests of the organisation. Writer (correct version: quote) Mason (1997) argues that violating rules and procedures often has advantages, according to the organisation and workers themselves. Strictly adhering to the rules risks to be seen, he says, "as conflicting with the objectives of the organisation e.g. , where working to rule is an industrial or commercial threat" (298).

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4 Referring should be done consistently according to an accepted system (APA, CMS, Harvard etc .), or according to the system prescribed by a particular journal. 5 The bibliography: should contain title descriptions according to an accepted system (APA, CMS, Harvard etc.) , or according to the system prescribed by a particular journal in a certain field; - should contain only titles that are referred to in the t ext; should contain all titles that are referred to in the text.

~ Frequently asked questions Writers are often confused about referencing. The 17 most commonly asked questions are dealt with below. 1 What is preferable: quoting or paraphrasing? It is almost always better to paraphrase than to quote. However, while it is usually the ideas that are important, in the case of legal subjects and definitions, the precise wording can be important. A text with frequent and long quotations looks unprofessional: it looks as if the writer has only co llected bits of text instead of incorporating the found ideas in his or her own argument. It is also often shorter to put something in your own words.

Too many quotations could cause copyright problems: you cannot take over large bits of text or figures that have been copyrighted. 2 Can I use sources like Wikipedia? Although the information in Wikipedia is usually reliable it is not a scientific source . Using it makes your text look unscientific. It is preferable to go to the original sources or handbooks . They are usually mentioned at the bottom of the Wikipedia article. If you do use Wikipedia you must acknowledge it or you run the risk of being accused of plagiarism. 3 When do I not have to acknowledge? For information that is easily found and undisputed you do not have to state your source, provided you are using your own words. When you are in doubt whether something is standard knowledge you should acknowledge your source . Exa mple

Wikipedia (retrieved 29 June 2010) contains the following information: "The second law of thermodynamics is a fundamental law regarding the co nve rsion of heat into energy, which until now has been confirmed by all empirical data. One of the simplest and therefore incomplete expressions of the Second Law is:

Briefly, referencing and quoting should be done as follows: 1 All bits of text and all ideas, figures and other data that are not your own need to be acknowledged correctly in the text and in the bibliography. 2 Paraphrases should not lean too heavily on the original. 3 Literal quotations must be indicated by quotation marks and page numbers.

• Heat can only flow from an object with a high temperature to an object with a low temperature .

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A more scientific way of putting it is: • The entropy of an isolated system that is not in equilibrium wi ll increase in time until the maximum for that isolated system has been reached. The state of maximum entropy is the state of equilibrium. Example: when one part of an isolated system has a higher temperature than another part, heat energy will flow from the warm part to the cold part, so that the temperature difference wil l be levelled out. In th is way the system will reach a state of thermodynamic equilibrium in which the entropy has a maximum va lue".

Avoid using Wikipedia in a scientific text: it is better to go back to the scientific manuals: they will be more reliable. If the same information is contained in all of these manuals, you need not acknowledge your sources in your own text:

According to the second law of thermodynamics, heat can only flow from an object with a high temperature to an object with a low temperature.

Although strictly speaking, the words that you are using are not your own, the phrasing is so general that you run no risk of committi ng plagiarism. It is riskier if you use a longer and more specific bit of text, even if the contents are still generally accepted:

According to the second law of thermodynamics, the entropy of an isolated system that is not in equilibrium will increase in time until the maximum for that isolated system has been reached. The state of maximum entropy is the state of equilibrium.

Because you have quoted the original wording almost literally it is better to name your sources. It would be essential if you were to add the examp le given in the original:

EXAMPLE

According to the second law of thermodynamics, the entropy of an isolated system that is not in equilibrium wi ll increase in time until the maximum for that isolated system has been reached. The state of maximum entropy is the state of equilibrium. Example: when one part of an isolated system has a higher temperature than another part, heat energy will flow from the warm part to the cold part, so that the temperature difference will be levelled out. In this way the system will reach a state of thermodynamic equilibrium in which the entropy has a maximum value. [Second law ... 2010] Bibliography Second law of thermodynamics - Wikipedia. (2010). Retrieved 29 June 2010 from http://en.wikipedia .org/wiki/Second_law_thermodynamics

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4 What system should I use for naming my sources? In a scientific text, you should use one system cons istently. It could be one of the four widely used systems: • APA • Chicago Manual of Style • Harvard • number style (for example IEEE)

University websites (such as http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/ or http:// www.library.tudelft.n l/tu lib ) very often give examples of each of these styles. There are many other systems and scientific journals very often have their own variant. It is awkward to stick to a style completely unless you use a database programme such as Endnote. In a company report or teach ing text, a more general form of referencing author/year is acceptable, though it may not have the finesse of the systems mentioned above. Another way of referencing is to use numbers that correspond to a numbered bibliography. This saves space, especially when there are a lot of references . There are, however, two disadvantages to this method: it is not informative for readers and it is easy to make a mistake when you are adding a reference number. This last problem can be prevented by automatic referencing. Lastly, you can use footnotes for referencing. This method is used extensively in legal and historical publications but hardly ever in technical reports or in company publications. 5 How can I keep a check on all my sources? There are handy database programmes for storing sources , including Endnote, Reference Manager and Zotero. With a couple of mouse clicks you can store search results from catalogues and databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, put an acknowledgment in the text and automatically build up a bibliography: cite while you write. Information that you find in Google Scholar or on the websites of organisations can often be imported with one click of your mouse (a hint: adjust Google Scholar via " preferences " to the right database programme) . It pays to check the result: orga nisations are sometimes careless in describing their sources. It is easy to switch from one system (for instance, numbering) to another (for instance, APA). 6 How do I cite a source that I have found in another source? You may on ly refer to information that you have not seen yourself if you indicate clearly that you are citing second-hand information. If you have found an idea by Smith (2008) in Jones (2009) you should acknowledge it as follows: Smith (2008, as cited in Jones 2009). In the bibliography you should only mention the work that you have seen, so Jones (2009).

EXAMPLE

The infra-red thermometer is the best instrument for measuring temperatures. It is fast and accurate. The initial cost is high, but because the instrument has a longer life cycle it is the cheapest in use. (Rosseel & Sanders 2009, as cited in Van Achterberg et al., 2010)

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Always try to find the origina l source and on ly use the above way of citing your source if you rea lly cannot find it. 7 How do I deal with sources from the Internet? A text that mainly refers to Internet sites is not going to be very scientific. Some sources are, of course, re liable, if there is a re liab le organ isation behind them (for example, www.abs.gov.au). But bear in mind that the website of a reliable institution (such as a university) may have individua l contributors whose information is not very re/iejb/e.

Make sure that you refer to the source accurately, using t he same detai ls as you would with a normal publication, but adding the date you consu lted it.

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"All information in this chapter is based on Jones (2011)", instead of constantly referring to the same source . You shou ld still use your own words! 1 1 What is an acceptable paraphrase? If you use three or more consecutive words from a text, or take over a term that is used in the source in a unique way, it is usually not an acceptable paraphrase . In the fo ll owing examp le, too many origina l have been cop ied. Furthermore, "commodity service provider" and "strategic partner" are so crucia l to the metaphor in the original that the writer should not have created the impression that he thought them up himse lf . Compare a term like "vulnerability", which is clearly much Jess original.

You should also note that the division between the authors' ideas and those of the writer are blurred : the second paragraph looks as though it is the writer's opin ion, wh ich it is not. The referencing is also incorrect.

EXA MPLE

• Bioethanol Fuel - Alternative Fuels. Retrieved 8 Ju ly 2011 from http:// www.uk-energy-saving.com/ bioethanol_fue/ .html • National report on the t convention on the safety of spent fuel management and on the safety of radioactive waste management (June 2009). Retrieved 1 July 2010 from http://www.vrom.nljpagina.html?id=2706&sp=2&dn=9190

In the text, a webpage with a long title is usually abbreviated: (see "National report on the t ... ", 2009) . In the bibliography you shou ld cite the reference in fu ll . 8 How do I refer to an article in a journal that is also available digitally? If the artic le exists on paper as well as in digital form, no URL is necessary and no consultation date . You may add " Electronic version" after the title.

Zhou, Q., & Farkas, D.K. (2010). QuikScan: formatting documents for better comprehension and navigation [Electronic version] . Technical Communication, 57,197-209 9 Do I have to acknowledge study material? When you include information from teaching materials such as PowerPoint slides by the lecturer, handouts and the like you shou ld acknowledge those in the normal fashion . On ly when the information is generally known and written in your own words no acknowledgement is necessary. When in doubt: always provide a reference!

EXAM PLE

Ubacht, J. (2009). PowerPointslides accompanying SPM3430 Policy, Economy and Law !CT domain. Delft: DUT, Faculty TPM

10 What if all the information for a chapter is taken from the one source? Basing a whole chapter on j ust one source is not advisab le. If there is no other way, at the beginn ing of your chapter you should say something like

Original (Van Grembergen & De Haes 2009:1-2) " Information technology (IT) has become pervasive in current dynamic and often turbulent business environments. While in the past, business executives could delegate, ignore or avoid IT decisions, this is now impossible in most sectors and industries. This major IT dependency implies a huge vulnerability that is inherently present in IT environments. System and network downtime has become far too costly fo r any organization these days, as doing business globally around the clock has become the standard . Take for example the impact of downtime in the banking sector or in a medical environment. The risk factor is accompanied by a wide spectrum of externa l threats , such as errors and omissions, abuse, cyber crime and fraud. IT of course has the potential not only to existing business strategies , but also to shape new strategies. Jn this mindset, IT becomes not only a success factor fo r survival and prosperity, but also an opportunity to differentiate and to achieve competitive advantage . Jn this vi ewpoint, the IT department moves from a commodity service provider to a strategic partner." Source Grembergen, W. van & Haes, S. de (2009). Enterprise governance of information technology. Boston: Springer. St udent version (plagiarized) Information technology (IT) has become omnipresent in current business environments. While in the past, managers could delegate, ignore or avoid IT decisions, this is now impossible in most situations. This IT dependency implies an enormous vulnerability. System and network downtime has become far too expensive for any organization these days. Take for example the impact of downtime for banks or hos pitals. In add ition, there are all kinds of external threats , such as errors and om iss ion s, abuse , cyber crime and fraud .5 IT of course has the potential not only to existing business strategies , but also to shape new strategies. In this way, IT becomes not only a success factor for survival and prosperity, but also an opportunity to differentiate and to achieve competitive advantage. In this viewpoint, the IT department moves from a commodity service provider to a strategic partner. 5 Grembergen, W. van & Haes, S. de (2009). Enterprise Governance of Information Techno logy. Boston: Springer.

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Student (correct version) Van Grembergen & De Haes (2009) argue that dependence on information technology (IT) has made companies vulnerable: they cannot afford any downtime caused by errors or fraud . They see the IT department move from "a commodity service provider" to "a strategic partner" (p. 2).

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12 How do you cite two or more references wi.thin the same brackets? APA prescribes an alphabetical arrangement: Several studies (Balda , 2007; Kami I, 2003; Pepperberg & Funk, 2009) show ... If you want to separate the main source from the others, you could do the following: (Minor, 2001; see also Adams , 2008; Storandt, 1997).

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• edition (only if it is not the first) • place: publisher or institution

Kerzner, H. (2009). Project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling. Hoboken, New Yersey: John Wiley & Sons.

Two or more authors:

Christensen, G., Florack, P. G. & Duncan, R. (2001). Wireless intelligent networking. Boston, MA: Artech House.

13 How do I refer to a figure or table? Put a reference after the title of the figure or table: From Janssen (2009:124). 14 What does a correct bibliography look like? In a scientific text you should use the prescribed system. The following list is set out according to the APA system and includes various types of sources (books, chapters in anthologies, Internet sources, reports, articles in journals) .

If more than one publication by the same author is included they should be arranged according to year, with publications from the same year numbered consecutively.

Schareman, G. (2011a). Environmental laws and sustainability. Delft: University Press. Schareman, G. (2011b). Drought, sustainability, and the law. Delft: University Press.

Lagendijk , A. (2008) . Survival guide for scientists. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. If there is no author, the title description can start with the title . Mason , S. (1997). Procedural violations - causes, costs and cures. In: F. Redmill & J. Rajan (eds). Human factors in safety-critical systems (pp. 287-318). Oxford etc. : Butterworth-Heinemann. Sterk, W., Mehling, M. & Tuerk, A. (2009). Prospects of linking EU and US Emission Trading Schemes. Wuppertal lnstitut fUr Klima, Umwelt, Energie. Retrieved 21 August 2009 from http:// www.wupperinst.org/publikationen/ entnd/index.html?beitrag_ id=1120&bid=6 Tariq L., Gelder B.M . van, Zutphen M. van, & Feenstra T.L. (2009) . Smoking cessation strategies targeting people with low socio-economic status. A first exploration of the effectiveness of available interventions. Bilthoven : RIVM.

Nanoscience and nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties (2004). London: Science Policy Section of The Royal Society.

If the publication is published by an organisation, you can use the name of the organisation as author.

The Royal Society, Science Policy Section (2004). Nanoscience and nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties. London.

Tidwell, L.C., & Walther, J.B. (2002). Computer-mediated communication effects on disclosure, impressions, and interpersonal evaluations: Getting to know one another a bit at a time. Human Communication Research, 28(3), 317-348.

15 What are the precise rules for the various types of sources? The following are the prescriptions for the APA system. Books and reports • surname, author's initials (no academic titles) • year of publication • title and subtitle (in italics)

Article in a journal • surname, author's initials • year of publication • title and subtitle of the article • name of the journal or its abbreviation (in italics) • place: publisher or institution

Thoenig, M. & Verdier, T. (2010). A macroeconomic perspective on knowledge ma nagement. journal of economic growth, 15, 33-63.

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Chemists and physicists do not usually cite the title and they abbreviate the name of the journal. For example:

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Traag , T., Heesch, M. van, Bosma, H. & Otten, F. (2010) . Hospital issions affect drop-out rate vwo pupils. http:// www.cbs.nljen-GB/ menu/ themas/ onderwijs/ publicaties/ artikelen/ archief/ 2010/ 2010-3002-wm .htm. Retrieved 8 July 2011.

Dai , C. Hu , J. & Tan , H. (2009) . J. Appl. Phys. 106, 043519 .

I

It is important to quote the exact Internet page: it will not be sufficient to write www.cbs.nl. A newspaper article often does not give an author. In such a case you can quote the source as follows:

The Times (2011). Stagnation warning after rates are held . The Times , 8 July 2011.

Article in anthology • surname, initials author, year • title and subtitle of the article • In: initials and surname of the editor of the anthology • title and subtitle of the anthology (in italics), page numbers • place: publisher

If there is no author you can either arrange according to title:

Education financing; Education expenditure and CBS/ OECD indicators. http //statline. cbs.nl/StatWeb/ publication/ ?VW=T&DM=SLEN&PA=80393ENG&LA=EN Retrieved 2 July 2011.

or according to organisation:

CBS (2011). Education financing; Education expenditure and CBS/ OECD indicators. http//statline.cbs.nl/ StatWeb/ publication/ ?VW=T&DM=SLEN&PA=80393ENG&LA=EN . Retrieved 2 July 2011.

Andrienko, N. , & Andrienko, G. (2005) . A concept of an intelligent decision for cri sis management in the OASIS project. In: P. van Oosterom , S. Zlatanova & E. Fendel (eds .) , Geo-information for disaster management (pp. 669-682). Berlin: Springer. Do not forget to quote the version of software programmes. For example:

Patents • surname, initials of the inventors and/or owners • title of the patent (in italics) • country where the patent was granted • patent number • dates • report (if consulted instead of the patent itself)

Bazon , W. J. & Capano, P. J. (Western Electric Co., Inc.), Printing Ink, US 4,065,315, 27 Dec. 1977 , Appl. 706 ,655, 19 July 1976; Chem. Abstr. 1978, 88, 91180q .

Electronic sources References to websites , software or other electronic information should be treated in the same way as "normal" literature references. You can include them in your normal bibliography. In the case of Internet sources, the date you consulted the material is also of importance. After all, they may change regularly.

EndNote X3 for Windows (2009) . Thomson Reuters.

Interviews, emails and other personal communications Information based on statements by authoritative persons should not be included in the bibliography but only cited in the text:

(J. A. de Vries , personal communication, 10 December 2010).

16 How is my work scanned for plagiarism? Many education institutes check the work of their students by means of a plagiari sm scanner such as SafeAssign of TurnltlN. Lecturers also som etimes use search machines like Google to check texts for use of sources. 17 Is there such a thing as self-plagiarism? Re-u sing your own texts or large parts of them (for example, those you wrote for another discipline or another journal) is a form of fraud unless you preface it by something like: "this text appeared previously in a different form in ... ". You can also refer to the previous publication as a standard source, paraphrasing from it briefly, with an acknowledgement.

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5 Structuring

5.1 5.2 5.3

Three ways to read a report Division into chapters and sections Division into paragraphs

The structure of a text is essentia l to its usefulness. If your readers cannot find the relevant information, your text wi ll quickly end up in a filing cabinet or a paper bin. Even if they want to, most readers just do not have the time to study in detail everything that finds its way on to their desk. You yourself can do a lot to save your texts from such a dismal fate. Providing a clear division into chapters and sections will certain ly increase the lifespan of your report. This chapter starts with an outline of the ways a report can be read, then deals with the division into chapters and sections. Finally, we treat the division into paragraphs. If you follow the instructions in this chapter you will ensure that your text is accessible to readers with diverging demands, such as decision-makers and specialists.

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Ot Three ways to read a report

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One should be able to read a good report in three different ways. A clear structure makes this possible. 1 Globally. Readers who want a quick idea of the main thrust of the report should be able to find the essential information in the summary, the table of contents, the introduction and in the conclusions and recommendations. 2 Selectively. Readers who are looking for specific information should be able to find that quickly on the basis of the table of contents, introductions to the chapters, headings in the text and topic sentences at the start of paragraphs. 3 Intensively. Readers who want to read the whole text or parts of it completely should not be put off by a poorly organized structure or bad formulations, or by too many details or calculations. It is preferable to put those in appendices. Sometimes the table of contents will already show whether a report is accessible both globally and selectively:

GLOBAL AND SELECTIVE READING IMPOSSIBLE

Summary is missing Not informative

Not informative

No title and number

Table of contents 1 Introduction .... ....... ................ ... .. .. ... ...... ... ..... .. ......... ..... 3 2 Result of employee questionnaire .... .... ........... .... .. ........ ... 5 3 Cause of sound pollution at BBS ...... .... .... ..... ... .... .. ......... 9 3 .1 Definition of noise pollution .. .. ... ... ..... ... ... .......... .. ..... 9 3.2 Noise from outside ....... ... ....... ....... .... .. .............. ..... 10 3.3 Noise from inside ..... .................................. ............ 12 4 Possible solutions ...... ........ ...... ............. .... ........ ... ..... ... 15 4.1 Noise from outside .... .. ..... ... .... ... ...... .... .. .... ... ......... 15 4.2 Noise from inside ....................... .. .... ... .. .. ... ..... ... .... 17 5 Recommendations .. .... .... .. ..... ........... .. .... ............... ...... 19 Appendices ....... .... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... .... ........ ...... ...... ...... ... 23

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ft} Division into chapters and sections 5.2 .1

Make a table of contents at an early stage

Bulky reports are not popular. But nobody comp lains about the size of the phonebook, simply because its logical layout makes it optimally accessible to its s . While reports cannot be structured in the same way as the phonebook, they can be just as accessible . The table of contents plays a major role in this. A table of contents that gives the division into chapters and sections serves two purposes. Firstly, it makes the broad lines of the report clear. Somebody who reads the report globally will study the table of contents first to get an idea of what the report deals with. Secondly, the table of contents plays a role in selective reading: looking for specific information . Readers wil l decide in what chapter or what section they will continue their quest on the basis of the table of contents. If you make a detailed table of contents early in the writing process you will force yourself to create a concrete picture of the report you are working on. During the writing process , the table of contents will help you to keep track of the broad outline.

RULES OF THUMB FOR AN EASILY ACCESSIBLE TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 Make use of existing instructions for organizing your report: this wi ll save you time . 2 Do not use more than three division leve ls (1 .1.1); more leve ls have the effect of making the text more obscure. 3 Provide clear and informative titles. 4 Make sure the titles show the connection between the sections.

These genera l rules will be dealt with further in the sections.

5. 2.2 SUITABLE FOR GLOBAL AND SELECTIVE READ ING

Contains summary

•

Table of contents Summary ................................................................ ........................ 2 1 Introduction....................................................................... .......... 3 Informative titles 2 Inventory of employee complaints ........................................... 5 3 Causes of noise pollution at BBS ..... ............ ........................... 8 3.1 Definition of noise pollution .............................................. 8 3.2 Noise from outside: traffic and installations .................. 9 3.3 Noise from inside: talking and appliances ................... 11 4 Possible solutions ................................................................ ... 14 4.1 Noise from outside: insulating facade and windows ... 14 4.2 Noise from inside: workrooms instead of open-plan offices ................. ................ ........................................... .... 16 5 Recommendations ................................. .................................. 18 Appendix title & number Appendix 1: Results of employee questionnaire .............................. 20 Appendix 2 : Budget for facade and window insulation ........... . 24 Appendix 3: Budget to change open-plan office to workrooms ... 25

Make use of existing instructions for organizing your report

Companies and academic institutions sometimes have instructions for the writing of various types of report. Before starting on a report you should check whether there are instructions for the type of report that you have to write. This could save you a lot of time . In general, the best way is to order your report according to the instructions, but there might be situations in which the prescribed division into chapters will not work well. Take a situation in which your company requires you to include a chapter on analysing the problems that gave rise to the report. If there is an earlier report in which that has already been done, one summarising paragraph in the introduction may be preferable to a whole "Problem analysis" chapter. If you deviate from the existing guidelines it is best to discuss this with the person who commissioned the report.

5.2 .3

Make use of adequate subdivisions

To make a report accessible it is important to have a title or other heading that the reader can use for orientation at least every one or two pages. But

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giving every individual paragraph a heading will be counterproductive. The text will become too busy and it will be more difficult to see the broad lines. How can you bring about the right number of subdivisions?

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1 Do not create more than three levels A division into chapters and sections is necessary to make the text accessible, but introducing too many levels (5.3.4 .1.2) will be counterproductive . The reader will lose track of the whole. This is why you should limit yourself to three levels in the table of contents (1.1.1). Within each section you can create a further subdivision by other means: for instance, by using unnumbered headings or simply paragraphing the text . 2 A subdivision should consist of at least two parts Do not introduce a subdivis ion of one part to the table of contents. A subdivision implies a division into two or more parts. The same holds for subdivision into chapters and sections. Make either more sections or do not divide at all. Introductions , conclusions and summaries shou ld never be part of a subsection. If they are (and if there is only a single subsection of content), it can be viewed as a disguised single subdivision.

INCORRECT SUBDIVISION

CORRECT SUBDIVISION

Division into one part 3 Tank clea ni ng 3 .1 The Verbeek method 4 Econom ic feasibil ity

No subdivisions 3 Tank cleaning according t o the Verbeek method 4 Economic feasib ility

Disguised division into one part 3 Tank cleaning 3 .1 Int rod uction 3.2 The Verbeek method 3.3 Summary

Subdivision in more parts 3 Tank clea ning 3 .1 The Verbeek method 3.2 The Bristol method

5.2.4

Give chapters and sections clear titles

The table of contents wil l only give the reader a good idea of the content of the report if the titles of the chapters and sections are sufficiently clear. Take note of the following four instructions . 1 Make titles informative Only use informative titles in business texts . On occas ion you may have used "Other matters " or "Genera l" as a section title. This seems a convenient solution for the things that you cannot include elsewhere in the report. But it is not. Such titles say nothing about the content and give the reader nothing to go on. Vague titles like these only become useful if you add informative elements : for example , "Other aspects of the trade in stocks and bonds."

You will aid readers with little time if you include the main conclusion of a chapter in that chapter's title. In the case of advisory reports in particular, it

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is useful if the table of contents serves as a miniature summary. For you as a writer, the advantage is that you can be certain that the main message of the report will escape nobody, even if readers only open it for the first time during a meeting.

TITLE TOO VAGUE

TITLE MORE INFORMATIVE

2 Problems

2 Problems associated with the re-use of milk bottles 3 Body scans by customs are below par 5 Conclus ion: increasing the friend liness of the GP information system can save lives

3 Qua lity investigation 5 Conclusion

2 Indicate the connection between chapters and sections Vague titles not on ly have the disadvantage that it is difficult to predict the content of the section but they also obscure the connection between chapters and sections . Compare the following examp les:

CONNECTION UNCLEAR

CONNECTION CLEAR

2 Measures

2 Speed reduction measures for Marconi Square 2 .1 Replacing aspha lt by cobb le stones 2.2 Construction of speed ramps

2.1 Material 2 .2 Ramps

In the first example , the reader has to really use his imagination to get an impression of what the chapter is about. The titles say nothing about the connection between the sections and the readers will be unable to determine whether the chapter is relevant to them or not. The second example leaves far less to the imagination and there is less chance of wrong expectations about the text. Avoid chapter titles that consist on ly of a repeat of the section titles. The chapter title should indicate what binds the sections together, and con sequently, why they fall within the same chapter.

CONNECTION UNCLEAR

CONNECTION CLEAR

4 Locks and bridges 4.1 Locks 4.2 Bridges

4 Water work act ivities 4.1 Renovati on of locks 4 .2 Widening of bridges

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4 Formulate titles uniformly

Finally, do not give a section the same title as that used for the whole chapter. It could suggest that the information in the section is the same as that in the whole chapter and might stop readers from looking at the other

Give chapters that are similar in content similarly worded titles. Even though dissimilar titles will not directly lead to lack of clarity, it is preferable to replace them by consistent and similar titles. For example:

sections as well.

CONNECTION UNCLEAR

I

5 Computerizing istration 5 .1 istration: computerization 5 .2 Systems management

CONNECTION CLEAR

5 Computerizing istration 5.1 Installing hardware and software 5.2 Systems management

NON-UNIFORM TITLES

UNIFORM TITLES

5 Evaluation test Global Positioning System (GPS) 5 .1 Positive aspects

5 Evaluation test Global Positioning

5.2 What are the drawbacks of GPS? 5.3 Consideration leads to advice to implement GPS

3 Tit/es should be short and to the point The main thing is that readers are able to obtain sufficient information from the titles: the comprehensibility of titles is more important than their length. It is an art to find titles that are at the same time informative and to the point. Complicated sentences are not suitable as titles:

5.3

A description of the objections to the planned construction of the A4 MidDelfland lodged by pressure groups including the environment movement and citizens

Ideally, a title should not take up more than one line. The previous title can easily be made shorter by only mentioning the essential points:

5. 3

Protests by pressure groups against the A4 Mid-Delfland

0)

System (GPS) 5 .1 Advantages of GPS: field workers satisfied 5.2 Disadvantages of GPS: sensitive to interference 5.3 Conclusion: install GPS

Division into paragraphs Some writers automatically press the enter key at the end of each sentence. A text that originates in this way is like an IKEA chest to selfassemble: all the parts are there but they have to be put together in the right way. Unlike IKEA customers, the readers of the report have not asked for a semi-finished article but a problem-free and ready-to-use text. Other writers suffer from an unwarranted fear of the enter key. Pages without lines of white are not conducive to further reading, however. You could compare it to a cupboard with locked doors: you cannot see at a glance what is in it. A locked cupboard may arouse curiosity about its contents but a business text without a division in paragraphs seldom has that effect on readers. Making a good division into paragraphs that show at a glance what subjects are treated is essential to an effective text.

If you want to shorten it even more, a title in telegram style is also possible:

5.3

Pressure groups protest against A4 Mid-Delfland

RULES OF THUMB FOR A GOOD DIVISION INTO PARAGRAPHS

1 Make a list of questions for each section and use th is as a basis for the division into paragraphs . 2 Do not deal with more than one subject per paragraph . 3 Start each paragraph with an announc ing or stating topic sentence . 4 Group your paragraphs if they are connected .

Stylistically, the last version may be less elegant, but it has hardly lost any of its clarity. However, things can be carried too far: These general rules will be dealt with in the following subsections. 5 .3

Protests pressure groups A4 Mid-Delfland

This title can be read in a number of ways: it might refer to protests against the pressure groups themselves.

5.3.1

Make a list of questions for each section

You can derive your division into paragraphs from a list of questions that you have drawn up before writing each section. The provisional table of contents in the work schedule is a good point to start from. Put not only

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the questions but also the answers (in catchword form) into your list of questions . This will make the transition from a question list to written out paragraphs a lot easier.

I

We will illustrate this with an example that will come up again in the next sections. Assume you have to write a report on noise pollution in the office where you work. You write a section about the noise coming into the office from outside, such as traffic noise. The list of questions looks like this:

1 What external sources of noise can cause noise pollution in office buildings? • traffic noise: cars, railways, planes • industrial noise 2 What regulations are there regarding the amount of external noise that is permitted in an office? • Law on Sound Pollution • Building regulations [... ]

5.3.2

Do not treat more than one subject per paragraph

If you use the question list as a basis you can be sure that you will not be dealing with more than one question (and therefore not more than one subject) per paragraph. For example:

CONN ECTION QUESTION LIST - PARAGRAPH

Question 1 What external sources of noise can cause noise pollution in office buildings? • traffic noise: cars, railways, planes • industrial noise Paragraph The two main sources of external noise that cause noise pollution in offices are traffic noise and industrial noise. Traffic noise can be caused by road, rail or air traffic . Industrial noise is not only caused by industrial installations but also by road works or building projects.

Some questions may elicit such an elaborate answer that one paragraph is not sufficient. If a paragraph threatens to become too long (more than a third of a page, say) you should check whether more than one aspect of a subject has been discussed. If this is the case, you should divide the bigger paragraph into a number of smaller ones that each deal with an aspect of the topic. You can make clear that they are connected in of content by placing them in a paragraph group. The length of a paragraph is also dependent on the layout of the text. Paragraphs in a text in columns should be shorter than when the text covers the whole width of the page.

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PARAGRAPHS THAT /\RE TOO LONG: MORE THAN ONE SUBJECT

At what stages of the product cycle is Design for recycling needed? Environmental protection starts at the design table: attention to the way a product is manufactured is at least as important as making the product suitable for recycling. What can be achieved in the production phase? The production process should be such that there is little waste (scrap) remaining, or, if this is not possible, that the waste can be re-used. The recycling phase should start at the end of the product's life cycle. This is only possible if it is clear what materials have been used in the various parts: this should be marked on those parts . Finally, there is the waste phase. At the moment it is only possible to recover raw materials from bulk waste to a limited extent. There is some doubt about whether it is feasible to develop processes to recover all kinds of materials from waste. Design for recycling is, as yet, hardly ever applied in industry. The German manufacturer BMW...

PARAGRAPHS THAT ARE TOO SHORT: EACH SENTENCE IS A SEPARATE PARAGRAPH

At what stages of the product cycle is Design for recycling needed? Environmental protection starts at the design table: attention to the way a product is manufactured is at least as important as making the product suitable for recycling. What can be achieved in the production phase? The production process should be such that there is little waste (scrap) remaining, or, if this is not possible, that the waste can be re-used. At the end of the life cycle of the product the recycling phase can start. That is only possible if it is clear what materials have been used in the various parts; t his should be marked on those parts. Finally there is the waste phase. At the moment it is only possible to recover raw materials from bulk waste to a li mited extent. There is some doubt about whether it is feasible to develop processes to recover all kin ds of materials from waste. Des ign for recycling is, as yet, hardly ever applied in industry. The German ma nufacturer BMW.. .

GOOD DIVISION OF PARAGRAPHS: PARAGRAPH GROUPING

At what stages of the product cycle is Design for recycling needed? The design phase: environmental protection starts at the design table. Attention to th e way a product is manufactured is at least as important as making the product suitab le for recycling. The production phase: what can be achieved in this phase? The production process should be such that there is little waste (scrap) remaining, or, if this is not possible, that the waste can be re-used. The recycling phase: occurs at the end of the life cycle of the product. This is only poss ible if it is clear what materials have been used in the various parts. This should be marked on those parts.

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The waste phase : the fin al phase. At the moment, it is only possible to recover raw mate ri als from bulk waste to a limited extent. There is some doubt about whether it is feas ible to develop processes to recover all kinds of materials from v1aste.

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I

Topic sentence first

Rooms th at reverberate a lot have so-called "hard acoustics." In rooms like these, the reverberation time is a too long because of insufficient noise absorption . Sparsely furnished rooms with hard floor, wall and ceiling coverings (plaster, tiles, stone , brick, hard floor surfaces) create particularly hard acoustics.

Start each paragraph with a topic sentence

Readers who wa nt to know quickly what a section deals with read the f irst sentences of each paragraph. Writers should therefore make sure that the main information of a paragraph is contained or ind icated in the f irst sentence. Such an informative first sentence is ca lled a top ic sentence. In the next examp le, the topic sentence is in the midd le of the paragraph , making both global and se lective reading difficult.

TOPIC SENTENCE HIDDEN

Ca use 1 -

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POSTULATIN G TOPI C SE NTENC E

Des ign for recycling is , as yet, hardly ever appli ed in industry. The German manufacturer BMW.. .

5.3 .3

STRUCTUR ING

topic sentence (effect) -

cause 2 -

cause 3

A ri sk analyst has to base his findings on experiences from the past that might prove unreliable in future situations . As such, exact estimates are impossible to make , all the more because the technique is still so untested in many situations (in the case of nuclear reactors, for instance) that risk estimates in general can be regarded as tentative . In order to keep his study manageable, the risk analyst also has to di sregard many contingencies that might lead to accidents . However, he can never be sure that his judgement in this regard is correct.

We can identify two types of topic sentences. Firstly, the anticipatory topic sentence that indicates what the paragraph will deal with:

The question list can form a good basis for producing topic sentences:

REL ATIONSHIP QU ESTION LIST - TOPIC SENTENC ES

Questions list 1 What external sources of noise can cause noise pollution? • traffic nois e: cars, railways, planes • industrial noise 2 What regulations are there rega rding th e amount of external noise that is permitted in an office? • Law on Sound Pollution • Building regulations Postulating topic sentences 1 Traffic and industrial noise can be external causes of noise polluti on in offices . 2 Regul ations regarding the amount of external noi se that is permitted in side an office are laid down in the Law on Noise Pollution and in building regulations. Anticipa tory topic sentences 1 There are two types of noise generators that can cause noise pollution in offices. 2 The fo llowing regulation s deal with the amount of ext ernal noise that is permitted in an office .

ANTICIPATORY TOPIC SENTENCE

Topic sentence first

There are three reasons why a risk analyst cannot make accurate estimates. Firstly, he has to base his findings on experiences from the past that might prove unreliable in future situations . As well as this , the technique is still so untested in many situations (in the case of nuclear reactors, for instance) that risk estimates in general can be regarded as tentative. Finally, in order to keep his study manageable, the risk analyst also has to disregard many contingencies that might lead to accidents. However, he can never be sure that his judgement in this regard is correct.

The second type is the postulating topic sentence that contains the main information of the paragraph , with the rest of the paragraph consisting of an explanation or for the statement:

You can also ind icate the connection of a topic sentence with previous paragraphs by using signalling formulations . A few of these are listed in the next table.

TABLE

s.1 Signalling formul ations indicating a conn ection between paragraph s

Connection

Signalling formulation

Example topic sentence

enumerative

firstly, secondly, lastly; first, then, subsequently

The second step in the production process is pouring the moulds.

contrary

on the one hand , on the other hand ; as opposed to; nevertheless

Despite these problems, we have succeeded in developing a good simulation programme.

elucidating

because, for, as a consequence, since; this explains/ means; as such

Consequently flotation techniques are unsuitable for this location .

explanatory

for example, for instance, such as, by way of explanation , characteristic of

The next example illustrates this well.

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5.3.4

I

The paragraph group

Automatically inserting a line of white after each paragraph may mean that you are overlooking an important way of structuring: the raragraph group. This is a group of paragraphs that are closely related in of content and are separated by a new line, with or without indentation. Lines of white are used to separate paragraph groups. Please note: English writers hardly ever use this approach ; normally they only use indented paragraphs.

TEXT WITHOUT PARAGRAPH GROUPING

Two sources of external noise can cause noise pollution inside an office building: traffic noise and industria l noise. It is not possible to generalize abou t which source pmduces the most pollution because this will depend on the Individual situation of th e office building. This will become clear if we

lookatthetwosourcesofnolscmoreclosely Firstly, road traffic can cause traffic noise. An office

If you have made a question list for the writing of a chapter and you need more than one paragraph to answer a question, then the obvious solution is to create a paragraph group. A paragraph group starts with a question that covers the whole of the paragraph group. You could also use a heading for this .

building that is situated beside a freeway will expericncea lotofinconvenience,aswillofficesthat areclosctoshoppingmalls,especiallyfromtrucks delivering supplies to the shops. Secondly, 8 railway linecancausenoisepollution,although this is

regardedasbeinglessofaninconveniencethan road traffic noise. Finally, aeroplane noise: for offices that are located near flight paths of aeroplanes this is often the worst type of noise

Say you are writing a report on recycling techniques and are working on a chapter about design for recycling (DFR). One of the questions on your question list is:

pollution. lndust1ial noise is not just noise created by lndustria!installations:itlncludesnoisecausedby building activities or road 1•1orks. These are. however, only temporary. whereas industrial installations providepe1manentlnconvenlence. Whatmeasurescanbetakentoreducetheamount

Which stages in the cycle of a product requires DFR? • production stage: as little waste/ scrap as possible • product stage: recycling only possible if the compounds/ materials used in the product are clearly recognizable • waste stage: is separation from the waste products (as opposed to separate collection) still possible and feasible?

:rwo sources of external noise can cause no· . inside an office building: traffic noise and . d1se pollut1on in ustnal · I · noise. tis not possible to generalize about wh· h produces the most pollution because this will ~c sodurce the individual situation of the office building Th~pen on beco I 'f . IS Will me c ear I we look at the two sources of . closely. noise more

of noise that penetrates Into the office? we shall dealwithwallinsulation,glassinsulationandthe Insulation of movable parts such as doors and windows, in that order.

Fir~tl~, road traffic can cause traffic noise. An office building that is situated beside a freeway w1·11 ex . a Jt f ' . penence o o. inconvenience , as will offices that are close to shop~ing malls, especially from trucks delivering su~piles to the shops. Secondly, a ra ilway line can cause noise .pollut1on, although this is regarded as being less of an inconve.nience than road traffic noise. Finally aeroplane noise: for offices that are located near flight paths of aeroplanes this is often the worst type of . pollution. noise

Wallscanbelnsulatedbyfill!ngthehollowwallwith Insulation mate1ial.Anotherway!s to attach

nois~

reducing materials to the Inside wall. The most su!lable materia!sforthisare listed in Appendix 2. Glass constllutes a weak point in the facade. Double glass does not always provide better noise lnsulatlonthansingleglass.Thishastodowiththe frequency of the pane: double glass sometimes conveys the vibrations from outside more strongly than

single

glass.

For

sound

insulation,

the

Industrial noi~e. is not just noise created by industrial 1ns~a.11at1ons: it includes noise caused by building

act1v1t1es or road wo:ks . These are, however, only temporary, ~thereas industrial installations provide permanent inconvenience.

thickness of the Individual panes of glass is lmpo1tant. Only use glass that is more than Bmm

Possible ways of dealing with these points: • The shortest way is answering the question in one single paragraph. The assumption here is that your readers know what is entailed by the different stages that you describe , maybe because they have been described in an earlier report. • If you expect the readers to want more information about what happens at each stage, you could also deal with each question in separate paragraphs. This would mean four paragraphs: one in which you raise the question (in other words a paragraph that is at the core of the paragraphs) and one for each of the three stages. • You could also choose to group your paragraphs. Jn this case, each stage will be dealt with in a separate paragraph group: in the first paragraph you could explain what the stage involves and in the next one the place of DFR at that stage. Jn this variant it is advisable to use an unnumbered heading to make sure the readers do not Jose sight of the broad outline. A division into paragraph groups makes it easier for the readers to read globally or selectively, more so than if only lines of white are used. Because the writer has already grouped the information the reader will get a picture of the broad outline more quickly and be able to find information more quickly too since large sections of text can be skipped. We will illustrate this using two longer examples, one in which there is a line of white after each paragraph and one in which the paragraphs that belong together are grouped . Read the topic sentences in the next example only. Look for those paragraphs that deal with ways of combating noise pollution.

thlckorusespec!alsoundproofingglass.

What measures can be taken to reduce the amount of no1s~ that ~enetrates into the office? We shall deal with wall insulation, glass insulation and the insulation of movable parts such as doors and windows, in that order. Walls c.an be insulated by filling the hollow wall with insul~t1on material. Another way is to attach noisereduc1.ng materi.als to the inside wall. The most suitable materials for this are listed in Appendix 2. Glass constitutes a weak point in the facade. Double glass does not always provide better noise insulation than single glass. This has to do with the frequency of t~e p~ne: double glass sometimes conveys the v1brat1ons '.rom outside more strongly than single glass. For sound insulation, the thickness of the individual panes of glass is important. Only use glass that is more than 8mm thick or use special soundproofing glass.

In the above exam I the right one If p p e you have to peruse every paragraph before you find . . . aragraphs are grouped th ' . • ings immediately beoome a lot eas1er and the te t . the topic sentenc: I ~ 1ess time-consuming to read. You only have to read What you are lookin; f~~:ragraph groups (always after a line of white) to find

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o ~sign

for rccrdi nJ!

Twosourcesofextema\noisecausenoisollut!on insideanofficebtJilding:trafficnoiseandindustiial noise. lt !snotpossib\etogeneralizeaboutwhlch sourceproducesthemostpollutionbecausethiswill dependontheindlvidual situation of the office bullding. This will become clear if we look at the two

I

sourcesofnoisemoreclosely. Firstly, road traffic can cause traffic noise. An

officebuildingthatlssituatedbesidealreewaywill experience a lot of inconvenience, as will offices that

areclosetoshoppingmalls,especiallyfrorntrucks delivelingsuppliestotheshops. Secondly,arai\waylinecancausenoisepollution, although this is regarded as being less of an inconveniencetllanroadtrafficnoise . . Finally, aeroplane noise: for offices that are located near flight paths of aeroplanes this is often the worsttypeofnoisepallution . lndustrlalnoiseisnotnolsecreatedbyindustrial installations:itlncludesnoisecausedbybuilding actM ties or road wmks. These are, however, only temporary, whereas indusuial installations provide permanent Inconvenience. Whatmeasurescanbetakentoreducetheamount of noise that penetrates Into the office? We shall deal with wall Insulation, glass Insulation and the insulation of movable parts such as doors and windows, in that order. walls canbeinsulatedbyfilllngthehollowwal\ with insulation material. Another way l s to attach Mise-reducingmatcrialsto theinsldewall.Themost suitable material s fo r this arelistedlnAppendix2. Glass consti tutes a weak point in the facade. Double glass does not always provide better noise insulation than single glass. This hastodowiththe freQuency of the pane: double glass sometimes conveys the vibrations from outside more strongly than

single

glass.

For

sound

insulation,

the

Two sources of external noise cause noise pollution inside an office building: traffic noise and industrial noise. It is not possible to generalize about which source produces the most pollution because t~i~ will depe~d on the individual situation of the office bu1ld1ng. This will become clear if we look at the two sources of noise more closely. . Firstly, road traffic can cause traffic noise. An office building that is situated beside a freeway will experience a lot of inconvenience, as will offices that are close to shopping malls , especially from trucks delivering supplies to the shops. Secondly, a railway line can cause noise pollution , although this is regarded as being less of an inconvenience than road traffic noise. Finally, aeroplane noise: for offices that are located near flight paths of aeroplanes this is often the worst type of noise pollution. . . Industrial noise is not only noise created by industrial installations: it includes noise caused by building activities or road works . These are, however, only temporary, whereas industrial installations provide permanent inconvenience.

thickness of the individual panes of glass is Important. Only use glass that is more than 8mm thlckorusespecialsoundproofingglass.

What measures can be taken to reduce the amount of noise that penetrates into the office? We shall deal with wall insulation, glass insulation and the insulation of movable parts such as doors and windows, in that o~der. Walls can be insulated by filling the hollow wall with insulation material . Another way is to attach noisereducing materials to the inside wall. The most suitable materials for this are listed in Appendix 2. Glass constitutes a weak point in the facade. Double glass does not always provide better noise insulation than single glass. This has to do with the frequency of the pane: double glass sometimes conveys the vibrations from outside more strongly than single glass. For sound insulation, the thickness of the individual panes of glass is important. Only use glass that is more than 8mm thick or use special soundproofing glass.

5 •3 · 5

Enumerate your points . It at1on · · f Enumeration is a very useful and orderly way of presenting in orm .· creates a break in the text which instantly attracts the reader's attention. But you will only achieve this if the enumerations are not too extensive.

°;

When should you use enumeration for your points? . der 1 • When the information is important for the reader (for example , . n to elucidate steps within a process, or to list the main conclusions ·

STRUCTURING

• To make the text more accessible (for examp le, by announcing the contents of a section, or to sum up elements that will be dealt with in greater detail). For well-organized enumerations , observe the following: 1 Limit th e number of items in an enumeration It is difficult to get an overview of an enumeration that consists of more than about six elements . The reader will be unable to the steps of the procedure described below:

ENU MERATION WITH TOO MANY ELEMENTS

Standard procedure for indicative environmental research. • Determi ne the date for carrying out the field work and the number of days needed for the field work.

• Collect fu rther information about the terrain to be investigated if there is insuffi cient knowledge of that terrain . • Determine where the drillings and the gauge tubes have to be located, when the groun.d water samples have to be taken and where the collected samples are to be exami ned. • Fill in an "order environment fieldwork" form, make a site drawing and copy a map of the area for the field squad so that they know what has to be done and wh • Have the fie ld squad ex?lore the terrain to see whether problems are likely to ere. ?ccur during the execution of the task. If necessary, make adjustments to the task 1n con sultation. • Perform t he fieldwork:_ do the drillings, note down observations about the samples taken, place t he gauging tubes, fit in the drilling locations and pump the gauging tubes dry. • Take grou ndwater sa mples (usually a week later), measuring the pH, electrical conduct1v1ty and temperature at the same time. The samples should be sent to the laboratory for analysis. • The drawing office draws soil profiles on the basis of observations. Draw a conclu.sion about the type and extent of pollution (if any) and provide recommendation s about whether to treat the pollution and/ or remove its source.

2 Grouped parts within an enumeration :f the enumeration threatens to become too long it is worthwhile trying to ook for the related parts of the enumeration . This will give the readers more of an ove.rview of the enumeration and hence they wi ll be able to the information better.

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STRU CTURING

W ELL-ORGAN IZED ENUM ER ATION: PARTS GROUPED NOT UNIFOR MLY FORMULATED

Standard procedure for indicative environmental research.

1 Preparing the field work - Determine the date for carrying out the field work and the number of days

-

I

-

needed for the field work. Collect further information about the terrain to be investigated if there is insufficient knowledge of that terrain. Determine where the drillings and the gauge tubes have to be located, when the ground water samples have to be taken and where the collected samples are to be examined. Fill in an " order environment fieldwork" form, make a site drawing and copy a map of the area for the field squad so that they know what has to be done and

The General Intelligence and Security S . (Al task s of: erv1ce VD) has been assigned the new • gathe ring information about foreign countries Th. t I . is ask has been added because of t he coming into operation of the L It also has a role in the new system ~~Son ntl~lligence and Security Services. Netherlands. This deals with prate t' urve1 ance .and Protection in the c mg people and institutions in the Netherla nd s.

PARTS UN IFORMLY FORMULATED

where. The Genera l Intelligence and Security Service (AIVD) h . tasks : as been assigned two new

2 Execution of the field work -

Have the field squad explore the terrain to see whether problems are likely to occur during the execution of the task. If necessary, make adjustments to the task in consultation. Perform the fieldwork: do the drillings, note down observations about the samples taken, place the gauging tubes, fit in the drilling locations and pump the gauging tubes dry. Take groundwater samples (usually a week later), measuring the pH, electrical conductivity and temperature at the same time . The samples should be sent to the laboratory for analysis.

3 Analysis of the observations - The drawing office draws soil profiles on the basis of observations. - Draw a conclusion about the type and extent of pollution (if any) and provide recommendations about whether to treat the pollution and/or remove its source.

3 Formulate the parts of an enumeration uniformly To maintain an overview of an enumeration, the points should be formulated and presented uniformly. Be consistent: for instance, your points should either all be complete sentences or all incomplete ones; all your sentences should follow the same sentence structure.

UNIFORM

NOT UNIFORM

Relevant topographic details of Bangkok and surroundings: • There is little difference in elevation in the area. • Clayey soil.

Relevant topographic details of Bangko and surroundings: • little difference in elevation • clayey soil

If there is a part-sentence that introduces the enumeration, al l of the enumerated parts should be formulated so as to connect grammaticallY with the sentence.

• Gathering information about foreign countries Th ' of the coming into operation of the Law o I ~ 11'1s task has been.added because Protecting people and institutions in th Nn hn e igence and Security Services. this t ask under the new system of Sue · 1~t er/ands. The AIVD has been assigned rve1 ance and Protection in the Netherlands.

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6 Requirements for each part of the report

I

' 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6. 7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14

Cover and title page Preface Table of contents Summary Introduction The chapters between introduction and conclusion Conclusions Recommendations Bibliography Appendices Notes List of symbols Glossa ry Index

Your readers will have expectations about your report. They will probably have expectations about the content (perhaps because they were involved in the research) though they will certainly have expectations about the form. They will expect to find an introduction , a summary and recommendations, and they will also have ideas about what should be dealt With in those parts of the report. This is because what the various parts of a report should contain is govern ed by conventions. If you are familiar with these conventions you can save Yourself a lot of t ime, both in writing and reading. Each report should at least contain the following parts: • title page • ' table of contents • summary ' introduction ' chapters of conte nt

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However, you wi ll often have to include more than this. Most reports require conclusions and recommendations. If you have taken data from the literature there should be a bibliography, and a report without appendices is

NOT INFORMATIVE ENOUGH

SUFFICIENTLY INFORMATIVE

Tone perception

The influence of tone distortion on tone perception

an exception rather than the ru le. As a general rule, every report cons ists of three parts . The numbered chapters (from the introduction up to and including the conclusions and recommendations) form the core. Those parts that precede the core constitute the preliminary pages. Those that fo llow the core are called the concluding pages.

I

REQU IREMENTS FOR EACH PART OF THE REPORT

2 Consider using a subtitle An informative subtitle can be used to delineate the subject of the report even further.

An extensive report can consist of the fo llowing parts, usual ly in this order. TITLE WITH AN INFORMATIVE SUBTITLE

This chapter will deal with them extensively:

,,

Preliminary pages

Core

Concluding pages

• cover

• introduction

• notes

• title page

• chapters

• bibliography

• preface

• conclusions

• appendices

• table of contents

• recommendations

• glossary

• summary

Wate rtight division and leakage stability in cargo ships. An evaluation of three new calcu lation methods

3 Do not make a title too long Avoid preliminaries such as "A study of ... ", "An investigation into ... ", or "Some cons iderations re lating to ... " A long title can often be simplified by using a subtitle.

• index

• list of symbols

Dl Cover and title page

4 Avoid titles of the 'A and B" type Try to avoid titles like "The environment and the car industry." These titles combine two wide fields without indicating the connection between the two. They cover a wide range of possible connections, only some of which may be dea lt with in the report.

Does your report have to be read more than once? Do you want it to look professiona l? If this is the case, have a cover that is made of thicker paper than the rest of the report. The information on the cover does not have to be as detailed as that on the title page: the title of the report and the name

TITLE TOO VAGUE (':4 AND B")

CONCRETE TITLE

Computers and education

The use of computers in mathematics and science classes in junior high schools

of the author/authors are sufficient. The title page is the first page of the report and forms the basis for a title description. People who want to refer to your report shou ld be able to find all • • •

the relevant information on this page: title + subtitle (if any) initials + name of the author/authors place and year institution or company (for example, Netherlands Agency for Energy and the Environment).

It is a common fal lacy that the title of a report must be witty or contain a play on words. Such titles are often only understood after reading a large part of the report. Here are five hints for clear report titles. 1 Use the title to delineate the subject Ask yourself whether a reader can get a good impression of the contents of the report from the title.

5 Avoid "literary" titles without a factual subtitle ~~~e writers like to stimu late the ir readers' imaginations with titles like ~v~.ng for the future and the future of living," "Shifting pane ls" and "New · What they usually on ly manage to create is confusion. For factua l reports it is better to choose an informative title so that the reader unde~stands immed iately what the report is about. If you are set on using your literary t itle anyway, it is advisable to add an informative subtitle.

0

PLITERARY" TITLES WITH A FACTUAL SUBTITLE

New old. Re-use of car materials Investing in integration . Innovations in minority policy

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REQUIREMENTS FOR EACH PART OF THE REPORT

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~

Preface The preface is the place for information that is not strictly part of the subject of the report. The following subjects may be treated: • information about what prompted the report (the framework within which it was written: e.g., assignment, project, thesis, series) and who the sponsors of the project are • an indication of the public for whom the report is intended (those for whom you can assume pre-knowledge) • an indication of the way in which the report may be used (e.g., a reading

I

guide) • words of gratitude to people who have contributed to the report in some way (e.g., the people interviewed) • in conclusion: place , date and name of the author/authors; this is especially usual in the case of personal prefaces

TABLE OF CONTENTS OF A DRAFT REPORT

Preliminary pages: not num bered Core: numbered

Hierarchy clear thro ugh indenting

PR EFACE

Framework

Reading guide

Thanks

• Ensure that your layout clearly shows the d'ff pages, core and concluding pages . The st ' erenc~ b.etween preliminary b ructure within a.chapter should also be evident: make sections and indenting them. A line of wh ite b f su sections clearly v1s1ble by makes it easier to get an overvie:~re and after each chapter often

This report is the third progress report of the Information Technology and Communications study group, consisting of delegates from the departments of Economic Affairs and Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality. Readers who are especially interested in the application of information technology in the services sector can find this in Section 3. Subsidy regulations are discussed throughout the report; a short overview is given in Appendix D. The study group is very grateful for the valuable advice given by

·

Keep the following guidelines in mind when making a table of contents: Do not number the preliminary and concluding pages (preface, summary, bibliography, etc.). Do not list "title page" or "tab le of contents." Only list chapters, sections and subsections, but not the unnumbered headings. Give the appendices informative titles. If there are more than one they should be numbered as well (example: "Append ix 1: Map of Presikhaaf station"). Check whether the titles in the table of contents are identical to the titles in the text (this can be done automatically if you generate the tablB of contents via your word processor).

···········

6. 2 Assess;;;~-~~- b~· -~~~~~ ~f ·th~ -~~~;~-~~~d ·;;,·~~-h 25 6.3 Conclusion: renovate the station od ....... 27 7 Conclusions and recommendations ·· ······· ··· ...... ······· ··· . 30 Concluding page: not numbered

The table of contents should, of course, provide a starting point for finding information. Page references are indispensible here. A good table of contents , however, should also give the reader an insight into the broad thrust of the report. You can only achieve this if the report is set out logically and all parts have informative titles.

2 c.apacity probl~~~-~·t·F;;~~;;;h~~r-st~t;~·~··························· 1 3 Aims and restrictions on th d · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 2 3.1 Design aims e es1gn for Presikhaaf Station 5 3.2 Design restri~~-i~~~- · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 5 3.2.1 and c;~·diti~~-~····· · ······ ·········· ··· ······· ······· 7 3.2.2 Other considerations ········ ········· ··· ···· ········ ······ 7 ····· ·· ········· ·· ·· ···· ·· ··· ····· ·· ··· 9 4 List of requirements 5 Four alternatives for p~~~-ikh~-~f·S~~~-i~· · ····· · ············ · ······· 12 5 .1 Alternative 1: renovate the statio n .... ...... ... ... .......... 15 . n · ·. · · · · · · · ····· · ··· ·· ····· ·· 15 5 ·2 Alte rna t 1ve 2 · a stat' 5.3 Alternative 3: a stat;~n n~ar the university······ ········· 18 railwa line . n a ong Arnhem-

y ········ 5 .4 Alternative 4: bus······ tra~·~· · ··· ·· ···· ········· ·· ·· ··· ··· ·· ··· ····· ... 20 port . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 ···· ··· ··· ····· ··· ·· ··· 6 Ass essment of the alternat' 6 .1 Criteria ives ··· ······ ···· ······· ················· 25

Dr J. Van de Gern of KPN.

~ Table of contents

~~~:~~~~i~:~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: : :::::: :::::::::::::::::.'.~

Appendices: title and number

···· ······· ·· ·· ················ 32 Notes .............. ........... . Bibliography ·· ··· ··· ·· ··· ···· ··· ··· ··· ·· ···· ·· · ··· ····· ··· ..... 33

~Pppendd~x 21: M~·~· -~f· P~~~i-kh~·~·f ·S·t~~-i~~::: ..... ...... ... ........ ..... 3375 pen IX : Map of Arnhem ·· ··· · ··· ·· ·· ·· ·· ····· ·· · ·· Appendix 3: Evaluation of th~--~~~d··· · ~~~······· · ·· · ······· · ·· · ······ 38 y g p ··· ··· ·········· ······· ·· 39

Every report longer than five only get as far a:~::~hould have a summary. A number of their first point of or1·ent t. . mmary. For others, the summary is a ion: if the read h . o ti" ers .ave an idea of the broad u ine they will be better able to . them. A summary shou ld b Judge what information is relevant to e readable, short and hit the mark

rea~e~s will

1 A summary should b . Summaries e readable on its own are often read · ~PPointment. If a copy has'~ spare moments: in the train or waiting for an

r~:;:~l:hole report. Make s~~~. ~h:~:fo~:y~he ~nly this will be ta.ken along, apart from th e report D ' a your summary w1 I be . o not use in your summary that

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readers can on ly understand after reading about them in the report. Do not refer to other parts of the report or to ill ustrations that requ ire the readers to leaf through the report. The subject and the prob lem shou ld also be clear right from the start. This is not the case in the first of the following

I

Briefly, this report has three aspects: • the technical, economical and social aspect • phasing of the design • associated work The phasing is described first and subsequently some ...

REQU IREMENTS FOR EACH PART OF THE REPORT

The relat ionshi p between the numbered cha pters and t he su mma ry

Core of the report

Introduction

Summary

·Background •Significance of the main question •Main question

I

PROBLEM IMMEDIATELY CLEAR

The lock complex in the Vliet in Leidschendam is too small to deal with the traffic on land and on water. Extension of the capacity of the lock from 400 to 1000 tonnes seems desirable. This report describes a plan for a new lock ...

2 The summary should be short Keep the summary short: explanations should be given in the report itse lf. A report of fifty pages should have a summary of one page rather than one of four pages . A summary is a precis of the numbered chapters in the report. It is not necessary to summarise all chapters in the same way: a summary does not need to be a balanced representation of the contents . The introduction and the conclus ions provide the most important information. Some background information in which the subject is introduced and the prob lem is set out should be given in the summary. The readers will not otherwise be able to put the main question into perspective. And, of course, a summary shou ld refer t o the conclusions and the recommendations. The parts that need to be included in the summary and the relationship between the main text and the summary are set out in Fig 6.1. 3 The summary has to hit the mark What constitutes an effective approach to a summary depends on the target group and the context. A management summary or executive summary, aimed so lely at decision-makers , has problem-advicearguments-implementation as its ideal layout. The size shou ld idea lly not exceed one sheet of A4. Management criteria such as the significance of the problem, costs and risks require more attention than technica l details such as the research method. Technical

jargon should be avoided as much as possible. A scientific summary that takes specialists into consideration without becoming useless to decision-makers wil l follow the line of the report: prob lem-research-resu lts-conclusion . It will also contain more technical details . Compare the two fol lowing summaries on a similar subject, but written for a different aud ience.

FIGURE s.1

I

summaries.

PROBLEM NOT CLEAR

© Noordhott Uitgevers bv

Other chapters '--- "'"--

Conclusions and recommendations

Arguments

--1

}...--

I

Conclusions and recommendations

MA NAGEMENT SUMMARY

SCIENTIFIC SUMMARY

In connection with the increase in the production of green energy, Tempest BV wants to build a windmill park. A previous study suggested three possible locati ons: the Haagpark, just offshore near The Hague, the Waddenpark along the Afsluitdijk and the Delfpark between Delft and Rotterdam. A decision should be made qu ickly because otherwise Tempest's pursuit of an attractive market share will be at risk.

In connection with attempts to expand the share of wind energy in the electricity su~ply, an investigation was done into SUltable locations for a windmill park. ?n th~ ba.sis of a preliminary study, the 1nves.t1gat1on was limited to the following locations: the Haagpark Uust offshore near The Hague), the Wadden park (along the Afsluitdijk) and the Delfpark (between Delft and Rotterdam).

Ou.r advice is to choose the Haagpark. This req uires 12 windmills with a capacity of 3MW each. Limited safety precaution s for ae rial traffic are required. The park cou ld be operational within 5 years. The risk of delay caused by appellate procedu res cannot entirely be ruled out. The main reasons for choosing the Haagpark are t11e relatively low maintenance costs, expansion ossi~ilitie s in the future and fewer bject1ons by environment groups. The add~npark is a good second option, pec1ally con sidering the amount of nd, but the longer preparation time of und 7 years makes it less attractive. r~com~en ded t hat the Danish firm be given a des ign commission as n as possible.

The .interests and desires of all interested parties \government, consumers, electricity companies, neighbours, environmental organi~ations) have been analysed via an ob1e~t1ves tree. A causal analysis has clarified the relationships between developments in the electricity market policies in the area of environment and landscape and the size of the windmills. The options differ mainly in area needed, pressure on the environment ~nd yield. The Waddenpark scores badly in of pressure on the environment but well on all the other points. For the Delfpark, the outcome is exactly the other way around. The Haagpark is the least attractive overall. The conclusion is that the Delfpark is the preferred option for environmental reasons . It is recommended that a follow-up investigation be done into how to increase the yields from this location.

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6.5. 1

~ Introduction . atewa . into the report: the reader can see what The introduction forms ~ g d ho~ and why the research was done. question was addresse ~~uction consists of three parts: the reason for Broadly speaking , an l~~rthe research and an outline of the report. This the research, the aim . in the structure of the introduction: an division should be recogni~~~~econsist of three paragraphs , three paragraph introduction, long report, even .three sections . groups, or in

~~:r~:~:·o~ha

I

. I fan introduction will illustrate this. The lement-analysis apparatus for the The following abndg:d examp e ~ title of the report is Selection o an e Falcon copper mine ."

EXAMPLE OF AN INTRODUCTION

Reason

~l~~~o~~ac:!~;sis apparatus is used to determine the metal

content of ores. Element analysis is the analy~1ng of a b tance with the aim of determining the weight percentage s~ e~ement X in that substance. The ore should at. least have a metal content if mining it is the feasible This so-called "cut-off grade is depen en on . f .metal and the depth of the ore underground, among pnce o . h 't .1 of paramount importance that the

~ertain

t~. ~e econo;1c~lly

~:~;lt~~~~:~:~f~~~ ~in :d ore and. of the ore .that is ~·till t~ ~; . d be known at any given point in time. This is ac ieve mine tinually taking samples and su bsequen tly analysing them. moment the Falcon copper mine makes use of atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS). This .AAS has a reached the end of its technical life, necessitating the purchase of a new element-analysis apparatus shortly.

~~~he

Aim

al~ost

This report answers the question of which element-analysis t s would be the best to purchase to replace the appara t uAAS This will be done by means of a literature study ·1 ble The investigation is limited to presen . of the apparatuses ava1 a . f in devices that can determine the weight percentage o copp.er particular. Four options that all satisfy the c.ntena of at~m1c absorption spectrometer (AAS) - the inductively couple lasma mass spectrometer (I) , the X-ray fluorescence p spectrome t e r (XRF) and the optical em1ss1ons spectrometer (OES) _will be examined .

Structural description The report is set out as follows. Chapter 2 describes th.e way that the four element-analys.is apparatuses war~ ;:ee~~~ices t . s Chapter 3 the evaluation cntena are set out an • · · Chapter 4 con ain are evaluated according to these cntena. . garded the results and recommendation: which apparatus is re

as the best buy.

REQUIREMENTS FOR EACH PART OF THE REPORT

Reason for t he resea rch

Early in the introduction , the reader should get an idea of why the text is important and why the research was done. You can best do this by giving background information describing the problem and indicating the importance of finding a solution. Background information

Readers usually need some background information to put the report in the right context. This will often take the form of a sketch of the situation in which the nature of the subject and its place within a larger framework is explained.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

• The General Intelligence and Security Service (AIVD), which operated from 1949 to 2002 under the name of Domestic Security Service (BVD) , is managed by the Minister for Internal Affairs. Between 1949 and now, the world has changed considerably. These changes have not gone unnoticed by the AIVD. • During a heavy storm on the North Sea last month, 88 containers were washed off a Leba nese container ship. Six of these containers are filled with the extremely toxic agricultural pesticide Apron Plus.

Problem

Presentation of background information should lead naturally to a description of a problem. The problems may sometimes be very serious ones and finding a solution quickly may be critically important. For example , after a fire drill in a chemical factory, it was discovered that half the fire extinguishers were not working properly. The problem does not necessarily have to be a problem in that sense of the word: a report can also have optimisation of a certain computer programme as its aim . The "problem " in this case might be that the existing programme should be faster and more -friendly.

PROBLEM

• The idea most Dutch people have that the AIVD is a secretive organisation is outdated. The AIVD has developed into a government organisation that aims to give a full and open of its activities and to contribute to the protection of vital interests wit hin the Dutch community. However, the nature of this task may make it necessa ry to keep working in secret. The desire for openness and the need for secrecy may be at odds with each other. • From 16 Janua ry onwards , thousands of bags of a particular toxin have washed ashore along the coast of North and South Holland. A number of bags have burst and the sea water and the beach contaminated by their contents .

Importance

~eaders are stimulated if they realise that it is important that the problem e solved. Sometim es this is sufficiently clear from a description of the

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REQUIREMENTS FOR EACH PART OF THE REPORT

82

problem and it is not necessary to pay any additional attention to it. Keep in mind, however, that while the importance of your research is often very clear to you, this might not always be the case for your readers.

MAIN QUES TION TOO VAGUE

The ain: of thi s report is to loo k more deeply i~to the position of men and women in the computerization industry Salaries will also come up ''~or d'1scuss1on. ..

IM PORTANCE

I

• It is therefore of the utmost importance for the AIVD to develop a policy that makes t he des ire d openness possible without jeopardi sing the secrecy t hat may somet imes be necessary. • The need to investigate the effect the agricultural pesticide has on surface water is very urgent at the moment. During a collision between a tanker and a barge last month , several barrels of the poison finished up in the Rhine. Ten barrels have not as yet been recovered and the Department of Waterways is deliberating whether a large-scale search is warranted . To make a decision , information about the effects of Apron Plus is essential.

It is sometimes preferable to make the importance of your report clear after delineating the main question. If so, you will need to describe what can be achieved by finding an answer to the main question: you could mention, for example, how the conclusions, insights, analyses or inventories you formulated can be applied. You could also make the importance of your results clear by indicating who the people are that will benefit from them.

IMPORTANCE AFTER MAIN QUESTION

MA IN QUESTION CLEAR

The aim of this report is t 0 c~mpare the position of men and women 1n th e . computerization industry Th . are divided between th . e way Jobs . e sexes will be examined and the question o there are differences in salaryf wbhtether men d . e ween an women investigated.

Avoid unclear formulations of th . confused if you announce th t e mam question. Readers will become a you will "t t f report there will be "recomme d t. . ry o ind a solution" or that in the . n a 1ons1fthes are not likely to take the repo t . e present themselves " They . r seriously if th · · confidence in his own research. e writer appears to have little When you see this type of hedging 't . the introduction was written before' ~h~s usually because the first version of stage the writer is not sure yet wh th research was completed. At that · . e er he will be . successful in answering th e main question and whether 't ·11 b This being the case, the introdu~rw1 e useful to make recommendations. completed. ion must be revised after the research is

NOT CONFIDENTLY FORMULATED

CONFIDENTLY FORMULATED

This research uses fuzzy logic in attempti ng to chart the deCISIOn . . strategies of of the L House . ower

;:: ~e search uses fuzzy logic in charting ec1s10n strategies of of the Lower House.

• Thi s report presents a method for the analysis of the internal climate of offices. By using thi s method, building managers can determine to what ext ent their own building is a " sick building." The main que sr ion need not necessarily take the form of a question:

6.5.2

Aim of the research

The aim of the research encomes the most important question addressed in the report (the main question), the way in which the main question is answered (the method), and the preconditions and starting points, which serve to delineate the main question further, and as such, form part of the research aim. Main question A carefully formulated main question makes it clear to the readers what they can expect. In the first example that follows, it will not be clear to the reader of the original main question what exactly has been investigated

because the used are too vague.

GOOD MAIN QUESTION IN THE FORM OF A

GOOD MAIN QUESTION IN THE FORM OF A QUESTION

STATEMENT

The aim of th ·is repo rt is · to present the 0auses of leaking losses at the

r°J>:::~~- storage at th e Plastics location

This r~port answers the following question: what are the main causes of leaking losses at the propylene stora e at the Plastics location in Geleen? g

Procedure Indicate brief! stud Y how you have collect d h y, experimental research que t'e t ~ data. for your report (literature ' s 1onna1res, simulation).

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REQUIREMENTS FOR EAC H PART OF THE REPORT

The cha_pters between introduction and conclus10n The application possibilities of photogrammetry in facial reconstructions were investigat ed by means of a study of the literature and interviews with five plastic surgeons.

I

and conditions and other parameters The writer shou ld define the subject of the report carefu lly, referring on the one hand to the externa l and condit ions of the research, and on t he other, to \imitat ions on the research imposed by the writer himse lf. Some types of report (such as design reports) contain a large number of t erms and cond it ions and research parameters. These will usua lly be set out in a separate chapter entit led "set of requirements" or someth ing sim il ar. In th is case, on ly the main ones are mentioned in the introduction. These serve to give the reader an idea of the restrictions imposed on the

research design.

The core of the report cons ists of numb subd ivided into sections It is . ered chapters that are often short introduction in wh ic.h youaggood idea to start each chapter with a 1ve some infor f the chapter. Th is opens up the r t ma ion about the layout of · ·f h epor to the read whole report they can stil l get a uick . ers . I t ey do not read the overview of the part they are interested in. The extra inform tq have. indeed chosen the right c~~~~e~~n he lp them to decide whether they The introduction does not always h . section: if the introduction consistsa~~ :~:e in the form of a complete not have to be numbered If the . t d . or three paragraphs these do . · in ro uct1on is long th · · . to make 1t into a section of ·its er an this 1t 1s better 't t d · . own. 0 o not make 1 into subsections or lower shou ld b . oo eta1led: a division e avo ided.

INTRODUCTION TO A CHAPTER

3

Term s/conditions Because the apparatus has to be used in the operating theatre , reliability of the measurements and durability of the apparatus are

essential design conditions . Limitations

The design of the test model does not take into consideration that there may be restrictions on the size of the apparatus.

THE CHOICE OF CARRIAGE FOR MAGNETIC TRAINS

Several types of carriage are suitable for . . . have been sufficiently well developed t magnetic trains. At this stage, three types WagonStar, the WagonArrow and the W~ ~~~1t further analysis (Verkerk, 2009): the are compared on the basis of cost p . g ass1c . In this chapter, these three types . nee, speed capac't d . 1 1 omet re. On this basis a prelimin h . ' Yan maintenance costs per k1 ary c 01ce was made. 3.1

6.5.3

The WagonStar

Description of the report's structure

After the ma in question has been formu lated, the report writer shou ld expla in how the report wil l answer the question. The reader must be able to look up the various chapters and sections in the tab le of contents and be able to understand from the description of how the report is structured why t hese parts are necessary and what relationship they have to each other. In other words, the section on how the report is structured is where the writer makes the broad outline of his report clear. If various methods are referred to in the individual chapters, the description of the report's structure sometimes includes an explanation of the methods

It is sometimes advisab le to f inish off a . A conc lusion is warrant d 'f chapter with a conclusion or in the introduction to the cha t ·ef I a prob lem based question is posed Per. or examp le· " h t the most suitab le?" The cha ter's . . w a research method is the question We recommen~ . . conc lusion sho uld provide the answer to for example, "'Conc lusion· giving the con.c lusion an informative heading: 0 I . . renovate t he station " n y include a summa ry if the cha te . .. regard less of the length of the h pt r is long (five or more pages, say). But and concise: at the most ha lf c ap er, the summary shou ld be very short in the form of a table. ' a page . If you can, present the main resu lts

~ummary.

used.

DESCRIBIN G HOW THE REPORT IS STRUCTURED

In order to answer the main question of this report, Chapter 2 firstly describes what chemicals are present in the surface water and in what concentrations. This was determin ed after samples were taken from sampling points (see Appendix 1 for the complete results). Chapter 3 will explain how the three purification methods operate. Chapter 4 conta ins an evaluation of the methods according to legally prescribed criteri a. Conclusions as to the method most suitable for purifying the water are to be found in Chapter 5 .

Conclusions Most readers of the re ort . readers - decision-ma:ers 7 111 at least look at the conclus ions. Some c.hapters and go straight fr' or exa.mple - will very often skip the ma in five suggestions may be ofom the introduction to the conclus ions. The next accessible to all your d ass istance in making the conclusions rea ers .

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REQUIREMENTS FOR EACH PART OF THE REPORT

86 NOT UNDERSTANDABLE INDEPENDENTLY

Conclusion

treatment . . are two systems for sewag~ . stem The aim of this investigation is to c?mp . g - with a view to determining w~at sy

M AIN QU ESTION

The "BS 7510 information security concerns within the health sector" norm , which specifies hospital procedures, is not systematically complied with. This will creat e ri sks for patients, particularly with the introduction of EPR, which most hospita ls are working on at the moment.

bubble diffu sing and counter :o~r~:~s~~t plant in Andel. Both systems w~:~~e is most suitable for the sewa _e . vestment cost and energy consump . . d for purification eff1c1ency, in examine

UNDERSTANDABLE INDEPENDENTLY

Conclusion

Hospitals do too little to limit the risks to patients that are inherent in the introduction of ICT. The security of ICT applications and devices is below par: the norm (BS 7510 information security concerns within the health sector) is not complied with systematically. A case in point is the Electronic Patient Record (EPR) with which many hospitals are experimenting at the moment. It has been shown that unqualified people can easily gain access to patient data .

ANSWER IM MEDIATELY CLEAR ANSWER NOT CLEAR

. . . of counter flow f Th e purification efficiency . ·n1y because o diffusing is 5% higher, ma1 en bubbles the longer time betwe f and water. The investment costs o bubble diffusion are , however, considerably lower, mainly because ...

. h ost suitable Bubble diffusion is t e m t . for the water treatment plan in tern ~s t are3~ Andel. The investment cos s . . n lower than fo r cou~ter fl~w d1ffu~fo b~bble While the purification eff1c1ency diffusion is lower.. ·

ontain a conclusion. If the purpose_of a

0 Incidetni~~~· ;i~~ :v~~s~~i~~;~;~~~~ inventory (wqi~:~~i~~ns~~~~ ~0~~:dii~~~Z repor . ) the answer to the main be attached to either ' d. t ly after the introduction . core of the report imme ia e For example:

3 Conclusions should follow on directly from earlier chapters

The conclu sion s should not come as a complete surprise for a reader who has read the whol e report. In other words, the reader should be able to easi ly locate the basis for the conclusions in the preceding chapters . Implicitly, no new subjects should be broached in the conclusion either. If you have only di scussed technical feasibility in a report on dyke reinforcement in Sout h Limburg , the conclusion should not deal with the environmental consequences. 4 Conclusions should be concise

Readers who look up th e conclusion section should be able to see at a glance how many conclusion s there are: every conclusion should be numbered or be in a separate paragraph. Each paragraph or numbered point should al so be formulated in such a way that th e key aspects of the conclusion are at the start of the senten ce .

0 CONCLUSION NEEDED

gement within

DESCRIPTIVE MAIN QUESTION: N

'b s the statutory regulations applicable to data mana This report descn e municipalities. b n described, n the regulations have ee . quest'ion 1 ·s answere d Whe The main so a cone lus ·1on is not necessary.

s not read derstandable for somebody who ha rs may The conclusions should bef un the introduction . These global re ade f the the rest of the work apart rom . traduced in the core chapters o not be familiar with_ tha~l:r~ol~he conclusion it will have to be repo rt . If a term is ind1spens1 understandable independently

2 Conclusions should be

red efin ed again.

LL-ORGANIZED CONCLUSIONS

ONCLUSIONS

Improvement in the quality of the letters written by the Mitsubishi Movemaster arm has been achieved in two ways. e grip the robot has on th e pen has been strengthened : the pen is now virtually ovably fixed in the gri pper. The average deviat ion from the standard letter form been greatly reduce d.

UP and DOWN routi nes have been adjusted. Lifting and lowering of the pen is problem-free. The dist orted action previously apparent has been completely lnated. additional analys is on two other points has shown that no improvement can on the solutions already chosen. extra points to the letters and subsequently making the robot move from point has not reduced the di storti on. In fact, it evim increased . h into the connection between the speed of the pen and the quality of the howed that the best results are achieved with the current speed (10mm/ s).

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~----------------REQUI REMENTS FOR EAC H PART OF THE REPORT

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5 Conclusions

b accurate t"mes state in sh~~/dma~e things easy for cheir read ers =~~i:~t or more

6 CONC LUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

~::~~~~,~~s7:;: th::h~::~~~:~:::~ ;:,'~~:!','. 'f: :~,al ~=~~,;~'0:~'

I

0

6.1

accurate (better, in . The reader, however, . I the writer's evaluation. . I to decision-making. listed, mere y I data as they are likely to be cruc1a I . ns in a more global wa nt the factua . e the factual data in the cone us10 a\cu\ated at It is perm1ss1ble to g1v t If the costs have been _c form than in the previous chap ~~~~ can be rqunded off to JUSt over t en €10,117 .25 , in the conc\us1on , thousand euros.

Conclusions

Research was done into why in the Netherlands only 62% of the engers in the back seat wear a seatbelt whereas 95% of the drivers and front seat engers do. The resea rch yielded the following results:

1 Many people do not wear a seatbelt out of habit; they forget to put it on or consider it too much trouble. However, once putting a seatbelt on has become a habit, people do not abandon it easily: use of a seatbelt becomes automatic. 2 Knowing what the possible consequences of not wearing a seatbelt are does not have a bea ring on whether a seatbelt is worn or not. [ ...]

SUFFICIENTLY ACCURATE

INSUFFICIENTLY ACCURATE

6.2

. d ction in noise pollution To achieve a_re u2016 all goods trains by train traffic 1n : should be fitted with silent brake tern s This will also reduce sys · nd home investment in noise screens a insulation.

. the desired reduction In order to ac h ieve . b train of 7 decibels in noise pol\ut1_on YI\ be II goods trains w1 traffic in 201 5 , a During fitted with silent brake systems .n a the next five years this will _ m_ea f . h dreds of m1\\1ons o . . screens and reduction of un euros in investment in noise home insulation.

Recommendations

To promote the use of the seatbelt in the back of the car, the following measures are recomm ended: 1 An education ca mpaign aimed at children Beca use wearing a seatbelt is automatic behaviour, the education campaign should be aimed at making wearing a seatbelt automatic. Children are an important target group in this respect. In order to encourage them to wear the seatbelt, we recommend developing some sort of gadget for reminding them that is placed inside t he car. For example , it could be something the children can click onto their seatbelts. These would be distributed to schools by teams that have been form ed for t hi s purpose. Mass med ia means such as billboards and TV commercials should be used as a back-up. [ ... ]

Recommendations der to take a certain course of .

:~t~~~:~~d::i~:~h~r:1 ;::~c~:~~~::a~~~~so~~;~~~~~~:c~~cca0b~e~~n~:ti~1: of the text is to_ give advice,

ate chapters

and no concl _ us1on. recommendations could each form se:;di ately clear Your conclus1dons :hned one chapter. If the latter, it must be :mendations are. or be include in I sions are and what the reco to the reader what the _cone u Follow the three guidelines below. on from the conclusions 1 Recommendations well as other If the report includes co on directly from the conc\us1on . recommendations should_ follow t ns\ation of the conclusions into wor ds , they should constitute a ra recommended actions.

sh~~:~~~~~was

recommendatio_ns,sthl~

2 Recommendations should be practicable

The action you recomm end should be capable of being carried out by your readers, or at least, by some of them. Recommendations for further research are not useful for a public consisting only of those who will carry out the proposals. The writer should not exceed the of his or her assigned ta sk. A student of aviation and aeronautics wrote in the report of his practical assignment that the departm ent where he had done his practical should be re-organized, a recomm endation that had nothing to do with his assignment. The result was that hi s other recommendations, practicable ones, were taken less seriou sly by his readers.

3

Recommendations should be concrete

~king recommendation s is only useful if they are so concrete that it is r to the readers what they should do. The classic recommendation that er research is required is almost always too vague . Indicate exactly has to be examined furth er and why.

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REQUIREMENTS FOR EACH PA RT OF THE REPORT

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• RECG.'AMENDATION CONCRETE

Ap art from looking into storing dredgings on an island in the Hollands Diep , it is recommended that other potentially feasible option s be investigated: for example, underwater storage.

q~;cek~:,1ces

Appendices Appendices are a good way of keeping the core of the report clear and short: all detailed calculations, data relating to apparatuses, programme listings and the like can be included in them. A technical report without appendices is the exception , not the rule. Keep the following in mind when making your appendices. • Appendices should be independently readable. An appendix should always have a clear title that is included in the table of contents. If there are a number of appendices then they should be numbered. If the data that you have added are not immediately understandable, a short introduction at the start of the appendix is recommended. • The text should be understandable without the appendices. Do not force your readers to leaf backwards and forwards between text and append! Only include in the appendix data that are not relevant for all readers and make sure that the text is an understandable unity without the appendices. It is sometimes a good idea to include a simplified versl of a table in the text and a detailed one in the appendix .

~~~7n~~~o;e

60 Notes In addition to serving a referenc1ng . fu t' t e text too much are somet' nc ion, remarks that would . t h sh.own as a note. Notes can academic texts but are Use notes spari ngly and digre d in reports of a more technical ul in You can choose footnot ss as little as possible nature. · es at the b tt placed at the end of each ch o om of the page or endnot or at the end of the whole that are Footnotes are especially want to include longer remarks ie or short remarks and If better to choose endnotes notes (more than five lines) .it 1 . you unity the text as much . ese do not interrupt the visual . . s of

rarel;~:~n

b~nu=~~upt

suit:~~erf

te:~

referenc~s

sincent~our

A bibliography is not intended to impress the readers: only include sources that you refer to in the text. Readers will form an idea of the quality and topicality of the report on the basis of the bibliography. They can see whether lead ing and recent publications have been used and they can check the publications to test whether your data is accurate. Variou s style systems, including IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) and APA (American Psychological Association) have a prescribed layout for the bibliography and references. Every scientific journal has rules for the bibliography and references. Software packages such as Endnote make it possible to follow a certain system exactly or to change over from

(;!!!)

part of

continues into the aqu1ckly. It is convenient if the page able to find the ppend1ces If . numbering . : you include a coloured it will become even easier and

even between the a required appendix

O> Bibliography

one system to another. A bibliography should preferably be ordered alphabetically. This enables a quick overview and makes looking up publications very easy. With a numbered list in wh ich the order in which publications are referred to in the text is the organizational principle, the publications of each individual author are not grouped together and looking for specific publications is more difficult. Precise instructions for using sources and referencing are found in Chapter 4.

Refer at least once to each a . the text an appendix refers t~pend1x. Readers should know what

• Sta rt each append' · 1x on a new appendix they want . page. Readers need to be

RECOMMENDATION TOO VAGUE

Apart from looking into storing dredgings on an island in the Hollands Diep , the possibilities of underwater storage should also be investigated . The dredgings are dumped in a dredged trench and covered by clay or a plastic film. We recommend investigating the feasibility of thi s option , since the main disadvantage of storing on an island - skyline pollution - is avoided.

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In the text, insert a numb · to refer to th e note: er .1n supe rscnpt .

This vision was attacked bY th e experts at the time. 5 The

B

List of symbols A list of sy mb0 1s occur more th Latin symbols

. IS

necessar · Y if there are a lot of sFh ould be · 0 r example:

:nn~~~:·nT~~e:~:~~I:)

ord:~:b~:~~:~=~c~~yt (t~~t .

Ugh~ efficiency (lm/ W) emittance (lm/m 2) ave length (m )

Even If a list of s less c ymbols has been . ommon symbol s when you u~;ot~ded, you will have to explain the em for the first time in the text

lossary lh Wledge text has to b e accessible for read

· .

.

leafth~~gg~ssary can be very us:;~I wR1th diverging background

. eaders who do to a clea I f er, should b r Y ormu lated explanation . h not know a term Make sure e explained in the . in t e glossary. In the glos::~ the term is defined w~~~~~~selfdthe first time they are . un ue reference to other

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EXPLANATION CANNOT BE UND ERSTOOD BY ITSELF

battery company

see: squadron smallest service unit (150 men + equipment)

squadron see: company

I

I

Make sure too that you gear your explanation to those of your audience who have the \east prior knowledge. The glossary is usually included in the back of the report and should, naturally, be ordered alphabetically.

ca rbon dioxide Celsius temperature scale

a gas (C0 2 ) present in the atmosphere which plays an important role in the greenhouse effect thermodynamic scale of temperature. Temperature in degrees Celsius can be obtained from the value in degrees Fahrenheit using the following formula:

c chlorofluorocarbons cirrus cloud

0 == (F - 32) x 5/ 9 chemicals that release chlorine atoms that destroy ozone high in the atmosphere high cloud, del icate, hair-like and feathery looking

<EID Index An index is a practical tool for readers looking for specific information, especially in large t exts and documentation . It is also useful for readers who want to look at everything that is said about one particular subject in the text. Now that we all have computers, it is relatively easy to make an index. You do so by indicating a word in a specific way, after which the computer generates an index automatically with a page reference to the marked words. You can also get the computer to searc \·i for all places in a text where a certain word is used, though the resulting list will have to be cleaned up to obtain a usable index. Only include references to those pages where important information about the term can be found .

Measuring system 72 • Anglo-Saxon 7 4 • Didot 72 • magnetic tape 100-103, 122 , 156 • metric 73, 206

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7 Special types of text

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'

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8

Feasibility study Policy paper Advisory report Literature report Progress report An experimental resea rch report A qualitative research report Design report

A business text is always unique. After all, the problems the reports deal with are dependent on a specific business situation. The same holds for the readers of the report Ind the proposed solutions. But such reports have characteristics in common too. In countless organisations people have to report regularly on the progress of projects . mployees in laboratories everywhere are busy doing experiments they later have to report In precise detail. Organi sation s and companies require advisory reports in order to be to react to new developments. la these texts will, of course, have more in common than containing the standard ants discussed in Chapter 6, the similarities are unlikely to be so great that a late could be used to create tables of content. Nevertheless, for every type of text I success factors can be formulated. In particular, the success of the report will on how convincingly you have answered your readers' questions. The pitfalls that ly Plague writers are also spec ific for every type of text. hlng 8 situation, it can be particularly unclear what type of text your reader expects Project with an accent on practical and applicable advice on an actual 1°1tynal Proble_m, it might sometimes seem as though an advisory report is called • What might be required is often a test of academic competence with an

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•

Technical feasibility

accent on originality of presentation of the issues , correct application of certain methods and docume11tation of scientific publications. The used by lecturers (essay, paper, assignment, research report) usually give

-

little indication of the type of report that is required.

-

6 ) Feasibility study

I

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New markets, product innovations, new materials, new production processes, a new policy: companies and other organisations are under constant pressure to change , to adapt to circumstances that are in a state of flux. Before they throw themselves into each new venture, a reliable feasibility study must be written: a report in which the viability of a project, an investigation, a new product or a new system is evaluated . In the first place , a feasibility study should be informative but not neutral: a decision has to be made and that decision must have a credible basis. You must aim to convince , and for three reasons. • A feasibility study is a decision-making document. Decision-makers (managers) have the task of deciding whether or not to implement a new option. They often follow the advice of specialists in the field and will base their decision on a feasibility study. Well-argumented conclusions and recommendations are crucial, therefore . • Most readers will use the following evaluation criteria: is the aimed-for purpose likely to be achieved and do the advantages outweigh those of the old situation? While managers primarily apply economic criteria, depending on the situation, criteria such as flexibility may also play a role. • To be feasible usually means more than just being possible: it has to be desirable as well. As such, there should always be a choice , the pros and cons of which the report has to weigh up: leave things as they are or change, or choose the best alternative if it is clear that something has to change . Structure and readers' questions Basically, a feasibility study consists of six parts (see Fig. 7 .1). They usually take the form of six chapters (apart from the summary, which is not numbered) though there can be good reasons for dividing certain parts into additional chapters. Each part should supply an answer to the readers'

questions. Taking the evaluation criteria further The feasibility and desirability of the proposal should be examined using various criteria . These may include technical, economic, social and managerial criteria. Do the tests systematically: in other words, apply all the criteria to every alternative. The following checklist will prove useful: •

Effectiveness

- Will the problem really be solved? - Are the envisaged advantages likely to be reached? •

Affordability

- What will it cost to implement and maintain it all? What will it bring in? How long before we earn our money back?

Can J th the solution be imp! emented? s e technology available? . Is there enough know-how?. What is the likelihood oft eeth1ng . trou bl es occurring?

FIGURE 7.1

Schedule for a feas1 .b1 ..l1ty study

1 Summary Describe the importance of th re commendations you have co:~oblem and the conclusions and fea s1b1l 1ty study is a dee· . .up with (and have subst r points in point form is1on-making tool, it is a good id atn iated). As a 2 The importa nce of th. . ea o !1st the decision . e issue - W Why is t he . .plan , the new system o th . hat existing or future prob! r e project important? What new opportunities doe em does it solve? What benefits will b . s it create? 3 Criteria e provided?

- What criteria should are a . . What priority do th . p rti~ularly important in the 4 Alternatives e various criteria have? assessment and why? - What are the main alternative . What are the re levant qu IT s for consideration? 1 a ies of the alternatives? 5 Testing - What method has been Why has th is method be used to collect the data?

me~~o~hosen?. inclusive and reliable? s sc~re against the criteria? .

- To what extent is th e - How do the alternative Conclusions and reco

Wh

mmendat1ons

.

at conclusion has b . prob! ? een arrived at? I th Does~~~:~ ' it rea."y create opportu~it~es?e 0~~posal likely to solve the

un~=n~:~en~

th:~~~ee re~Jly

likely to be sufficiently (more so be. advantages? s1 e-effects? a ernat1ves)? Are there What is the b t es co urse of acti ? ould implement th on . What are the rec . h hould th" b e recommendations h ommendat1ons? Who is e done? ' ow should this be d one and when

• Imp/ementation time

- Is the time re

Side effects

.

quired acceptable?

- What positive s·d 1 e effect Wh at negative side ff s are there likely to be? environment)? e ects are there likely to be. ( eptability safety, la It ethi Are th cally acceptable? ere any I . . there ~gal issues? a possibility that third

. . parties will raise objections to it?

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Presentation requirements Always use a table to summarise your data. If there are several alternatives and a number of criteria the text can easily become very complex. A table or schedule enables the readers to get an overview at one glance and perhaps reach a different conclusion to the one the writer has reached: they may, for example, regard certain criteria as being more important.

I

Pitfalls • Irrelevant criteria. The target group must endorse your choice of testing criteria otherwise they will not agree with your conclusions. • A simple addition. Sometimes scores for evaluation criteria are simply added up. Such a method is quite arbitrary, even if you have weighed some factors more heavily than other. Make sure, therefore, that you assess each point individually and that you back up your conclusions

with factual data . Leaving out the zero option. Make sure you discuss the so-called zero option: does the study make it clear why it would be a bad idea to leave

•

things as they are? Irrelevant information . Alternatives that will obviously be discarded need not be discussed. If an alternative fails to meet any of the criteria there is no point in including it as an option. Discard it quickly. In the introduction you could briefly explain why you are discarding it. • Misleading title. Avoid a title that suggests a full-scale investigation ("The feasibility of commercial shopping facilities in railway stations") when only one criterion (economic feasibility) is applicable.

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3 Examination of the inspe t" - experiments with t c ion methods est samples - cost calculations 4 Eva luation of the diff . - detection of d" erent inspection methods 1verse type - cost s 0 f small cracks

. simple and reliable re ava ilable apparat cording of data t ime frame for int~~dand. specialists uction 5 Conclusions -

Whid le the problem can be solved by · . visual. inspection • th is · .1s very labo . an consequently expe ns1ve . A comb· . . inat1on of methods . Ur-intensive spec1a 1sts are given · th 1 eave from th . d is effective a d f 1 e1r epartments , introducti . . n easible . If a ree-month time frame 6 Recommendations . on JS poss ible within -

Ch oose a hyb n·d method (visual . . Form a project group for the im 11nspect10.n +vibration analysis) P ementat1on . ·

•

Structure of the evaluation c hapter Th e chapter on testing the alt . be organized in various w ernat1ves against the criteria . to criteria or an arrange ays . You could choose an arrang (evaluation) can . ement according ment based on the alt ernat1ves.

ARRANGEMENT ACCORDING "0 ' ' CRITER/A

Examples

'

The structure of a feasibility study The engineering firm Thisse & Bots was commissioned by a steel processing company to write a feasibility study on inspection protocols for steel constructions. The aim was to test the feasibility of a certain method for inspecting steel constructions (such as bridges and offshore platforms).

The report had the following structure.

4 Evaluation of the in spection

4.1 Detection of crac k depthmethods 4.1.1 Adju sted pressure meas uring

4.1.2 Vi bration analysis 4.1.3 Vi sual in spection 4.1.4 Conclusion Costs

4.2.1 Adj usted press ure SU MMARY

1 Introduction - The existing technique for inspecting large steel constructions for metal fatigu and rust is only capable of detecting major defects. Repairs are therefore ofte difficult or too late. More stringent legal safety requirements are currently being drawn up, rnakin

-

the early detection of defects desirable. The aim of the report is to analyse whether other methods of inspection can and should be used instead of the present pressure measuring. - In choosing a method , cost and the ease with which data can be recorded a reproduced will be decisive. Whatever the method , cracks bigger than 5 mrn

-

deep and 15 mm long must be able to be detected.

2 Inventory of the different inspection methods -

adaptation of the present method (pressure measuring)

- vibration analysis - visual inspection

measuri ng 4 .2.2 V~brati o n ana lys is 4.2.3 Vi sual inspection 4.2.4 Conclusion Recording res ults .3.1 Adju sted pressu re measuring 3 •2V'b 1 rati·on analy . 3 3 V' S IS • isual in spect ion .4 Conclusion clusion

ARRANGEMENT ACCORDING TO ALTERNATIVES

4 4Evaluation . .1 Ad . of the ins pection methods ~usted pressure m . 4 1 1 D easunng .1.2 etection of crack depth 4 · · Costs 4 .1 .3 Recording results 4 .1.4 Conclusion 4 .2 Vibration analysis :·22 .21 CDetection of crack depth · ·

osts

4.2 .3 Recording re sults 4 · 2 .4 Conclusion 4 .3 Visual inspection :·33 .21 CDetection of cra ck depth · ·

osts

4 .3 .3 Recording results 4 .3 .4 Conclusion 4.4 Conclusion

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. . · minently su1.t able for a situation financial expert ccording to criteria is e An specia lists will read your the head of the where a vane . wants under the heading .' . "Recording will f ind everythin: h:rtment will concentrate on the_ of data processing ep twill on ly read Section . ' " and the research exper . results .. . . t decision-makers in crack depth. t according to alternatives is aimed a ethod more quickly An arrangemen . t overview per inspection m They will ge an particular. .th the first arrangement. . they wou ld w1 than in I ful to other categories · "Conclusions" can be hep fa table. In both cases, the section bine both aspects in the form o of reader. This section can com

arrangem~~to~

I

repo~~c:::s" cnt:r~o~'Detection

·

of test criteria . · table the results of the test criteria in a d ' It is a good idea to summarise bering that readers usually rea a as in the following_example~:e::~at you wish to highlight should be table from left to right, the p

Use tab/es for the evaluation_

placed first.

.

t . on the two alternatives. In the table below, the accen is Depth of crack

Alternatives

Costs

Recording

+

+

0

0

Pressure measuring +

Vibration analysis

In the table below, the ace

Vibration analysis +

depth of crack costs recording Legend:

poor, 0

Evaluation of the three drive mechanisms

Criterion

Weighing factor

Drive mechanism Caterpillar track

Climbing arm

Telescopic arm

Speed

3

7

5

9

Reliability

2

6

8

2

8

6

4

41

37

35

Manufacturability Total

Legend: 1 = does not meet the criterion, 10 = meets the criterion completely

a

Policy paper A policy paper (policy document, policy plan) is a text in which a company describes and justifies its future policy. It is an action plan that goes beyond the evaluation of a problem but is not usually as concrete as an implementation plan. Most people will be familiar with government policy papers, ranging from comprehensive ministerial memorandums to tourist plans drawn up by a local municipality. However, companies and other organisations produce policy papers too (often called a strategic plan, a long-range plan, a development plan etc.). A policy paper may be occasioned by various issues, each requiring its own approach. Three common ones are outlined below, though the one is not exclusive of the other.

ent is on the criteria.

Pressure measuring

Criteria

TABLE 1

+

0

+

0

average,+ = good

weighing factors are . le of an evaluation schedule, edule as proof In the following exa~~rs You should never use such a sch likely that you represented_ by ~u~ativ~ is preferable. It is, after_all, qu~t~etermining the that a certain a ~ utcome in mind when scoring ~n ar uments. Th will keep the desired ~le is only intended to summanz~ the r ~e that the weighing factors. Alta are the important thing. You m1gbh~_ta .~The figures arguments them.~~ ves e important than "manufactura 11 ~hing more th criterion "s_pe_ ed is ~~:dule are quite arbitrary: they do no showing this in the sd"fferent criteria differently. show that you value I

• The issue is a problem. The writer has to demonstrate that it is a major problem and cannot be resolved by means of the current policies. • The issue has ari sen out of new developments to which the organisation must react. The writer will need to demonstrate that it is the responsibility of the organisation to anticipate problems that might develop because of these new developments. Perhaps the organisation sees encouraging or adapting to new developments as necessary under certain circumstances. For instance, an organisation might need to regularly (every four years, say) adjust all or part of its policies in the light of changing situations. • The issue is whether is it possible to improve on the way that existing objectives are realized. The writer will need to demonstrate that the present situation can be improved upon and that in the light of the organization's objectives, it is advisable to go ahead with this. The aim of a policy paper is threefold: • to give information about plans for the future to attract for these plans and therefore to convince the readers

Of their necessity and feasibility

to Initiate a discussion about its future policies

Icy Papers are written for a variety of target groups: eels/on-making organs within an organisation. This could be a society's

neral meeting of its , a company's management and board, a government body.

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These departments will be involved in . s' implementing the pol1c~. uch as consumer organisations, farme~ok at External interested parties ~rade unions and journalists. '.h.ey ~1l~~ing. It organisations, companies~ exert an influence on the dec1s1o_n m rests of

Internal departments-,

~h~ texttc rit~c~l~=;~~~c~ent attention to the dem:~:ys f:~~s l~~:t they are . . king sure that every . f is impor an the various organisations, m~ This will improve the likel1hood o being taken seriously at leas . . reaching consensus. . the various f a team represen tng I

I

The writer is usually the_ spt~~~s~:r~~:~e will have to take_ ~:~~~e roups within the organisa I . Hopefully, consensus in respe_c

~;,e,g;ng ;~t~~=,~~l~Yt~~~:,g~~,~~: <eoohed and ~:,::~~~':;~,",'::getHI a

Structure and readers' question:licy paper. The schedule may provide a . hows a schedule for a p d ections but in some for a division inhto with), it may be . ("f ome aspects ave situations 1 s hapters or sections. necessary to add extra c

• Bulky policy papers. of parliament, s and journalists frequently complain about these . However, sometimes a bulky document is unavoidable, if only because all interested parties want to see their interests covered in the policy paper. Policy papers often deal with complicated matters that cannot be explained in a couple of dozen pages . You can help your readers by employing measures that help them read quickly and efficiently: a summary, a list of decision points, a clear structure.

~~~·~i·~gspoint

FIGURE 7.2

• Give a summary that follows the outline of the chapters. List matters crucia l to the decision-making process separately. • Use a lot of headings or else catch words in the margin. Where possible , present the main points in the form of schedules (the causes of the problem, for example). • Include an index to enable the reader to quickly find certain details if needs be. Many policy papers depend on consensus being reached between the groups involved. This often calls for a diplomatic style in which differences of opinion are played down. If this sometimes means a vague paper, you might have to put up with it.

contents o smoothly. In those areas w . with the aim process will run more d liberately vague terminology . way off, the writer may cha~~~ n:gotiation and preventing the various of maintaining some room renched in uncompromising pos1t1ons. parties from becoming ent

I

Presentation demands As the reader is likely to have little time to read the report, the following suggestions may prove indispensible:

c~:~~~~ca:mp~etely d~alt

Sc hedule for a policy paper

summary 1 Introduction - reason for writing the paper

· come? - aim of the paper . 2 Analysis of the current situation . "t likely to develop in the period to . - What is the situation and how is I blems of the current and the future - What are the disadvantages or pro situation? . · ble? Why is this situation undes1ra bl ms? s of the pro e · ? What are the cause essful or inadequate. Why is the present policy un~udcct achieve the desired results? . · h Id be appile 0 - What criteria s au . ving the desired results 3 Possible measures for ach~eon criteria 4 Choice of measures, base _ objectives - means _ implementation of the measures 5 Consequences d side-effects _ anticipated effect~ an and conditions - legal implications, 6 Financial consequences

Pitfalls

• Too explicit. Clarity is a desirable thing except where matters about which there is still some disagreement are concerned. In such cases, vague formulations might offer some room for negotiation.

Examples Structure of a policy paper in response to a problem The memorandum Safe food in a changing environment. Food safety policy 2001-2004, written by the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality, was published in 2001. The paper consisted of the following parts:

oduction

Occasion: incidents such as BSE crisis, food contamination and dioxins which hreaten to destroy cons umer trust

m of the policy in this

regard: maintaining and strengthening a high protection

~el of consumer health by means of clear food safety norms

sis: the producer has prime responsibility, the government creates conditions d provides supervision, the consumer - the final link in the chain - should ndle food responsibly of the paper: to outline a policy for the coming years regarding the safety of food

t of measures outlined in this paper I

certain policy criteria and principles bottlenecks and objectives (in four areas)

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f objectives

. aper aimed at the rea/1zat1on o rotection policy to Structure of a policy Pk 0 n healthy production. Crop pd F od Quality and also o The paper "An outloo M. istry of Agriculture, Nature an " also by the in 0 201 ' . 00 had the layout: published in 20 '

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.., Advisory report An advisory report recommends measures. It may take the form of an internal report (one that circulates within an organisation) or an external report (for example, recommendations by a committee to the government). They are usually written in response to a request or commissioned, though they are also sometimes unsolicited. Advisory reports may be written by individual advisors, advisory committees or a consultancy firm.

SUMMARY

I

. . able and competitive agricultural 1 /ntroduct1on elopment of a sustain d which enjoys . Cabinet aims at the dev ·ety as a whole endorses an . ble crop protection is which soc1 bl nd sustaina )h e Socially accepta e a Ian (1991-2000 av food sector, one .. international recognition. bjectives of the last long-range p w developments. Part of that. Not all the o t·1me there have been some ne d . • ing peno · · 1 the mean been realised. n f rmulated for the com f the policy. It w1I 1 eed to be o ain outlines o h d will indicate in w at Objectives now n r will deal with the m

~:c~~b~~l~:~~~l~Ye :U~~=lin:~ ~o:e~: :ae~o~; i~e:~: ;;ars to come.

The aim of an advisory report is to facilitate decision-making in respect of measures to be taken. The measures may be aimed at: • solving a problem • optimizing a situation The writer will not only describe these measures, he will also try to convince the readers that the proposed measures are desirable. His arguments will be largely derived from analyses of present and future situations and organizational objectives or the objectives of the government for whom the recommendation s are intended.

direction the agricultura! sec o

2 outlook on healthy produ.ct1on f the policy Starting points and aims. o

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- Main direction of the po.lie~ tailed approach . . - I k on healthy production. ~e know/edge and app/1cat1on 3 Out oo d direction: finances , 4 Encouragement an . . . ission . 5 Encouragement an~ ~1i~:~~1i~~·: prevention policy in the·t~~~~ 6 Encouragement an . t·on· maintenance and mon1 nt and d1rec 1 • 7 Encourageme f esticides 8 Non-agricultural use o h~althy production 9 Budgetary outlook on Appendices

. be softened Consensus formulations a "set-in-concrete" statement can The following show how slightly.1 h

f government. . al Id be distanced rom t distance technlC

1 Technical management s ~~e at this point in time whether o

. . hether to . t appropriate to dec1 2 It is no t from government. . d cide at this point in time w trely appropriate to e managemen en ' t from government. 3 It would not seem . I managemen distance tee h rnca

Another similar rephrasing: ·id· g practices. ractices wherever . nmentally friendly bu1 in . . 1 We will encourage env1ro nvironmentally friendly building P 2 We shall try to encourage e

1

k naar de manter oordenwisselingen. Een onderzoe erdarn : Thela Tl! Mast, N. van der (1999). W I ·dsteksten bewerkste/ligen. Arnst schrijvers consens us over be e1

The writer of an advisory report has to take of three different target groups:

1 People who have to decide whether to adopt the recommendations: the director or the management of an organisation. Do not overlook their staff and advisors since they will be responsible for further recommendations. 2 The people who will implement the measures contained in the recommendation s. 3 Those who have an interest in the proposed measures. In the case of recommendation s relating to the reorganisation of a company, these would be the employees, the works council and the trade unions. In the case of recommendations to the government, many interested parties will need to be considered: pressure groups, the press, political parties and so on. It is very important that the writer find ways of involving directors or management in discussions with these interested parties. The writer has to pre-empt any objections that they might raise. ructure and readers' questions

Below are two schedules for advisory reports (see Fig. 7 .3 and 7 .4). These edules could form the basis for a division into chapters and sections , DUgh you might find th at you have to add extra chapters or sections to I With points that need elaboration . Uestion that is repeated in the schedules is to what extent have you •ted from the original assignment? You will probably catch yourself this quite often as peo ple frequently find that as they work on the •they discover inadequacies in the way the assignment was originally ated. etlmes the assignment is too vague. If so, the advisor, advisory lttee or consultancy firm will have it tighten up themselves. times the assignment is too limited. During the drafting of the mendations it may become clear that certain aspects have been ked by the person who commissioned them. Government advisory occa~ionally decide to widen the scope of the assignment, often nsulting government and non-government organizations.

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. nment is too wide. It may Sometimes in one go . The the problem in I se measures that can e limit the report to tho

the·~ss:~tirety

be impossible to treat st decide whether to in the short

enerally discussed .. i inal assignment a~e g ort. However, it is Deviations from the or ~son who commissioned. the re~d to say why the beforehand with the p~ them out in the report itself a will know about still necessary to singe. ted from. After all, not everyonethe persuasiveness original wer.e d~v1a f the choices made increases . ood just1f1cat1on o rt as a whole . this. Ag of the advisory repo . ·ntroduction to the page) it should be t can be cited literally in the I The original assi~nmen nt was fairly long (more than ~~ea short summary in report. If the ass1gnme. . the back of the report, w1 included as an a Pp end1x in the introduction.

FIGURE 7 .3

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. at solving a problem Advisory report aimed

? Why is it a problem? . . I . ned the assignment. .t differ from the angina What problem occas10 f the assignment? Does I Wha t is the exact nature o ? ·gnment and I'f so , how . ass1 ' . f the text? - What is the aim o en structured? ? How has the text be . 't 11 · kely to develop. . bl ? How 1s 1 . t 2 Problem analysis and scope of the pro em. d ne so far and with wha blem? What has been o What is the exact nature · -- What are the causes of the pro

1 Introduction -

'

results? . Id a solution satisfy? What criteria shou

3 Solutions . ble? . d? (Objective, - What solutions are av~1la . rding to the criteria ment1one . - What is the best solution acco means)

4 Implementation

. b implemented? the solution e . ? _ How can d the benefits . d? What are the costs an 'd effects can be expecte . es and s1 e - What conse.quenc tion programme 5 Recommendations, ac

FI GURE 7.4

. at optimizing a situation Advisory report aimed tuati ort? What can be .1mproved in the present s1 What occasioned the re~s b.e considered? 't differ from the origl Why should improveme f the assignment? Does I What is the exact nature o ? assignment, and if so , hopwo.rt? ·m of the re · What is the a1 t been structured? How has the tex

1 Introduction -

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2 Situation analysis

ad~s~~~~mented

term.

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What criteria should be used to obtain the desired situation? What are the strong and weak points, the opportunities and the threats inherent in the present situation?

_ Theoretically, in what way could the present situation be improved upon? 3 Measures - Theoretically, what measures could be taken? - What is the best solution according to the criteria mentioned? (Objective , means) 4 Implementation

- What is the best way of implementing the proposed measures? - What are the costs and the benefits? - What consequences and side effects can be expected? 5 Recom mendations, action programme

Presentation requirements Readers are not likely to have much time to read the report. As such, the following elements are important: • Management summary. This should consist of one page. The accent should lie on the problem, the solution, the costs and the implementation. The summary should be at the beginning of the report. • Separate budgetary section. For the specialists in particular. Headings. You should make ample use of them. You could also consider placing catchwords in the margin. Schedules. Use them to set out the broad outlines (for example, the causes of the problem). • Index. This is a quick way for readers to find the details they want.

A so-called pyramid structure can be an attractive alternative to the traditional way of structuring an advisory report. It starts out with the main thrust of the report, followed by the arguments and reasoning. In other words, the conclusion immediately follows the introduction. The arguments and ing details follow after that.

Pitfalls • Neglecting the points of view of other interested parties. The report should take into not only the position of the person who assigned it but also that that of other parties involved. • Excessive certainty. Th e report should not gloss over any doubts and uncertainties implicit in the recommendations, especially not in the summary. Pronouncements on the effect of measures are often based on models that simplify things. The data used may be incomplete or Incorrect, or based on extrapolation. It is risky not to take uncertainties Into when formulating policies based on proposed measures.

pie

1 August 2000, an advisory committee published some mendations - entitled Water Management in the 21st Century - for cretary of state for Transport and Public Works and the pre~ident of Ion of Water Boards.

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1 08

The committee had been commissioned the task of advising on water management in the Netherlands in view of the expected consequences of climate change, rising sea levels and subsidence. The table of contents sets out clearly how the report deals with the problem.

1 Main thrust of the recommendations (Summary of three pages, per chapter a list of core statements)

I

109

developments following each other a . can be handy if all the develo ta rapid pace. In such a s1'tu t ' . . Id pments ar 1· t a ion 1t f ie s of study who do not have the tim et is ed. For people in ad·uacent such. a description of the "state of the art e o" survey the field independ ently . for information pe can also be useful Wh ' Ioo k 1ng • op 1e often look f · en . Making an inventory of require or key articles of this sort · . ments and st t. . . ar mg points for policy makin A. m~n1c1.pal officer who is preparin d1stribut1on of drugs could t g a policy statement on the fre g. wri e a report . e in which he makes an invento of such things as the legal as e elsewhere, and so on. p cts , experiences and problems ry

2

of the assignment (The actual wording of the assignment followed by an explanation of why and how the

committee expanded the of the assignment)

3 Analysis (Discussion of existing hydrological problems and future developments in connection with rising of the sea level and similar matters. Discussion of previous ideas, such as the "Fourth Memorandum on Water Management," which has had little effect so far)

4

I

Starting points (Criteria) 5 Changes to water management (Broad overview of solutions and concrete measures)

6

More room for water (Policy recommendations and concrete measures)

7 Supervision and direction (Implementation) 8 Costs and benefits 9 Recommendations 10 Action programme

Behind each of these aims is th . I summarising what is to be founde .'deba that the text must go beyond m . in ooks and . ere y see connections contradi'cti· articles. The reader w·· i i to . ' ons and ga . 1 want involve comparing the quality f th . P~ pointed out. To do this . h Jn educational contexts the e publ1cat1ons critically m1g t · ' ' er of a lit t to demonstrate that he or she is ab! era ure report is sometimes ask d problem, search for information on to independently formulate a h record the result in a scientificall e subject, evaluate it critically and c . closest to the third . Y sound way. Th·is is

wr~t

t~

Structure and readers ' questions The schedule in Fig. 7 .5 provides a basis . for a literature report.

Literature report A literature report contains a description and an evaluation of the most authoritative literature sources on a certain subject. It may have a number of objectives: • Providing a starting point for new research. The writer should describe what has been done in a certain field, where knowledge gaps exist and where there is any disagreement. In doing do, the writer makes clear what the focus of further research should be. If the literature report Is part of a larger work (a doctoral thesis, for example) this could be the research done by the writer himself. If so , this constitutes the writer's own motivations for his or her research. However, the writer may want suggest a research agenda for the field of study itself: the issues researchers should concentrate on in the time to come. • Avoiding repeating research that has already been done or that takeS less promising direction. If an instrument has to be developed or a technical solution found it must be made clear that something like does not already exist. Earlier attempts at a solution in the same direction can make clear what approaches to the problem are likely fruitful or not. On the basis of the literature research, a decision C made on how to proceed with the design process. • Giving a clear overview of the actual state of affairs with respect to certain subject. Readers might have a need for an overview of this the field of study has gone through a turbulent period with manY

aim.

Presentation requirements The needs a summary and evaluatio rISt oreader f f . short summaries. It is a bad si n o all the information , not a the name of an author or a year. gn when every paragraph starts with

FIGURE 7.5

0)

resea~

Schedule for a literature report

roduction :Alm of the report (what is it . going to be used for?) hat research quest'1 d"1cat1on . of the way tons are at the he re . core of the subject? cation of th port will be structured . e search method at literature data hav b at kind of literature e een used? has the literatur ~a s been consulted? e een processed? n was th e research finalised? s rbased · h on a sp ec1·r.·ic structure s ould avoid . ons H merely making a list f ts ~ft~ or sh.e sl1ould organize the io f summaries or a series of e subject n ormat1on found in such t earch method erms as: used as or prec oncept1ons . of the authors

n of the act ual state of thin may be left out I gs does not necessaril nowledge o . n. other cases there could b Y need a conclusion e a summary dealing with r prom1 s1ng approaches . n in other types of re port a ' complete bibliography, compiled e rules, is crucia l.

I

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Seydel, 2000). As a European study conducted in 1996 shows, the reaction of the Dutch is, however, less positive than it is in countries such as Spain, Portuga l or Finland , where critical responses tend to be muted ("Biotechnology and the European Public. Europeans ambivalent about biotechnology," 1997). Where genetic ma nipulation of animals , especially in commercial situations , is concerned, the Dutch view is clearly more negative (Smink, Hanning & Homan, 1998).

Not:

2008 ) discovered that .. . In Kl aasse n ( . . d th 010) venf1e e ... Andernac h (2

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eriments that ... 2009 Graaff conducte d exp '

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But:

08· Graaff, 2009), but ie Klaassen, 20 ' . . reement on X (for exam P , , work has its lim1tat1ons There seems to be ag f y Although Andernach s ch sees X as a result o . Anderna f it is very valuable for .. . because o ... ,

.

.

t

an incapacity to

Pit~l~smany quotes in the report This ~soeu~u:~,~~;aringly and only if a •

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. d draw conclusions. summarise an . · nutshell. particular quote p~ts it '~~rces are referred to

·

indiscriminate/y~eekly

~~~=~~~t~;t~s ~~::~ 1~b~:t:een :~:~~i;~~~~~:~~c~~~e~=~~r:na~d advi:~~Y for example , an rces· check where 1

hether the site newspaper ' . lly critical with Internet sou . . literature. Be espec1a carefully. Pay some attent~on to w ts (Shell) or ideological ones information comes fr?m. represents commercial interes (Greenpeace).

'ble for· Computer . The computer is ind1spens1 . a~llterawre · . 1 s and bibliographies • Finding re ev • Making these into reference t that . · hie managemen software package for b1bl1ograp It converts the It is best if you use a such as the programme Endnote. x box with

~~ha~~~i'n

int~~~e~~=ntly

an electronic database simply be combines the results of a se . descriptions. These can s . stem of abstracts and correct ~1tpl~ace in the text and converted inhto : :~utton you . ted in the desire PA tc ) At the pus o choice (numbered to'r and bibliography. can even cha nge the chosen sys

;osu~r

reference:~~

~ef~;encing

h writer uses the Example . ge from a literature report. T e The following is a a author-year system.

r n of bio-technolo . lands with regards to the introduc io 993· Heijs & Ml Public opinion in the Nethe~ somewhat ambivalent (Ha~st~a , 1 tra~t to some applications is , on the wh~ et~eling & Smink, 1998). This is in conark and swed 1996; Midden, Hamstra, utries such as Austria, , Den:utteling, Koop surrounding European c?un. !early critical of them (De Jong, where the public's reaction is c

Progress report A progress report describes the actual state of affairs in relation to a current project: what work has been done and is the project running on time? If the project is a long-term one, regular progress reports - weekly or monthly perhaps - may be called for. If so, they are often numbered. If the project is a programme lasting for years and made up of a number of different individual projects , yearly reports may be required (an annual progress report). That report should aim to present an overview of the whole based on information on each of the current projects. A progress report will have several objectives. • To provide information. It should primarily describe what was done in the period under review (results achieved , costs incurred), and how this relates to what was foreseen in the project plan. • To sway the reader. The report should reassure the reader that enough work has been done and that any overspending or delay not planned for in the time schedule was inevitable. The report should also indicate what measures have been taken (or will be necessary because of a delay or other deviation from the plans), what new developments have taken place or what unexpected problems have arisen . The reader should be sufficiently convinced to keep on ing the project financially or even to allot an extra budget for it. • To instigate new measures or to provide additional instructions. A progress report should make clear if there are any measures to be taken , and if so, what these are . - The project's management team will need to decide on the basis of the progress report whether an intervention is needed (extra funding , replacement of persons responsible). - The person supervising the project should use the progress report to check on whether everything is going as planned. If it is not, he or she should inform the project's management team, should insist on changes, and should adjust the objectives or even decide to terminate the project. - In the case of large projects : the people who are responsible for supervising the individual projects should check that everything is running on time or whether they need to make some changes to the activities . This might prompt them to delay their activities or to take unexpected conditions into . - If a research or technical development department has a number of P~ojects on the go, colleagues within in each individual project area Will sometimes refer to progress reports to see whether the Preliminary outcomes are useful for their own projects . Financial and istrative staff will sometimes r'J se a Progress report for invoicing and maybe also to make some changes to the budget. Often payments are made for the part of the project concerned after the progress report has been approved.

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Structure and readers' questions The schedule in Fig. 7 .6 shows what information should be dealt with in a

progress report.

FIGURE 1.s

I

Schedule for a progress report

Summary 1 Introduction - What is the objective of the project as a whole? - What part of the project has already been completed and reported on? - What activities and what period does this report cover?

2 Activities and results - What activities were carried out in the period under review? - What results have been achieved? - How do the results stack up against the planning? (Time, money)? -

'

Have any problems arisen?

3 Future - What work still has to be done? - What work is planned for the ensuing period? - Are any hitches anticipated during the ensuing period and if so , how should they be dealt with?

4 Conclusions and recommendations -

What is the overall state of things in of the aim of the project and the

-

planning? Should the approach be changed? What specific actions are needed (who, what, when)?

The text may be short (a note) or long (a weighty analysis). There are two ways of presenting the information in a progress report: with an emphasis on each individual project or with an emphasis on chronological developments . The next example illustrates the difference.

EMPHASIS ON CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS EMPHASIS ON INDIVIDUAL PROJECTS

1 Maintenance of national highways 1 .1 Work completed 1.2 Work still to be done 1.3 Planning for the ensuing period 2 Maintenance provincial roads 2.1 Work completed 2.2 Work still to be done 2.3 Planning for the ensuing period

1 Completed maintenance work 1.1 Maintenance of national high 1.2 Maintenance of provincial ro 1.3 Maintenance of bridges and viaducts 2 Maintenance work still to be do 2.1 Maintenance of national hi 2 .2 Maintenance of provincial 2.3 Maintenance of bridges a viaducts

3 Maintenance bridges and viaducts 3 .1 Work completed 3.2 Work still to be done 3 .3 Planning for the ensuing period

3 Planning for the next period 3 .1 Maintenance national hi 3.2 Maintenance provincial 3 .3 Maintenance bridges

SPECIAL TYPES OF TEXT

Presentation requirements We recommend using tab/ For a pre sentation to b es side rather than dwe ll to produce a less

~nd

in~ ~onv1nc1ng, make sure that youe/~resentation clear. schedules to make th

favourab~~ength on what has gone wrongok ohn th~ sunny response. • w 1ch 1s sure

Pitfalls • Ory. lists. . . The progress report should ac t 1v1t1es undertaken Th not be a dry enu everything is proceed.in e emphasis shou ld be on writer should make a f g according to the previous p/a need to be made. irm statem ent about whether

. them~rat1on of the .atter of whether an~n~~~ and the

ha~d

• Overlooking the k nges wi ll war to dat Th . e. ere is nothing wron with . that you have worked hard the person who commi .. After all, you are dependent g th making clear a lot of work has been the report. It may be t e of delays. the J·ust'fne, especially if the project has e o out that . • 11cat1on asp t xpenenced . ~ 1n1ormat1ve aspect ("wh at .1s the st t ec should never get ·in t he way of th aspect , a chronological stru . a e of the project? "). For th e cture is often less useful than e latter structure (based on ar '.oor timing in pof of the project, for

~~1oned

Howeve~

use~~/

~~e~~:~pects probl~n

g~odwill ~01nt

exa:~~~~ent-based

infrequently that th e pers cy.. Pmgress reports may be . changes if there are who initiated the project can nomade so. appear so freq uently that t;s. Conversely, the progress timely reader's tim e. ey take up too much of the wnter . ;s sand maythe

rep~~ake

Examples Table of contents of a pro The following is th fl gress report th e es hed-out t bl e renovation of the . a e of contents of a parts of the project · quarter. The structure focus:rogress report on . e va rious blocks of bu 'ld' . s. on the individual I ings within the area.

t~lll

roduction part of the "Mt'// q uarter " · Ulldlngs, in th e period pro1ect aimed at the renovation place on roofs in 1 June 2010 to 31 October suburban blocks r work on the facad s orth and South. These acti ·r renovation work o: th blocks, described in on from lbes the activities @red to the original I smce been completed wh· h a. This report n block North P annmg. , tc show some delay

blo:~o~

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2~;~ur

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vities and resu lt lStS S tacts with the res. , block South idents committee ltles and re su lts r details work on blocks d activities East and West hedule

r~;~:t ~llow~d

113

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5 Conclusions and recommendations Work is running behind by two weeks. To catch up, it is recommended that two extra people be allocated to the work . planned for the other two blocks. There have also _been_ som: unexp~cted c?nfl1cts

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SPECIAL TYPES OF TEXT

uestions a reader might ask. If the experiment is a standard one, many of including the theoretical framework. If some parts of a chapter take up a lot of room (for example , what materials were used), they can be turned into a chapter of their own.

~ese issues need not be addressed, of course,

with the residents ' committee. A further consultation with this committee will ta ke

The schedule in Fig. 7. 7 shows what information needs to be shown in an experimental research report.

place on 28 November.

The shadow side and sunny side

With the right formulations you can - up to a point - make negative information look less negative without bending the truth. Managers are not easily fooled but you will increase the chance of a positive reception and perhaps agreement to a suggested alteration.

'

SHADOW SIDE

SUNNYSIDE

The storm of 28 October caused a lot of damage and a full week's delay in building.

In the week following the storm of 28 October, a number of people worked overtime, thus limiting the delay to just a week. According to the original planning, all 92 employees would be issued with a new PC by 14 November. We are almost on schedule: during the coming week the last 20 employees will be provided with their PC.

According to the original planning, all 92 employees should have been issued with a new PC by 14 November. We are, alas, behind on our schedule: 20 employees are still waiting for their PC .

~ An experimental research report Measurements and observations form the basis of the experimental research report. If these are to be presented convincingly in the report, start by ensuring that you have recorded all your data accurately during the research itself. In the case of laboratory research, this can be done in a laboratory diary. Record all details so carefully that you can reconstruct in detail the work that you have done. If the results prove ultimately not to match expectations or tie in with earlier experiments , the diary might give an indication of why this is so. If work circumstances permit, it is best to put the notes d~rectly onto yo~r computer. If you do this you will be able to include them directly 1n your fins report. Structure and readers' questions Experiments are usually aimed at testing a hypothesis. They can also sel to determine the exact relationship between different ent1t1es: for e~amp between temperature and the length of an object. As such, your main question maybe one of the following: • To what extent is hypothesis A feasible? • What is the connection between entities X and Y? The report is usually structured along the lines of "problem-method-re:~! discussion." Below is a model for a detailed report. It deals with many

Presentation requirements some readers (specialists) might want to check the experiment or perhaps even repeat it to see whether any pitfalls have been avoided. When Pons and Fleischmann reported on cold nuclear fusion, researchers from all over the world tried to replicate their experiments. Specialists sometimes apply the procedure followed to other cases. They will therefore require detailed answers to the question of what methods, materials and instruments you have used and under what conditions, answers so detailed that they can copy your approach without problems. If you have used a standard procedure, a literature reference will , naturally, be sufficient. Other readers (decision-makers) are likely to be more interested in the significance of the research and the final results. They should be able to read about them without being hindered by technical details, which should largely be in the appendices. This will ensure that the main text is readable for those who do not intend to look further than the main text. The conclusions and summary should mainly be aimed at those readers who want to get an idea of the importance of the research and the implications of the results. For these readers, it is also helpful if the main text contains a Jot of graphic material (such as graphs of important results) that can be understood independently from the text.

MURE 7.7

Schedule fo r an experimental research report

hat occasioned the research? ypothesis, presentation of the problem te of affairs in t he area discussed (connection with earlier research) of the research rms, conditions and limitations (prescribed method/instruments) f'teoretical fram ework ments used, set-up, materials scrlption of the instruments and materials the instruments are set up and what auxiliary connections might need to used

earch t procedure was followed? t entities were measured, how and with what? were the observations reduced to measurements? adjustments needed to be made? results, preferably in the form of tables or graphs; details in appendices

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SPEC IAL TYPES OF TEXT FIGURE

5 Conclusions It . tations? - lnterpretatio.n of the ;:~tuw~h comparable results .or thet~~~a~~~;:;roved? . I d or the hypothesis con ir a Are they incon s1s blem been so ve b Has th e. pro I tion generally valid? c Is the given so u . the set-up or the procedure 6 Recomm endations S ggestions for changing for further research

1 Introduction

- What occasioned the research? (What sources attest to this?) - What is the question answered in this research/ what is the aim of the research? - What method was chosen? (Theory/ approach) 2 Theoretical perspective

= s~ggestions

Bibliography . . om uter programmes etc. Appendices d Its technical denvat1ons, c P • Detail s of instruments an resu '

'

expetn~~c~easured

for the ua litative research .it .is ·mportant I . . d Whe n writ ing a report abou~ ~ his or her int erpretation of spec1f1c an h r researcher to make cle· ~~ t ~doing interviews, for instance , thedrese~~~ e uniq ue events is plaus1 e. that he or she has not put wor s I ~ will need to convince the reade~ that the ident ity of the interviewee is not mouths of the interviewees an ( d t he researcher t oo) will most li kely II a , open t o questi·on. The. readers h anerson interviewed .is co 1oured -' after . assume t hat the opinion ofnt o~j~ctive view. It is the researche r s J~~~oso as there is no such t hing as a h ve influenced the research an . describe all the factors tha:l~:~vearesearch often uses the triangula~~~~tive thorough ly as possible. Qu . . g different qua l1 tat1ve and qua method : approach ing the su~Je~\~:1~esult - ins ight into the phenon:e~on methods with the aim of ma. in ne way of gain ing more ins ight in o ·able · Quest1onna1res are o _more re l1 in-depth interviews . Structure and readers • questions . a s want s to know how t he research The reader of a research report wll~ %:t~ods wi ll instantly detract from the

was done . After all , fl awed ~e~:~~~ers to keep the questions a reader~~ost outcome . It is a good of qualitative research, t he on li kely to ask in mind . n th researcher himself has had an in li kely to ask to what extent h ~ow a question was formu lated ,.why a ade by the outcome of the researc ~ d for or on what bas is observations mder Particu lar case study was op eh are more like ly to concern the rea the researcher were made -t ese than a meter reading .

Why is qualitative research the best approach? What theory was used to deal with the problem? (Source references are important)

-

w what a process has de livered or what Someti mes it is not enough to~i~~ted crossbeam is . The reader often the breaking index of a new la h happened, what reasons lie behind at wants to know why something as. formati on supply is. It is custommy o .s1on . or how good a particul arr these in dec1 quest'ions 11· ke these . Qual1tat1ve o ua litative research to ~nswe . s and feel ings of the peop 1~ . is about the opinions , objectively. In qua l1 tat1ve d ta can often no concerned . These a . ed and described by means of: research, insight is ga in . r mo re cases • Observing one o bei ng a pa rticipant in an event Gain ing expe nenbce tbiheir ideas or feelings • Asking others a ou

lid~~e ~ase

-

- What is the researcher's perspective and is he or she personally involved? 3 Method - Organisation of the research

A qualitative research report

~es~arch

1.a Schedule for a qualitative research report

rea~~~~nce

What research methods could have been used? What method was used? Why? What precautionary measures were taken to prevent the researcher exerting too great an influence on the research results?

-

What additional research methods will be used to the results of the main research? (Triangulation) 4 Results Describe the results in as factual a way as possible . Do not attach value judgments to pronouncements by interviewees ("enormously," "shockingly"). Hint: let the topics or subtopics that you have identified in your research determine t he structure of this chapter. The chapter on results is often not structured according to individual research outcomes (interview, questionnaire or observation) in the same way as with experimental or quantitative research. 5 Conclusion -

What is the answer to the main question?

-

To what extent are the results of the research useful for understanding similar situations?

- To what extent does the research the theory used? Appendices Qualitat ive research appendices are very often very extensive (interview reports, observation diaries, etc.). A digital appendix (the material put onto a CD or DVD) can be extremely useful.

Incorporating interviews into the report

Interviews of various types are frequently used in qua litative research. Critica l readers will be especially interested in the fo ll owing five matters: 1 The organisation of your research. How did you select the people you interviewed? Every fifth erby? The head of each department or a specific manager? Or did the interviewees present t hemse lves as volunteers? 2 The situation during the interview. What information did you give the people interviewed prior to the interview? Did they, for instance, know what you wo uld use their information for? What questions did you ask? Was everybody asked the same questions?

3 Noting down the answers. How precise ly did you note t he answers down? Did you notice any pauses? How did you note down somet hing that was intended as a joke (or conversely, was intended serious ly)?

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Noordhoff Uitgevers bv SPECIAL TYPES OF TEXT

118 FRAGMENT FROM REPORT

4 Analysis of the answers. How did you put together the answers of different interviewees? When and how did you determine whether different people were of the same opinion or thought differently about something? CLEARER UNCLEAR DESCRIPTION

I

Information is not dealt with properly. With several groups of people interviewed, this has caused dissatisfaction between bosses and employees. One employee indicated emotionally that he had no confidence in the information provided after finding out that things were put in a completely different light in another department.

Information is not dealt with properly. This has caused dissatisfaction between bosses and employees among employees in department X as we// as those in group Y. One employee of group Y indicated emotionally("/ was very angry about that") that he had no confidence in the information provided after finding out that things were put in a completely different light in another department. FACTUAL DESCRIPTION OF THE RESULT.

NON-FACTUAL DESCRIPTION OF THE RESULT.

'

None of the people interviewed knows It is sad to find that none of the people interviewed knows the name of the director.

the director's name .

COMMENTARY (INTERPRETATION

During the interview the . . we re raised: following issues

1 "During the trainin I about safely I le g learned enough . arned tow k by making mistakes " or safely 2 Accidents and ne · . ar-accidents cons istently report d are not

e .

3 [... ]

It is not clear hOW the ISSU . or what method th . es were raised e writer used.

1 !t is not clear how the interpreted Do quote should be · es the sp k ea er mean the training wa . s good be working safely had to cause on the job? Or th t be learned while . a one of th .. of the training was that e failings have learned h he should OW to WO k 2 Who said this? The r safely? people of the registration d epartment? 0 workers themselve s.? . r the

3 Not too long. The best

u t r quotes are sh ort and are put b q o a ion marks in the t etween double usually indented (2 t b )ext. Long quotes are cited of white before and aaft s on the left and also on th separately and are . . er the quot 1i e nght Put h If . more ifflcult to inter t e. ry to avoid long . a a line d 4 Appropriate style Ad pre . quotes; they are Yi . apt quotes to th ou can add a verb (or . e sentence in wh· sentence fluent For other information) in square b ich they are put. The training for I example: rackets to make the P oyees seems t e I mp oyee who said that h o be inadequate as but that he had "I e had not learned to w k, expressed by an 5 C earned to or safely d . /ear reference. Use .... work safely by [making) . urmg training, quote. The reader sh a simple system of reference mistakes." what group) the quotZultd be able to find out easilyfr the source of the s ems. ram whom (or from

~m

5 Retrospective checking. Have you checked your impression of what the interviewee said with him afterward? Did you get a research colleague to go over your interpretations? Interview reports belong in the appendices of your report. These appendices are often confidential because the identity of the interviewed person can quickly become apparent (especially in smaller organisations) and this is not always in the interests of the people concerned. In the case of university theses, it is customary for word-for-word recordings of the anonymous interviews to only be accessible by supervisors of theses. Quoting from interviews Reporting interview results is not easy. The writer may suggest that a majority of those interviewed hold one opinion and a minority something else, even though there has been no quantitative research to this. You should try to represent the opinions as accurately as you can. It is often a good idea - and more convincing - to quote the interviewee verbatim . A good quote will have the following characteristics: 1 A sketch of the situation. What question was answered? Did the interviewee volunteer the information? 2 A suggested interpretation (quotes do not a/ways speak tor themselv Make clear what you want to show by the quote. In the example belO

PROBLEM)

Hint: balance out you quotes per intervie r quotes. Avoid tunnel visio . Interviewees soun wee in your report. It is cons n_. count the number of voices of the othe d more frequently than those p1;uous if the voice of some rs are not as frequent in o others. Find out why th your report. e

Design report Adesign report describ nstru~tion, Whether ites the design

b:

of an instrumen c Viaduct. The . a steel-frame wind . t, a system or a gives detailed Justifies the choices a transport system or a readers to decid rmat1on about the final de . as made as designer Port system e _whether or not toe sign. The report should b or build th . rect the wind ·11 . e needed . e viaduct. They h m1 ' implement th in that case . s ould also be able t o see what e

i~;~er

~~lh

r~ports serve a . ct information i n _i nformative as well as erlying principl s given about the charact a _persuasive purpose. tternpt is mad:st and its effectiveness enst1cs of the design, its

nds better than o show that the desc~ibed . other alternatives. design satisfies all

119

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1 20

. long process leading to the II presents a stage in a t t' n of a new product or system. A design report usua y re . I ent and implemen a 10 eventual deve opm ss has the following steps: Broadly speaking, ~he proc~ . d This contains a set of requirements (a • A design report is comm1ss1one . programme of demands) . . . research possibly resulting in a The designer carries out preliminary f the' possibilities and existing t ·ning an inventory o literature report con a1 t . often modified at this stage. t f equiremen s is d . which a description of the product or solutions. The s.e o r A design report is produce in for choosing that product or . 'f ton of the reasons re ort on testing of the prototype . . system and.iust1 ica I system is given, as well as a pd . . ·s made on whether the design . of a test report, a ec1s1on I On thed basf1sct be adopted or taken into production. shoul , 1n a •

I

f a design report are: . . . The main target groups or . I d . the process as a whole. Their Job is • Specialists. They will be invo ve in to implement the report. t d decide what future direction Managers. They will look at the repor an to take.

I

ders' questions . Structure an d rea th basic structure of a design report. The schedule in Fig. 7 .9 shows e

FIGURE 7 .9

Schedule for a design report

1 Introduction . eet? What function should it be able to serve? '. ? - What need should the design m - What overall characteristics should it have.

2 Set of requirements h t ristics of the design impose any restraint - Do the function and overaH c aracdethe design report stipulated any an who comm1ss1one - Has the person . tal legal and so on sort? conditions of the env1ronmen ' .. g this in a set of requirements? What is the best way of summarizin 3 Possible design options . ? - What design options are available . 4 Testing of con.c ept designst designs meet the criteria? _ Do the various concep . . f the design chosen 5 Detailed description o d characteristics of the design . - Exact description of all parts an 6 Test of the prototype ? . - What testing method was used "t h uJd? If not, what is the matter with I - Does the prototype function. as I s o . . d recommendations . ts? 7 Conclusions an ff . tly with the set of requ1remen · - Does the design comply su ic1en? - What improvements are require~ . b put into production/ implemented Is it recommended that the design e Appendix 1: Test results . . . (d wings technical details, etc.) ' Appendix 2: Design spec1f1cat1ons ra

Before a detailed design can be adopted, a decision sometimes has to be made about particular design specifications and ways of finding solutions to problems . If so, the report will go no further than Part 3 or 4 and the results will be presented in a pre-design report. It will set out the options (Pre-design for an ultra high capacity aeroplane). The actual design will be described in a second report (Design of a four engine ultra high capacity aeroplane with two enger decks) after one of the model concepts has been chosen and conditions, research parameters and requirements The set of requirements has a crucial role to play in the design report. In determining whether to adopt a particular design , designers often differentiate between two types of restriction they have to take into · : • and conditions. These are limitations imposed from the outside. , Research parameters. These are limitations that are self-imposed by the designer (why the designer prefers one design over another; assumptions) . Drawing up a set of requirements is often a complicated process, one in which the requirem ents have to be reformulated time again and again, and concessions have to be made to the other party which prove not to be feasible and so have to be negotiated all over again. It is not necessary to record all of these skirmishes in depth in the report. This would only make the report muddled and unconvincing. The following approach is better: • Present the final design as if there had been a systematic process from requirements to res ults. • Use the arguments tabled throughout the process to substantiate your final choice. • Choose a strategic approach : the requirements that the ultimate design fully satisfies can be presented right from the start as "essential ," those requirements that th e design does not quite meet as "desirable." • Make a clear distinction between the and conditions and research parameters - even though this is often difficult. The distinctions do, however, make it ea sier to consider the limitations systematically. Again, a strategic approach should be taken. H t of requirements for a piece of equipment usually contains the lowing parts: Cost requirements. hysical requirements. Weight, dimensions, material characteristics temperature resistan ce et c.).

re?uir~ments. Performance, technical possibilities , suitability different situations, likelihood of breakdowns. tratlona/ requirements. Ea se of use, safety. rluctlon re~uirements. Simplicity of production (assembly, for Pie), maintenance, repairs, rate of production; availability of the ns of production (materi al, manpower).

nctional

nment require

t

p

.

.

men s. ress ure on the environment during Uctlon and at the end of t he product's life.

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122

Market aspects (demand by customers or competing products on the market) are sometimes included in the set of requirements, though they Will often have been dealt with in an earlier report. Wh en the design is a construction (a canal, a building) , the following types of requirement often play a role: • Environmental requirements. Requirements deriving from the natural situation of the chosen terrain (situation at surface and groundwater levels, soil conditions); or assumption of unknown considerations in this regard if the necessary information is not yet fully available. • Legal requirements. Requirements stemming from laws and compulsory planning by the government (zoning plans , environment regulations) . • Social requirements. Requirements relating to the social acceptability of the design . For example, environmental aspects, landscape aspects, conforming to certain policies, political feasibility. • Technical and construction requirements. Requirements related to norms, regulations and technical requirements of the construction. • Technical execution requirements. Requirements that are in force during the building of the construction and that have repercussions for the

'

design. • Economic requirements.

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SPECIAL TYPES OF TEXT

2 Set of requirements - Price between €30 and €60 _ Weight 200-300 gms - Prefera bly ro und _ Takes a digita l reading while riding or standing _ Gradient expressed in steps of 3%, between +30% and -30% Easy to remove from bike (click system) - Suitable for all bikes _ Power su pply: reloadable battery (1 year) Concept models Testing of alternative models Detailed specifica tions of the chosen concept Testing of the design Conclusions and recommendations endix 1: Test res ults endix 2: Design specifications

and conditions, research parameters and requirements A design may have_ re strictions imposed on it. The following example derives from a design for a waste incineration plant.

These requirements may derive from either the and conditions or the research parameters. AND CONDITIO NS

Pitfalls Some writers assume that a design report should be a chronological record of the design process rather than a justification of the final design. Assumptions like these tend to produce murky reports because the design process will probably have been a bit messy. It is better to see the report as a logical reconstruction of the deg process. In particular, avoid spending a lot of time on alternatives that took up a lot of time durin~ the actual process but which eventually proved not to be workable for vanous reasons : perhaps because they did not quite make the grade on a crucial criterion. Do not include them in the analysis, just make a short note In introduction on why you are discarding that alternative.

TRANSLATED INTO A SET OF REQUIREMENTS

rat conditions

fact that the upper ground layers of the chosen terrain are unstable must b n Into . e frement: the pile fo undations must derive their dimensions from a solid la er st 10 m below ground level. Y conditions

r as emiss_ion s into the air are concerned, the plant must comply with th ve on Incineration 1 999.

e

ement: all gases _must be removed via a flue gas cleaning installation . cal and construct/On conditions

~t must be des igned according to the regulations of the Steam Engineering

Examples Table of contents in a design report The following is a fleshed-out table of contents in the design report "D

of an inclinometer for a bicycle.''

ment: t_h_e waste bu nker must be fitted with a fire detection system I condtttons ·

nddt~ater leve l may not be lowered in the immediate vicinity of buildings n a ions on wooden piles. ent: provisions have to be made to prevent lowering of the ground water

1 Introduction Many bike riders would like to know the gradient of the slope they are riding O This report describes the design of an inclinometer that can be read from an

speed and distance meter.

c conditions Ing, together wit h t he installations, should not cost more than 90 million ent: the b ·1d· . . . ui mg, together with the installations should not cost more Ill ion euros . '

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© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

124 RESEARCH PARAMETERS TRANSLATED INTO A SET OF REQUIREMENTS

1 Natural considerations

This preliminary study assumes that the ground layer 12 m below the surface level has sufficient ing power for the pile foundations. Specification: the pile foundation will be based on the ground \ayer at 12 m depth.

2 Community and social considerations The design should keep in mind that the plant should fit into the landscape Requirement: the plant will be hidden from view by planting trees. 3 Technical and construction considerations Soil and ground water emissions must be avoided. Requirement: the rooms for temporary storage of waste will be equipped with impermeable floors. 4 Building considerations Noise pollution to the adjacent residential areas must be limited as much as possible . Requirement: the delivery of building materials will be done by boat wherever

I

possible. 5 Economic considerations The heat energy from the incinerating process should be used efficiently. Requirement: heat exchangers will be installed in the chimney.

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8 Letters, emails and memos

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Business letters Letters of application Email Memos

espite the fact that we can email via Blackberry and telephone for free via the Internet, continue to receive letters every day. TNT Post delivers approximately five billion dressed postal items per year. The old-fashioned letter remains an often used means of munication, and for good reason. le a telephone call is often the best choice, choosing a letter is occasionally more oprlate even than email. The in-between form, a letter sent via email is another popular on. dvantages of a letter above a telephone call are: &tter has status. Correctly formulated and designed letters demand attention and get

In most companies they are ed and documented and answered. can be recorded clearly in a letter. Technical or detailed mation is often incompletely conveyed in a telephone call. Letters form a reliable ory aid and can prevent misunderstandings. They are useful to refer back to. r has legal standing. This is why tenders, requests and appeals are not dealt with Even though oral agreements also have legal validity, most business ctions are put down on paper "just to make sure." While signed letters of tender nst1tute llcitor. proof for a judge, deeds and contracts need to b e made in the presence

ta Bnd arrangements

ho~lcally.

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LETTERS, EMAILS AND MEMOS

128

4 A letter can present a difficult message in a thoughtful way. You will not be interrupted halfway through your statement by the listener and have your concentration disrupted, making a difficult message sound even worse. With a letter you can write and re-write until you are satisfied. 5 A letter never arrives at an inopportune time. A letter does not disturb the receiver as much in his activities as a telephone call does. The chance of the message being read sympathetically and having the effect you want it to have is therefore greater. 6 A letter can reach a large number of people at the same time.

I

I

Effective letter writing presupposes attention to style and letter writing conventions. Section 8.1 deals with this. In Section 8.2 attention is paid to a special type of letter: the letter of application. The letters we write nowadays usually take the form of email. This has even prompted courses with titles like "Email awareness training." Electronic mail both personal and business has surged so greatly in popularity in recent times that it is starting to develop its own rules (netiquette) and create new possibilities. It has some inherent risks and limitations , however (see Section 8.3). Companies often on information in the form of short notes: memos or memorandums (Section 8.4). These can be sent via email or on paper.

• 1 Use 1 . In s horter letters 1 5 5 .line spacing .

. is sometimes used Th' ' . or a spacing bet page . is makes for a more bal ween 1 and anced layout on the

AMERICAN LAYOUT NEW STYLE

sender

3512 JK UTRECHT

te l. 030 - 2 377 473 e-mai l [email protected]

receiver

Mr L. M. Elbracht UtrechtM - h on Foundation . arat GI!dstraat 124 3572 ES UTRECHT

date

22 November 2011

subject and reference

Re: financial contribution to Your ref: your letter of 17 N the Utrecht Marathon Our ref: VV/EH/brf352 ovember 2011

salutation

Dear Mr Elbracht,

opening/introduction

In your letter of 17 Nave . contribution to th U mber, you requested a e trecht Marathon.

Layout of the letter

There used to be strict rules in the Netherlands for the layout of letters, but during the last few years, things have loosened up in this regard. In the current climate of changing styles, one particular layout is being used with increasing frequency, not only in the Netherlands but also internationally: the new style American layout. This layout has three characteristics: • All formal components of the letter start on the left-hand side along the same margin. • The order of the standard components is: sender, receiver, date, subjec reference, salutation, text of the letter, complimentary close and signature, enclosures and copy. • The paragraphs are not indicated by indenting but by a line of white. Apart from a few minor differences, the layout is identical to that now recommended by the Nederlands Normalisatie-instituut (NEN 3162). An example follows of the model we recommend (p. 129), and then an

Deltra B.V. Trans 10

~ Business letters 8.1.1

line of white between paragraphs

As I am sure you WI.11 understand all the requests that reach 'we cannot comply with responsible ch . us. To be able to make . mces, we have a p ]' . o icy of pnmarily mg national so . 1 · cia and charitabl an d mstitutions rather th e organisations le ' an one-off pro· isure character. As su h iects with a strong Ou f c ' we cannot hon " r Irm does contribute a sizable s our your request. Nederland Sportief'' fu d um each year to the donation from that fu dn . Perhaps you are eligible for a n . We hope that you a re . marathon is very s!~es~~~~ our decision and that the

example of a suitable variant (p. 131). A letter that is pleasing to the eye has enough white. You should there keep the following in mind: •

'°"'"'"'"''ly, ~

Maintain broad margins: 3 cm left, right, top and bottom. (The mar 5 the top and bottom are smaller in pre-printed stationary.) Make you \eave a wide left margin so that not part of the letter is lost If

filed away in a folder. • Put lines of white between the formal components. You can, of co vary the number of lines of white or the height of the lines of wh reducing the amount of white to make the letter fit on to one pa

129

Ms T. van de Geest

.vJq•f \r

t

J

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Noordhoff Uitgevers bv LETTERS, EMAILS AND MEMOS

130

Letter conventions 8.1.2 A great number of conventions govern the formal

components of a letter. Largely as a result of two things - greater informality and /ess gender stereotyping, some of these conventions have changed in recent years. In industry, people now refer to each other in a less formal way than used to be the case. The more informal approach is obvious in the dropping of many academic titles, even in quite formal letters. This is even clearer in

LETTER WITH A PRE-PRINTED LETTERHEAD

ArboExpert B. v. Expertise centre for working conditions

Bu1tenwaters/oot 382 2 a' 015 ' 490 DZ DELFT - 6327 293/fax 015 181 arboex@a rbo.ni - 6329 277

emails.

l

general salutation!

Ms 0 . van Marion Head of General Affairs ImpulsB.V. Populierstraat 179 2509 GI DEN HAAG

Sender Firms usually have paper with a pre-printed letterhead (and footer) in which the sender's details are printed. If you send a letter as a private individual,

Your ref. Letter of 17 March 2011

The growing realisation that the business world (including government) is not solely a man's world has brought about another change. Twenty-five years ago, most correspondence manuals recommended Dear Sirs as a

you could do it as follows:

I

J. Western Haasburgstraat 77 2272 XZ VOORBURG

'

You could use your academic title of Dr or Prof. (but not together), though most people do not do this nowadays except in an academic situation. Medical doctors and vets do use the title Dr. Women often choose to precede their name by Miss, Mrs or Ms. It may be useful to add your telephone number and email address (directly below the postal code and place name).

Ms. C. van den Acker Beukenlaan 36 6176 DE SPAUBEEK

Our ref. GM/ab/SBS-136

20 March 2011

Re: Your questions about the Sick Bmldmg . . Syndrome

Dear Ms Van Marion, I would be pleased to respond t 0 your requests. · formation in relation to th . SFirstly, d you requested some b ac kground m yn rome. I am pleased to se Offices. This manual which d you the recently published inform te Sick Building inside climate in off{ce d . ea s with reducing and prevent' a wn booklet, Healthy s an 1mprov· h mg complaint l e many questio . mg t equality oflife . . s re a ting to the th ns regularly put to our bureau by build. m work spaces, attempts to answer mg managers and Your second questio b work councils. na outhows .. requires a more extensive answer ~nouslyyou should take the complaints of type of complaint should an I can give you here Th . your employees not alw b · e most rrnport thin an example: employees wh ays . e taken literally, though should b al ant . g is that this humidity as the cause. In complam about the dryness of the air t cen senously. To give temperatures that are t hi ' those complaints are very often regard atmospheric . causedbyaco b' . . oo ghand question r would . poor arr quality Fo m mation of . r a more extensive answer to thi . ' agam refer you to the bo kl s unportant 0 et Healthy Offices.

n~

fa~t

ofte~

06-44317814 [email protected]

After re a ding th.IS publicati you raise. If so on you may well find th natur , do not hesitate to rin at you would like to folio ally, without any obi. . g me. I would be more tha h w up the matter to you. 1gat10ns - about how our b . n appy to inform you meau can be offur·th er assistance .

Receiver The receiver may either be a private person or a company or institutlo Receiver is a company To avoid time delays, it is better to address a letter to a certain deP within a company, or better still, to a specific individual, since the re is likely to take greater responsibility for a personally addressed le

smcerely, Tums·

dt(L V Y

J:;:,._, (__

A. van der Weerd L-. ( CD!rector) ~

c.: Healthy Offi ces

131

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LETTERS, EMAILS AND MEMOS

132

Mr Sj aak Baa rs Head , Department of Customer Service Optima Farma B.V. Postbu s 201 23 70 AD ROELOFARENDSVEEN

I

Addressed person is a private individual

Mr Mark Waaijenberg Nieuwe Rijn 56 b 2312 JH LEIDEN

Persons with a Ph.Dare adressed with Ph 0 . . address but with Dr before their nam . t.h behind their name in the e in e salutation:

W. Koetsenruijter Ph .D 6 Grosvenor Place Hopatcong NJ 34552 USA Dear Dr Koetsenruijter There is no distinction between the formal d th . . the case in Dutch. Not only ·geachte' 'z an e '~formal salutations as is 'lieve' are all translated by dear. Only 'wheer geachte and 'beste' but also en you are good friends you may write: . My dear Willem

Explanation

I

• It is customary to add Mr, Miss, Mrs or Ms to the name of the receiver, but this is not absolutely necessary. • If you do not know whether a letter is addressed to a man or a woman, you can usually find out via an Internet search machine. In English and American adresses the number is before the streetname: 56

Place and date

The place where the letter is written is not . 'th I mentioned in English lett ( 1 as a ready been pre-printed). The date h . ers unless s ou 1d always be written in full:

19-09-'11 19 September 2011

Oak Road

Taylor's Bathroom Equipment 82 St. Mary's Lane Bethesda, MD 66932 USA

There should not be a full stop after th . to figures below ten in the date i d e date. A zero is sometimes added For example: 05 June 2011. n or er to prevent the date being changed.

Reference

To facilitate filing and finding of lett

two references: your reference a d ers, make sure that your letter includes n our reference.

To facilitate automatic handling of mail, TNT Post suggests the following: • Do not put any commas between name and street name or between street name and postal code. • Use two spaces between postal code and place name. • Write the place name completely in capitals.

ur reference elude the reference number of the letter . er our ref. in that letter) If th . you are replying to (you will find it e letter: . ere is no reference number, quote the date

Forms of address

Formal titles are not very much used in the English speaking world. We write as salutation in letters to people with a university master's title JU Mr or Mrs.

Dear Mr Johnson We make an exception for professors and Ph .D's. Then we add then and we do not abbreviate the title 'professor': Dear Professor Biber Dear Dr Van Dyck

Where you put your own referenc rnethod of creating refer e number. Each company will have artment code (Sales) . ~~ce numbers. Some common methods· uter file name (tende; ~~)1:als (LG and TW) and file number or .

133

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LETTERS, EMAILS AND MEMOS

134

• the internal postal number of the department, followed by identification data (policy number, hip number):

Dear Ms Brenkenbosch Dea r Mr Docters van Le,euwen Dear Mr Ahmadi and Mr Nat ad'arma,

Our ref.: V7 /3392921

I

• a short reference indication:

our ref.: 97 /FB (=letter 97 by Frans Brand)

In less official business lette rs t o acquainta for a more personal salutation (D ~r~n~~-nces and friends ' you m~o~ The salutation in personal lett . letters the comma is left out· ~r~ is f~llowed bij a comma, in business by a colon. ' mencan letters the salutation is followed Because no . f h . initials are used in sa 1utat1ons in D o t e prefix becomes a capital. ' utch names, the first letter

I

Subject indication Following re: you should give a short but informative indication of the subject of the letter. This enables the reader to see at a glance what the letter is about. The English place the subject indication after the salutation the Americans place it before the salutation. '

Not:

Dear Mr A.A. de Vries Dear Mr De Vries Dear Mrs van der Wouden. Dear Mrs Van der Woud van Manon en-van Marion

But: Not:

But: SUBJECT INDICATION

Re: Your order no. 277 of 19 November 2012 Re: Agenda annual shareholders' meeting Re: Delivery iPads

The addressee is a firm or an institut" What do you do if you do not know t~on e name of the addressee? Sir Sirs Madam Sir or Madam Ir/Madam

Explanation

• Do not treat more than one subject per letter. Different subjects are often dealt with by different people and may be filed in different places. • Do not make the subject longer than five words. • Sometimes hedging the subject matter is a good idea. If a complaint h been dismissed, Re: Dismissal complaint might not go down well with receiver. The subject in bad news letters and request and sales letter is best stated indirectly (Re: Your letter of 19 April 2012).

not refer to a person usin t

,

ar Director, Dear Sales Magna~at ferson s position within a company

n;e~~nsomebody you would ad~~e::~~tvhotidh academic titles unless

Salutation You address your reader and set the tone of the letter in your salutatlo The salutation you use will depend on your relationship with the reade "Dear Sir," "Dear Mr Van Woudenberg" or " Dear Sander." If you know other well, the last option is likely to be appropriate, although there Is growing tendency in English to also use the Christian name, even whe there is not a close relationship. If it is a formal letter that may be re others, the first two options are the most appropriate ones. The addressee is a person

If you know the name of the person you should use it in preference "Dear Sir" or "Dear Madam."

person such

Tai

at title when sp

practition~r

k'

De as;our own professor - Dear Profe ea ing to n, but you do k- ar actor. If you do not know th ssor - or your

tlo ·

now his/her title

n. For the attention

of th

e name of the you can put a line above the

e sales manager.

.. Writing t o a group of can use: people that you cannot or d0 not want to

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© Noordhotf Uitgevers bv LETTERS, EMAILS AND MEMOS

under your weight. Wherever possible, opt for a you perspective. Try to imagine yourself in the situation of your readers: address them on their own and appeal to their interests. But be careful: too much you and your could be seen as an undesirable intimacy.

. and gentlemen Dear ladies

. .in popu\arity, also tlemen " is increasing . . . "Dear ladies and gen f the opinion that this The salutation people however, are o tt rs Some ' in internal le e . b used in speech . salutation should onl.y e are more specific: The following salutations

I

Dear Dea r Dea r

'

f the board . 1· ation committee o of the app ic . f the works council o

. olite formulas. A more Starting sentences ere once full of flourishes andhp heading (the subject Starting senten.cest :pproach is usual nowadays. ; e ubject clear and so Personal and d1rec d have made the letters s ) will alrea Y or the reference ·ght to the point. you should come stra1

NOT: "WE " STYLE BUT: "YOU" PERSPECTIVE

We, the editors and publishers of " Ingenious," do our utmost to make our publication as interesting as we can make it. But we never really know wheth er we have been successful or not. There is only one way for us to find out, and that is t o ask our readers. This is the reason fo r this questionnaire. In it we ask to wh at extent the publication is meeting expectations and how it can be improved. [ .. . ]

As you may expect, the editors and publishers of " Ingenious " do their utmost to ensure that the publication that you read is as interesti,ng as possible. But success in this regard this is ultimately decided by the subscribers. To what extent does the publ ication meet your expectations ? How can it be improved? There is only one way to find out and that is simply by asking you. This is the reas on for this questionnaire . ( ... ]

Closing off formulas While there are still people who do not think the traditional closing formulations are a waste of time and paper, that group is dwindling.

NG SENTENCES . have the pleasure of ur letter of th e 5th of June inst., we In reference to yo . oblem . informing you of the following . 12 January in regards to t~e above pr We thank you for your letter oft of the 12th of January inst. . d your \et er We have duly receive d' g you enclosed ... · For your information 1 am sen in

POMPOUS START!

·FASHIONED CLOSING-OFF SENTENCES

e look forward to rece iving your reply and remain yours sincerely, remain , Sir, your obedient servant.. . 1he expectation of a s peedy settlement, we remain .. . await with interest your furth er reports . he hope that we have been of service to you ...

. entences are far preferable: Straightforward opening s

·'e

NG SENTENCES

f \lowing reason, I reJ for the o und as we II · However k . · r ny Noteboo · ' . Thank you for repa1nnb ~or the costs the seco~d t1meh ar~abylon business your demand that I payb r next we will be moving to t t you do cleaning On the first of Septe~ e ou because we understand t a k We are ing Y par . fo r a nu mber of firms there . work

INFORMATIVE STARTI

~

rward to you r reactio n. you meanwhi le for t he t rouble you have gone to. U In advance for yo ur cooperation. pond as soon as poss ibl e (with a view to the holiday rush , before 12 June)

" ,, .. . . may have More "you" than we·ter have taken the init1at1ve. ~o:r a promise, o In a letter, you, the wn o~ may be making a reques u emphasise y information to convey,r~tulating your reader. But if y~re too frequen perhaps you are con~h and the pronouns I and we he haS disaPP of the matter too mu I g\ected, as though he ors reader might well fee ne

f or dealing wit h t his matter to my satisfaction . ch me on 0 6-37853311.

also f'1 1· h . n s by referring back to the central issue of your letter:

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LETTERS , EMAILS AND MEMOS

TWO EXAM PLES OF A SIGNATURE STATIN G TH E PERSON 'S POSITION INFORMATIVE FINAL SENTENCES

• Should the above , however, represent the actual state of things , we insist that you do whatever you can to improve the situation. • 1should like to discuss this proposal further with you. Can I ring you in the near future to make an appointment?

*9

Anja Vesseur Head , Human Resources

I

With kind regards , On behalf of the study group

~I Pauline Post (chairwoman)

In modern business letters, final sentences like these are closed off with a complimentary close : Enclosures Any enclosures (and their number) should b . . · letter, preferably with a description. e indicated at the bottom of the

Yours sincerely, If there is no name in the salutation, use the following complimentary close:

'

• Two enclosures • Enclosures: 1 curriculum vitae 2 copy of diploma Enclosure: offer (3 pp.)

Yours faithfully,

Or less formally:

What do you type on the enclosure itself? • Type at the top: Enclosure (and ive . Number the enclosures if there Ts m the title of the enclosure). ore than one. • Number the pages .

With kind regards ,

Copy

The names (and if desired, the addresses of "With kind regards" is generally used in business letters if the writer kno the reader. There is, however, a growing tendency for companies to use it as their standard formula in their correspondence with customers and no

sending a copy of the letter w·11 d ) the people to whom you are 1 nee to be me r d

n ione . If there are more than 1lve, you should enclose a separate list of those to whom the letter will be sent.

only after personal .

Mr J. Bellis and Mr w. Dijk Ms M. Schaareman (editor of lntermediair)

If you have a personal connection to the reader, you may like to write you complimentary close by hand instead of typing it out. Signature A signature gives a letter legal standing and it shows the reader who is responsible for the letter. The signature is placed underneath the complimentary close . Since m signatures are illegible ' the name of the person g should ·be typ to below the signature, and underneath that or alongside it, the s1gna position should be given . Many Dutch people have taken over the A or French custom of g off with their Christian name as well : If you want to stress the fact that you are writing on behalf of a ftrm department or a committee, you can do so in between the compllm close and the signature. Usually it is sufficiently clear from the heS the letter.

hould place the copy line a few lin be placed just above the sal t t" es below the signature. Optionally it u a ion though this is not as common. '

ers of application e more than a mill' ~ed at a universit~o~r:~d .a half people in the Netherlands who number of really intere~~st1t~te of higher education. In view of from the rest. It is not un~ng Jobs, your letter of applicc!t ion must two hundred applicants fosual for there to be anything between r a single interesting position.

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LETTERS, EMAILS AND MEMOS

People are increasingly putting their CV online on sites such as Linkedln. As an applicant you could, of course, refer to your online CV, though most employers still prefer a traditional letter of application and CV.

3 Emphasize your motivation in applying for the position

TOO GENERAL A MOTIVATION

8.2.1

The letter

Letters of application fall into two categories: those that are in reaction to a personnel ment and open letters of application. If you cannot find an attractive vacancy in the papers or on the Internet, it may be a good idea to send an open fetter of application, together with a CV, to a number of promising companies, selected with the aid of a career guide and the s you have built up.

I

If the ment states that further information can be obtained te\ephonical\y you should always make use of this. Prepare well for this call: by writing your questions down you stand a better chance of creating a good impression. It is a good idea to refer to this telephone call in the

MORE PRECISE MOTIVATION

This posit ion interests me a lot. This is why I wou ld like to be cons idered for ...

I

Jn both types of application letters, the applicant should aim to be invited for an interview. Mention your education, experience and your motivation for wanting to work for that particular company. In a letter in reply to an ment, your motivation wi ll be extremely important. In an open application you should mention your ambitions ("\ would like a position in the technical and commerclat area"), the field you would like to work in and the type of work you would like t do. In open applications, it may be a good idea to hold back in this regard and so keep the initiative for further in your own hands: "\ would like to explain in greater detail why I have sent this letter of application and also discuss whether you have a position available that suits my educational level and my field of interest. May I ring you in about a week's time?" Take the time to do preparatory work before you actually start writing. T following nine points will require special attention during writing. 1 Ensure that your fetter is clearly structured Your letter should deal with the following matters, each of which could up a paragraph of its own: how you know that there is a vacancy and W position you are applying for (your introductory paragraph), what your educational qualifications are (mention your area of specialisation an relevant subjects if applicable), what experience you have had, what motivated you to apply for the position in that company, and in concl a reference to your CV and a sentence to the effect that you would appreciate an opportunity to explain your application further in pers 2 Address the requirements as set out in the ment Employers often want the impossible. Do not worry too much i! yo satisfy all the requirements. Refer to this in ing and mention immediately a positive point in compensation (experience, extra c

~ would like to apply to the full the skills in deg programs in the graphic fie ld that_ 1_ developed during my study. The pos1t1on mentioned wou ld seem to offer an excellent opportunity t o do so .

4 Be informative and concrete

introductory paragraph of your letter. When sending an open letter of application it is also a good idea to ring up first. You could ask them to send you some information. You may find that you are sent an application form straight away. You should fill in that form extremely carefully: it often replaces a letter of application and a CV. Such a telephone call beforehand is likely to have the effect that your letter will be read with different eyes: you have become more than just a paper personality to the reader.

..

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140

SUFFICIENTLY CONCRETE

addition to my specialisation 1 did a mber of courses in the Facu lty of chnology and Ma nagement.

In order to better integrate my t raining . . as . an aeronauti cal engineer with the commercia l aspects of technology, I dec1d~d to fo llow some optiona l courses in _ bus_iness economics and presentation ski lls in my fina l year.

5 Look at things from the reader's perspect" ive look at things from the reader',s ers y i~s very nature has an I-style, to company: You can expect x and :fro!e~~~e. Indicate what you can offer the

Try at least once in your letter which b .

'I knowledge and experience with e contribution to your pro·

~ec

t

safety systems I think I can make a group.

Present your knowledg d . . not be afraid f d e an skills tn a positive way 0 wor s like solid I s that most selectors t ' va uable and successful. Research ra e such a re neutral one posi·t·ive 1Y worded letter higher than

MORE POSITIVE

tely, I do not satisfy an requirement for t he position. However, I apply anyway. study wa s far too I did practical t raining

s.

• ~ \though you are looking for a mecha nica l engineer and I am an electro techn ician, I would like to apply for this pos1t1on for three reasons . Firstly... • In orde~ to augment my solid ly theoretica l training, I did six months of practical tra ini ng with Phi lip 's consumer electronics division . During that time I ga ined va luab le experience in ...

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© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

LETTERS, EMAILS AND MEMOS

7 Do not make the letter any longer than is necessary

EXAMPLE OF A LETTER OF APPLICATION

While a letter of a page and a half is perhaps not excessive, if you can fit it on one page so much the better. The longer your letter the more important it is that your style is succinct. Avoid superfluous information. If you have had a number of important positions it is not necessary to refer in any detail to your high school subjects or your first jobs.

C. Braas Van Hasseltlaa n 112

2625 HA DELFr

Ms. A. Planjer Head Personnel Department RMO Werkspoor Services B v. Postbus 1250 ·· 1000 BG AMSTERDAM

8 Ask for comments on the letter before sending it We always miss that one spelling mistake or forget to mention an interesting course. Always get somebody else to read over your letter

I

before sending it. 28 May2012

9 Avoid both cliches and exaggerated originality Some people have the misapprehension that application committees expect letters in an old-fashioned formal style. Cliched expressions should

I

• Herewith I submit my application to you. I am taking the liberty to apply since ... • Hoping to hear from you soon, I remain ... • In expectation of receiving a positive reaction ...

Dear Ms Planjer, I am interested in a PP1ymg . for the position of en · D . epartment. The job description ties in well wiJ;meer mth the Construction my trammg and experience.

MORE MODERN FORMULATIONS

• Further to our telephone conversation of 12 December I would like to apply for the vacancy of controller. • I should like to apply for the position of coordinator Health and Safety that you have d. • In reaction to your ment in NRC Handelsblad of 21 February, I a applying for the position of junior advisor. Our telephone conversation has increased my interest in the position all the more. • I would like to explain my application further in person. • I would very much appreciate an invitation for an interview.

Main educational and experience details

A good referee inspires confidence

Goal-oriented choice of extra study components

Motivation for the company

Do not go to the other extreme. Avoid exaggerated or frivolous language. quiet, business-like and relaxed tone is preferable.

OVER-THE-TOP LANGUAGE

• Stop looking: I am the person you want. Herman Stoof is my name. • When your ment in De fngenieur appeared before my eyes, I knew ... • A career at Fokker would get me off to a flying start.

Re: Engineering position within the const . m De Volkskrant of 25-5-2012 ruction department as d • vac.no. 1961-14

number

be avoided.

CLICHED EXPRESSIONS

Place of ment Mention vacancy

BUSINESS-LIKE TONE

• Deg as a member of a s interdisciplinary team appeal lot. • Th is is why I would like to ap position you d in /n of 17 September.

(you-perspective)

In August I expect to graduate from the Facu . Delft, where I specialized in rail t lty of Engmeering at the TU research, which dealt with the d ra~sport technology. During my thesis fast-moving railway carriage I loev: odpment ~fa coupling system for a 0 e extensively at the d exerted ' on stee1 constructions in railw . ynamic pressure experience at the Institute for Tech . ay carnages. I also gained some computers for design and prod ti' meal lnformat10n Technology in using stude t · uc on. During my two h n assistant, helping students with their CA years t ere I was also a D!CAM practical sessions. Prof.H . Xu 'wh o is · on the staff of the D Construction, introdu d epartment of Rolling Stock . ce me to the work s t . . was domg my practical there. My practical ~s ems m his. department while I mechanisms and coupling elem ocussed on mvestigating drive en ts used by the NS. After observing at first hand durin m r . important cooperation and · g y p act1cal and my assistantships how optional courses in oral and m"~ng on of mformation are, I followed some courses I have followed. I en reporting. My CV lists other optional Thea c t'JVIt1es · · of Werkspoor the on! D parts, tie in well with my tr~inin y . utch manufacturer of rolling stock engmeer with the Werkspoor Co~ and mterests. If offered the position of and relevant knowledge and ca struction Department I can offer recent h'igh1 Y motivated. . n assure you th a t my approach would be Further personal details can be found in t

ve~ry much if you would give me the opp ~e enclosure. I would appreciate it m ormation in a personal i t . n erv1ew. Yours sincerely,

Cees Braas Enc.: curriculum vitae

or umty to provide further

143

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© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

LETTERS, EMAILS AND MEMOS

144 CURRICULUM VITAE

8.2.2

The curriculum vitae

Your curriculum vitae (Latin for "course of life") should be enclosed with the letter of application. Apart from your personal details in summary form, you should mention everything that is relevant to the position, including what you have already mentioned in the letter. The two requirements of a good CV are completeness and clear arrangement. Completeness Give information about the fo ll owing subjects: Personal details: name, Christian names, address, telephone number date and place of birth. You may also mention your marital status. ' Education: secondary school (do not enumerate all your subjects), further education, your specialisation, your main subjects, re levant other subjects (do not omit other practical experience, languages you know and fami liarity with software). Experience or work experience: including assistantships, practicals. Use catch words to describe what you have done and what you have

I

I

achieved. Other activities: istrative experience, jobs to earn extra money while studying, perhaps relevant hobbies. • Publications: your thesis can be cited as an internal publication. • References: if you have excellent references you could mention the names of your referees, their positions if relevant (in what capacity do you know this person?) and their telephone numbers. You should, of course, inform your referees of this. Usually you need only say "If required, I would be happy to provide a list of referees." Clear arrangement Make sure that your CV is attractively presented, clearly structured, and business-like and objective in tone . Do not write your CV in the form ofa story: put it in point form, making a clear division into main categories and sub-categories. When mentioning experience and prestigious committee work, give a rough indication of the period in question. If you have had an extensive employment history, a good way of structuring this history is to list the most recent positions and tasks first and then go back in time (reverse chronology).

curriculum vitae of C. Braas personal details Name: Address:

Cornelis Bra as (Ce es) Van Hasseltlaan 112 2625 HA DELFT 015 2784 529 Telephone: Email: [email protected] Website with portfolio: www.CeesBraas.nl Date of birth: Place of birth:

1 September 1988 Rotterdam

Education Atheneum-B in Rotterdam (diploma 2006) Technical University Delft Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Rail Transport Technology section {2006 - present; expected graduation: September 2011)

Main Subjects ,

Mechanics, machine dynamics, design theory' signal theo ry, cyb ernelic . · ergonomics .

Thesis project • Research into a new coupling system for the TGV-2 an J · 0f h d · constr~ctlons, resulting in a design for a new coupllng s~~~e:is t e ynam1c stress of steel SuperVJsor: Prof. G.H. van Zoomeren (2010-2011: 8 months)

Other subjects • Information technology for managers ' business econ om1cs, · p h"lI osop hy and ethics

Additional training • Courses: • Computer:

Oral Presentations, Written Reports, Italian C, Turbo Windows Vista' CAD/CAM ' Dreamweave1; Adobe Premiere, Final Cut Pascal, Pro

• Languages:

English, spoken: excellent; written: good French, spoken: basic; written: basic Italian, spoken: fair; written: basic

Work experience • Student-assistant CAD/CAM practicals· instr . d of CAD/CAM experiments; co-author ·fman~~~7n ~~~~~X~t for second-year students; evaluation . or) -s and a manual for CAD/CAM student-assistants (2009- 2010 . 18 month Research while doin ·· · s part-t_ime · deparlinent. Drives gs~e~:~1cal with Dutch Railways in the rolling stock construction conclusions were pr~sented ~d the couplmg elements were tested for durability. The (2010: 4 months). unng a management meeting. Supervisor: Prof. H. Xu

0

Other activities . istrative tasks as the treasurer of a stu d ent urnon. 11 months) . Responsible for a budget of €115,000 (2008: . Member of the board of a student u . programming anniversary week (20~~~~ comm1tt)ee responsible for sponsoring and Editor of Laser, the two-month] . mo~ths . Several activities toe y news bulletm of the student union (2007-2008 · 14 months) am money to aug :wing inst~uctor. men t th e stu dY grant: as a chauffeur, taxi ·driver, waiter· and aln hobbies: rowing (com etition . . . . 2006-2007); reading (memter of I" rnwer and com~elitor m mternational competitions in a iterature and plulosophy reading circle from 2004 to

now).

cations •van Gerwen & C. Braas. Hand! "d. ectrotechnology, Mathe~atic ei ~ng vo_or CAD/CAM-gebruikers. Delft: TU Delft, Faculty of Braas: Ben nieuwe ko . s an Inf01 matron Technology, 2009. (37 pages) ' ppe1mg voor de TGV2 - · De!ft ·· TU Delft, Rail. Traffic Technology section, 2011. Pages, Master's thesis). ces be pleased to se n d you a hst . of referees.

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© Noordhotf Uitgevers bv

146

LETTERS, EMAILS AND MEMOS

~Email Email has become part of our daily routines. In some organisations, emails have an informal character and constitute an informal discussion forum. Other organisations regard an email more as a document, and hence they are more formal in style. Make sure you are aware of the conventions when you start a new job. Internal and external emails may also differ in style as

I

well. Whatever the level of formality, you need to keep in mind that an email is increasingly regarded as a legal document and can be used to provide evidence. During a major American bookkeeping scandal, the public prosecutor attached great importance to an email that recommended destroying certain documents. Of course, a general disclaimer can attached to an email ("No rights can be derived from this message"), but this will not stop the email from being used later against the writer or the organisation. Organizations need to have good filing systems, meaning that emails are sometimes kept for a long time. Laws like the Sabanes Oxley Act in the United States, in force since July 2002, require an organisation to be able to provide authentic and reliable documentation when asked to do so. An email is never completely private: employers often have the right to look at emails, the computer department has access to them and the recipients can forward emails on to others. As such, you need to be careful how you word things and you should not mix personal and business elements. Removing emails is more complicated than you think: there are likely to be copies floating around on the server or on other computers and a deleted email can usually be retrieved from the hard disk.

I

A few hints on using email and writing efficient emails follow.

'

Hints on using email • Make a deliberate choice between email, telephone or dropping in. An email is less intrusive and leaves a record. It can also reach a group of people at the same time. On the other hand, when sensitive matters involved and the tone is important, email may not be the wisest cholc A complex matter can lead to a long string of emails, while a personal conversation may have quicker results. If you expect a reply to your email to which you yourself have to reply in return - so-called conversation emails - it might be preferable to phone. • Check your email regularly. In an environment where everybody uses email you should check your email at least once a day. Make sure Y do not check your email too often: this will interfere too much with other activities. Mention in your email if and when you require an The receiver will appreciate the fact that he or she can plan when answer and you will avoid getting emails of the type "I have read email and will send you an answer tomorrow." If your message I one , do not hesitate to use common abbreviations. A common o (for your information) and is often used in a message that does require further discussion. Other useful abbreviations are NRN response necessary) and EOM (end of message). The latter c after the message in the subject bar: "Jones rang for you. Wiii tomorrow (EOM)." The advantage is that you have not disturb

recipient and the re c1p1ent . . does t message is shown on the b. no even have to open the . • Use filters or rule t su ~ect bar. email: the . s o send m ·1 f . . ai rom certain persons or subjects directly to a s team, De Vries This al pec1f1c file; for example clients about certain · so create , managem of emails superfluous· onl . s a useful archive. It makes . ent you cannot maintain a' out in special out The emptier your inbox the a archive. es or 1f immediately. clearer it is. Always remove spam

saf~ ~~~~~hem

circum::~~~ng

Hints for writing a busine ss email Identification, addressee' attac h ments • Al ways deal with one sub~ect · per ema·1· 1 · a reader ofte f second subject and it k . not hesitate to send filing and the Always state the subject pr .ree in a row to the sam ward. Do ::question," "agenda" or subject bar. Do not agenda_, management team 10-l2pr~blems with printer deliver " the receiver to filter and fil th 2012. This makes it als . y or Think about what I . e e email. o easier for sa utat1on to use C . ~eem to be less applicable to email ~nvent1ons for salutations in Jette ear people, Hello and Hi are n t . owever, newer salutations h rs contexts. When addressi o. appreciated by everybod . ~uc as reading public in a try.to find a workable Communication Dear delegates to osc1enc~, Dear readers of Quest' ear people with an interest in ake a d1st1nction between T.1 • to")·, use To for people from w 0 and cc ( carbon copy; meanin " sparingly, merely to inform othhorn you expect action and us! sent • Use BCC (blind carbon copy) whers.

tV:ao~:hf1Jtering, ~mails

forwa~di~~:~kabout

"u~:~~~I!, ~~tt~e

co~~~nv~ned Congres:~minator:

~~1en?e

M

:~:rson.

bu~i~:~~siness th~ontext, C~opy

~~~~~:s::d

the~nt~eC~~:gtan ~mail

you do not want to a number of Use an au;omat' o w om or to disclose their ic sender text (" . . signature") at the b Thi s should show the like) which canbas1c sender details (address t I ot~m of your email. can vary the c I not always be gleaned from ' e ep one number and your email address. You ltter a o ours, font and length YI urs: ccount or website, or to a re~en~~ ~::~vhen refer to your blog, is ed film or book of

van den Broek mmunicat i' on & Soci et Mathemati c Y Weg s and Science H 2, Leiden Postb ' uygens laboratory .leidenuni v.nl us 9504, 2300 RA Leiden ' room 129,

al - p erspectieven 1 e dtaal . boom.nl voor makers en gebruikers

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© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv LETTERS, EMAILS AND MEMOS

-r.

Attachments

• If you want to send attachments it is a good idea to add them before you write your text. If you do this you will not forget to attach them. • Do not make your attachments too big. Find out beforehand whether a large attachment will cause problems for the receiver. • Avoid attachments of the type .EXE, .BAT, .PIF. These files are seen as possible carriers of a virus and many recipients cannot open them. Always send files of this sort in a condensed form: for instance, as a ZIP

I

file.

Form

• Keep the email short. Make sure the reader does not have to scroll down. If you do have to write a longer text you should use some headings or else make the text a separate attachment. • Do not include the whole of the original email when replying. Only use those sections that are necessary for your answer to be understand. • Write short paragraphs, preferably separated by a line of white. They are easier to read like this. • Do not use coloured backgrounds or other embellishments in a business email. Netiquette (rules of etiquette for communicating via the Internet) • Use the label "high priority" sparingly: the effect will soon wear off otherwise. • Extreme brevity, humour and sarcasm can be risky because of the lack of non-verbal language. The tone of emails is often misunderstood. If something goes wrong it is advisable to use the telephone. You can use emoticons like ;-) to clarify your intentions Uoke!). • Be polite, but do not overdo it: you need not send a thank-you note for

'

everything that happens via email. • Do not forward any email without the permission of the sender.

.witter is an Internet b (tweets of up to 140 - ~sed social network that all can co . c aracters) Yo ows you to P bf'

~::::~~:::~;,::~~~:~;~~:::~;;~~;~;:'~:,~;~~~~'~' ~~~;,;,; ~~~~;~~.:h';~~e'

operate:g:~ :~=~~~~they vvill read it i~o~n~~~e~v~n send twitterin;~i~i~~:::criminate wh~;~c1l1ty. Many people use it ~~t~, ~~cause Twitter main~f state

keep in touch with

c~ntact

colle~~~us

Twit~~r a~lp

quickly with people are doing. a public profile or to a out their work, hobbies or s or. potential clients. Becau ows you to come into tweets for a while. H ions is availabl . se personalised int: . mixing personal and is both an useful to coming into with o w1t~er messages. Twitter' . nsky element in who twitter about the · t~ers qwckly, and many ing is a good way of Ir services companies company. Increasingly though or programmes under th fl employ people and controlling . ' communication departm e ag of the product s of the compan n circulated on Twitter about thents ar~ monitoring y. e services and

~:=~ne;~~h~re

attr:c':i~ea::~o;e.

inform~tio

. Linkedl n is a virtual us 't t social network . e ' o create a profile of aimed at professional yo.ur own career, emplo people . You can current proj ects (a pub1· {Facebook and Hyv ic curriculum vitae) Just ym.ent, education and b. es, for exampl ) . as with other . e.na ling you to see their . e you can invite other social networks Lmkedln lies in the help t~rof1les and their s Ths to become s it can provide - via rec. e advantages of , network - in finding a . b roft f JO ' clients or ommendation f ' rom the expert' people to collab . s rom your P orate with . You can also ise of others via Linkedln A ou nswers. need to be aware that .f ~rail of information behind ' you engage in social netwo . on the Internet. Your potent' you leave a players may determi ne your suitability b I . ia clients and Y g ancing at social network·ing sites. .

a~

~king,

SOCIAL MEDIA: SMS, TWITTER AND LINKEDIN

The modern writer has several new media at his or her disposal, each with its own benefits, disadvantages and possibilities. A text message via SMS should, as a rule, be limited to informal s. Naturally, you will need each other's mobile telephone number to be able to do this . Text messaging has increased rapidly, especially in international communication. Its low cost, speed and the fact that it is less intrusive for the receiver than a telephone call make it a popular form of communication. Text messaging is suitable for some forms of business communication too: for short messages (up to 160 characters) and to make or change an appointment. Make sure that your text messaging does not become a conversation, with messages going back and forth. A telephone call is probably more effective. There is a greater tolerance for abbreviations, elliptical forms and even spelling mistakes in texting, although in business communication it is good to watch out for these.

follo:~:i~1on

Written communicatio . . These can vary from n within a company often replaced by email t a hand-written message ~akes place via short notes Characterized by; ho a nicely laid-out .'s increasingly being . Ually called a eading (often pre-printed) o six pages. The latte~ memorandum. and other standard parts', IS .

docum~n~

't

.V. POWER GENERATION: GROUP M EMORANDUM

Mr J. Halman (safet

N. Zuurveld (h

Y supervisor) Safety probJ ead .0 f Production) ems with i · · n1ect1on system 14 January 201 ccident re 2 r BA port, Toledo · . Sleger s (director . WI'cox Spain) Ccidents . in our bra nch in Spain have shown ...

149

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© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv LETTERS , EMAILS AND MEMOS

1.50

A memo heading enables the reader to identify the document quickly. For the writer it saves time, because he does not have to think about polite phrases in the opening and closing sentences . Although a memorandum looks a bit different from a formal report it has roughly the same requirements. As with a report, details (such as large numbers of figures) are best put in an appendix to the text.

I

Things to keep in mind when writing a memorandum The following six directions are aimed at optimizing the effectiveness of a

Mr. . Karrasch ' a busy manage · with the subject descn . ,/ In an American com a . injection." As he operator interruption a memo gave the text a cursory I ater before an American S ig pressure matters he initialled it ; ance. Thinking that it was Committee, he had reali sed that actidn forgot the memo technical routine reactor at Three Mile Isla necessary, the incident 1 If he place . n (Harrisburg) would probably not thehave nuclear taken

decla~~oln ~t

~s

w~:fterwards.

4 Make the reason for th e text 1mm . d" . ( e 1ately . . clear Do not ass ume that th e receiver nows exactly what it is all b even If it is the person

h0 a out or what the pre c1se . previous VI_ asked foris.it) history

k Compare :

memorandum.

~f ~· ~ece1ved ~nate comple~lout

1 Include the conclusion and the recommendation in the first paragraph It is not customary to include a formal summary in a memorandum, but in a slightly longer memorandum in particular, it is advisable to put the conclusion and the recommendation (such as a purchase decision) in the first paragraph. For example:

REASON CLEAR

I have tested the nois e 1eve/ in . th at five diff dapartment . erent placese an d at fifty diffe rent tim the source of the no· es to localise ise proble used the noise leve l meter I with inbuilt octave/terts filter. 393

CE~s.

CONCLUSION AT THE START OF A MEMORANDUM

'

REASON MISSING

Enclosed you will find the results of a comparative investigation into drawing programs done at your request with a view to the purchasing decision on 1 November. The investigation shows that C-Draw is the most -friendly programme with the

As agreed, during the H meeting on 23 June . ealt~ and Safety noise levels in th I investigated the Co . e workshop mplaints received b th . production departme Y e_ months about th nt dunng recent . e noise of the ~ach1.nes prompted the investigation.

best price-performance ratio.

2 Identify the role of those concerned It is customary to put the person's position behind the name in the memo heading. After all, it could be relevant whether Mr. Halman receives the memo in his capacity of safety advisor or as the chairman of the project group Production Control. If Mr Halman has unexpectedly been succeede by somebody else, the text will still reach the right person . As well as thl the receiver should know who else has been informed about the matter a copy.

Make sure your formul ations are precise. .

PRECISE FORMULATION

Is a summary of th endation made recently e b en. Y

3 Indicate the subject matter precisely

The subject should make clear to the reader if action is needed and W

Below is a summary of the recommendat" . reimb ion in respect of ursement of travelling expenses made by Van V May during th . elzen on 12 e meeting of department heads.

that action should be . SUBJECT CLEAR SUBJECT VAGUE

Re: sound measurements

Re: recommended measures t the noise level in the working

The following real-life example shows the importance of giving an subject description.

t stint on infor . than in a re mat1ve headings

I port text . ng subheadin 'you will need to st per page. The ~s. As a rule of thumb u ructure_ your memorandum inal head ing should be ~~ a minimum of three formation . ecommendations " V/SUa/

wh

.

numerical data . erever possible nb in the r · • e compared t unning text· inste d erever Possibl o o_ther data shou.ld b a ' ~ut it in a table. on. e. This will make .t .e put into a graph or a I easier for readers to process

151

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9 Putting ideas into words

Writing clearly Writing concise ly Writing compellingly Writing correctly Use of dictionari es and thesauruses entists, engineers and technologists spend much of their time doing research. However, also need to present th eir ideas, research and recommendations in a clear and lse manner to a variety of readers. Hiding the results of months of research in sing, convoluted prose is not desirable . A readable report will reach a larger audience a report that is inaccess ible. To write such a readable report it is important to write ly, concisely, compellingly and correctly. This chapter will give additional information on do this.

l

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1 54

©N oordhoff Uitgeversbv PUTTING IDEAS INTO WORDS

~ ~

Writing clearly

ty1e wi11 affect ality of your s . d at importance as the qu d achieves its desire Writing clearly is .of gre message is understood an ge across clearly: the degree to which ~ou~our ways of getting the messa effect. We will descn e 1 Use little jargon ropriately 2 Hedge app f our sentences 3 Vary the length ~nyreferences . 4 Use clear prono . ·n more detail. uidelines 1 The following subsect1·ons will discuss these g

155

perhaps, etc. to the concluding paragraph ." This piece of advice was recently given by an editor to a writer who had submitted an article for publication.

It is a misconception that all scientific writing is factual. Writers are often non-committal and vague on purpose. They use cautious language hedging - rather than assertive language. Hedging is a typical feature of form al writing. It has developed because report writing usually includes research, and in your research area there may be information that could be contested. To protect themselves against accusations that they have made errors, writers are cautious about the claims they make in their findings. Compare these two sentences:

"ttl jargon .. certain area of h e h ·cal terminology spec1f1c t? a k but if there is too fUse . d as tee ni ·t to their wor • t Jargon is de ·argon to give authon y ou use jargon or no expertise. Writers use J . ate their readers. Whether y lea ues in the same much jargon they report. If it is written the audience will depends on who will re ·1s perfectly acceptable. h . al knowledge as the h ical e tee nic field, adding tee n ho do not share the .sam f them to understand. usually include peopl~ :hat includes jargon d1fflcult or writer, making a repor

9.1.1

i~e

c~n a~~~he

I

PLAIN ENG LISH

JARGON

I t

fo~~~eve~

· gin . . ted herein, nothin Unless exphc1tly sta strued as t hall be con this agreemen .s to intellectual conferring any l1cens~ by implication or property rights, whet er otherwise. . data as. showing that We interpret this h than being a onse, actually swearing, rat e~ maladaptive pain respi c effect. produces a hypoalges A plurality of all respo ndents felt .. ·

Unless the agreemen.t s:ys so ' you are not the owner of the ide .

1 Your happiness depends on whether you drew the long or short version of a gene known as 5-HTT.

2 Your happiness may depend on whether you drew the long or short version of a gene known as 5-HTT. In the first sentence, the claim is presented as fact, indicating a high level of certainty. The second sentence , on the other hand, is more cautious , suggesting that this is the case in certain circumstances or under certain condition s, but not necessarily always .

As the exam ple shows , using cautious language allows the writer to make claims that correspond with the evidence available at the time of writing. In other words, ca utious language, or hedging, helps to make statements as accurate and fair as possible. You can hedge in various different ways:

Swearing when you hurt yourself actually makes you fee l bette r.

Many respondents felt ...

• By using verbs such as: suggest, appear to be, indicate, estimate, assume, tend , appear, seem, may, might, can, could • By using adverb s such as: seemingly, apparently, probably By using adjectives such as: unlikely, probable, certain • By using nouns such as: assumption, possibility, evidence • By using it clauses: it could be the case that. .. , it may be possible to ... • By generalizing: primarily, for the most part, to an extent

HEDGING

. ered specialized . e which are cons1d with a different this is to have other terminology, Writers will often not language. One way to c t If they have difficulty w1 d the repor . background rea eral options: the writer has sev · rgon Leave out the Ja the jargon • Translate or detail or add examples • Explain concepts

re~~~k

pe·~~l~ertain

para~~r~~r~her

Add a glossary t ng a reader· • . demonstra I . measures, the writer will be By taking these h to report writing. centered approac

ropriately . The study ·is not 1 2 Hedge app h end of the article. thors shO . . hedges at t e . Therefore , au "Please use more f all sample size. generalizable because o sm

9

tter Will become a key tool in the fight ntain the spread of illnesses and

ses.

is little difference in the type or al outcome of radiation-induced d cancer when compared with atched controls. Warming has already harmed the food production .

Twitter could become a key tool in the fight to contain the spread of illnesses and viruses. There appears to be little difference in the type or clinical outcome of radiationinduced thyroid cancer when compared with age-matched controls. There is a possibility that global warming has already harmed the world 's food production.

e

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PUTTING IDEAS INTO W VAR IETY OF LONG AN

There are many hedging words and phrases so it is important to choose one that reflects the strength of the ing evidence. The use of the word probably in the sentence below indicates that the evidence is reasonably strong. In the second sentence , the more cautious word could was chosen, showing that the evidence is probably weak. 1 Global dimming is probably caused by increased atmospheric pollution. 2 Global dimming could be caused by increased atmospheric pollution.

OROS

D SHORT SENTENCES

The fram ework provides th as well as access to stan e government with digital ma

.

~~~:;~~~n~~rF~~i~to-day in~sa;~~:: ;:i~:;~~ 'a~don1tonng s.tre~t i~fo'~a~~~~~~!~aphical data ermore , it is vital f and pla . e are

20 + 16

8

+

or the emergency services nn1ng across local ·

words

Be careful not to overdo the hedging. The challenge for writers is to choose hedging words appropriately.

9.1.3

Vary the length of your sentences

Sentences in reports are often too long ("long" being defined as containing in the area of 30 to 40 words). While long sentences allow the writer to express relatively complex ideas, if they are too long you run the risk of obscuring the intended meaning - and losing your audience. The average length of a sentence should be in the area of 15 to 20 words.

Whether you make a 1ong or sh t . or sentence, it is good both should contain onl You could also use 1· t y one idea. to that · is to clarif more clearly in a list f ormat. Y your ideas. Inform at'JOn often com es across

NUMBERED LIST

I

Sentences will tend to become too long when we: • Use stock phrases that do not add meaning to the sentence • Use a lot of words when the same idea could be expressed with one or two • Try to put too much information into one sentence, thereby creating many sub-clauses A short sentence is one that has no more than 10 words. There are advantages to writing shorter sentences. Firstly, readers will get through the report quicker as they will not get stuck in a dense mass of words. Secondly, the reader will be more likely to understand the text as short sentences are more direct and are easy to comprehend. Thirdly, writers tend to make fewer constructions and punctuation mistakes with short sentences. However, a report consisting of only short sentences can make the report feel choppy. So it is best to follow this advice: 1 Restrict the number of long sentences by splitting them when they

I

'

become difficult to read. 2 Vary longer sentences with shorter ones . 3 Use bulleted lists.

Software development tak

1 plann ing 2 3 4 5

es place in several steps:

application testing documenting installation

Many organizations are involve . d in software development

and most use th IS ' model.

he .fr~mework provides the d1g1tal ma pping government with the followin . geographica l data g. access to standardized

property and street information

e are vital for the e . mergency services ltoring and plann ing across local gove:n:e~~ll as day-to-day in-service provision ,

LONG AND COMPLICATED SENTENCE

The framework provides the government with digital mapping and geographical d as well as access to standardized property and street information , which are vita not only the emergency services , but also to day-to-day in-service provision, monitoring and planning across local government. 43 words

Umbered i·ists present i . . ms in a rando terns in a certain o d . llst items an;t~rder. R~member to use : ~while unnumbered lists show y lists: the more :ake list items consistent ad-1n sentence to introduce 4 ere are, the more they te~~ ~:~~!ure. ~void having too Use clear e their effectiveness text contains pro pronoun references hlch refer to th' nouns such as this th en the two m ings or persons menti~ ese, ders might

.

th~t,

those, they, their. i

m~=~~=rpret clear. When it is ~~tdc~;:v1ouhsly. The reltition~ht/p them. r w at these words refer

157

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l

©N oordhoff Uitgevers bv PUTT/NG IDEAS INTO WORDS

INTRODUCTION FULL OF UNNECESSARY DETAILS AND DIGRESSIONS UNCLEAR REFERENCE

.

Indian elephants have smaller ears than African e a hotter climate .

lephants as they have to c ope with

the word they can Because the sentence co nsists of various plura l nouns, refer to: • Indian elephants

The first thing people Will wonder about when they read the title of this report is what is meant by it. The title not only suggests that there is little water in Rwanda but also that there are quite a few problems surrounding the all-important water catchments. The problems encountered by aid workers from abroad should be addressed in particular. Technical aspects such as the lack of machines and engineering knowledge or climatic which all cause materials to deteriorate quickly, an important role circumstances in this. play Certain issues will be listed and evaluated in this report.

• African elephants the problem in this " . tead of the pronoun they so lves Using "the former ins case. This text could be shortened Without losing important information .

I

h nts as the former have to than African elep a Indian elephants hav.e smaller ears cope with a hotter climate.

CLEAR REFERENCE

f unclear pronoun reference are listed be low. Other examples o - -- - .,.

INTRODUCTION WITHOUT DIGRESSION

As there is little water in Rwanda , effective water catchment is of vital importance. Unfortunately, this is quite a problematic issue. Foreign aid workers have encountered the following problems: lack of machinery, lack of local engineering knowledge and climatic circumstances Which cause materials to deteriorate quickly. This report contains a list and evaluation of the prob/ems surrounding water catchment in Rwanda.

CLEAR REFERENCE

UNCLEAR REFERENCE

. rohibits smoking In Government policy p pie resent this public places. Many peo

. rohibits smoking in Government pol1~y p an people resent. public places which m Y

policy. . is research becau Smith discontinued h t provide fundln the sponsors would no

. search because Smith discontinued .his ;ending. they would not provide u

9.2.2

Limit the number of words

In order to make a text look more formal, writers sometimes use phrases that actually add nothing to the meaning of the sentence. The text will become less wordy and more readable if these phrases are left out.

The report says that nose blowing can: raise blood pressure.

It says .1n the report tha t nose blowing . e blood pressure. can ra1s

All things considered, it has become more difficult for urban planners to play a significant role in the development of cities.

~

Writing concisely

.

I

thy reports a stru

d fo r time and will find eng 't'1ng an abridge ft n presse t mean wn Iv Readers are o e riting concisely does no te direct and re e to get through . Bu~r~ Concise also means acceu~~is; version of the rep 'th which you can ach1ev There are two w~ys w1 1 Avoid digression ds . in more de uidelines . ·11 explore these g The fol lowing su b sect1ons w1

AH tMiAgs eeAsidered, It has become more difficult for urban planners to play a significant role in the development of cities. As a matter of fact, it has become more difficult for urban planners to play a significant role in the development of cities.

2 Limit the number of wor

Avf~i: i~~~~csu~~~o stick to the ~e~~~1~~s~oo wordy. Some writers in eak· ful l of digress10 .

• n

9.2.1

same ma nner as they sp

.

.

They write I

As a A1aHe1 et fact, It has become-more difficult for urban planners to play a significant role in the development of cities .

159

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PUTTING IDEAS INTO WORDS

To all intents and

.t has become more To all intents and purposes~~ play a significant role in diffi cult fo r urba n pl a n~ers th e development of c1t1es. It has become more

To al l intrnts and purposes~o play a significant role in difficult for urban pla~~ers the development of c1t1e s.

. . . using several words wh_en one b plain examp English!eiss with suggested alternatives: Another o stacle to writing common will do. Here are some

0

Writing compellingly A report does not have to be a literary masterpiece. Too many figures of speech , met aphors and cliches might even raise suspicion. Readers appreciat e a professional, clear and informative style. That does not mean your report should be dry, abstract and unreadable . Even a professional text can be pleasant to read. There are some rules of thumb to achieve this . 1 Give functional examples 2 Avoid figures of speech

3 Use th e appropriate and be consistent 4 Make sentences active 5 vary your vo cabulary, sentence length and sentence structures These rules of thumb can be found in the following sections.

TOO MA NY WORDS

SHORTER VERSION

On of th e fa ct that

because

Due to th e fact that

because

EXAMPLE

It was necessary to use a very intense source of a-rays on t:lf tile fae~ thtlt-because the amount of reflection is very small.

9.3.1

Give useful examples

Examples are welcome additions to a text. They make abstract theory concrete and provide th e reader with an opportunity to digest the information.

STATEMENT CLARIFIED WITH AN EXAMPLE

Because of th e fact that

because

At the present time

now

Due to U'\e fact t l'lat Because habitat s are being restored, forest creatures are also . re-establishing their population ba ses.

A lot of waste is produced in the Netherlands . Each person produces, on average, one garbage bag per day. Dumping oil is extre me ly detrimental to our drinking water. Imagine a fish erman t hrowing a litre of motor oil overboard. He probably does not realize that by doing 'SO he makes a mill ion lit res of water unfit to serve as drinking water. uch of the corn grown on US soil is used for biomass fu el. In fact , 40% of that orn now goes direct ly into petrol tanks.

Avoid figures of speech ures of speech com e in many shapes and forms. Fiction writers often and make the text more

a them to attract th e reader's attention

Have a tendency to

tend (verb)

In the event that

if

rtaining. However, figures of s peech are very language-specific and are CUit to translate. Th e scientific world is international and educated Pie whose native language is not English should be able to understand Bl Writing. Avoid figures of speech in your technical reports: they will create confusion .

EXAMPL ES

By means of

through

In the majority of in stan ces

mostly

Reverse engineering Not unsuccessful .. . is a can of worms Dark light Less is more As old as the hills Necessary requirement

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PUTT/NG IDEAS INTO WORDS

9.3.3

Use t he appropriate and be consistent

The difference between formal and informal English is not a difference between correct and incorrect, but a difference of what is known as . In report writing, the style will generally be formal because reports are formal documents, but writers often go a step further making the text more bombastic than merely formal. Formal writing simply means avoiding contractions (e.g. isn 't), street talk (e .g. cool) , cliches (e.g. cream of the crop) and everyday expressions (e.g. back in the day) which are all considered informal and thus not suitable for report writing. Here are some examples of the difference between formal and informal language.

Omit Oppose Perfo rm Receive Regarding Represent State Submit Sufficient

Leave out Go against Do Get About Stand for Say Hand in Enough Check

FORMAL INFORMAL

It's important to realize that .. . The results don 't show a difference. A guy from TU Delft ... It was a wicked assignment. Life is not a rose garden. Life is tough. Every coin has two sides . Last but not least . .. On top of that ...

It is important to realize that ... The results do not show a difference. A researcher from TU Delft ... It was an interesting assignment. Life presents a number of challenges. There are advantages and disadvantages. A final and equally important point is ...

Of course , th e level of formalit s y hould be decided

9.3.4

Make sent

. .f . ences act1"v Sc1ent1 1c texts normal/ Y contain . a te 1

°

h:~he

"th w1 the reader in mind.

proce~:u~t1on.s

of ive cons . focus of the text is not 0 described. On t he other agent but on the since the ive voice enhances th d, using the active voice rath r pnnc1ple being make a sentence active . e readability of the text . S omet1mes er thanit the is easy to

Another point is .. . IVE

Formal writing does not mean that simple words are unacceptable. The word ensure is not inherently better than make sure, and tell is not inferior to disclose. The difference between these words stems from historic times. English is, like Dutch, a Germanic language in origin. However, the French language, which has its origin in Latin, has also greatly influenced the English language, introducing many new words. Historically, French was spoken in formal settings such as the royal and legal courts whereas English was spoken by the common people, thus creating a dichotomy between the two which still exists to this day. Many word s in the English language have two forms: a Latinate form and a Germanic form. Latina words are generally one word verbs while Germanic words are often multi-word verbs: phrasal verbs. The Latinate forms are often consider more formal than their Germanic counterparts. Some are listed below.

hapman argues t hat. . . nes & Smith draw a link to show that.. . between X and sicists at TU Delft h possibility of cold f ave researched s. us1on for many

e. results indicate

a numb

er of

It is argued that A link was draw~ show that... etween X and Y to

·b

The possibility of cold f . researched by Ph . . us1on has been ys1c1sts at TU many years. Delft for A number of things are . . these results. indicated by

a way of reducing th combination with h e use of the ive voice i . pie· "Th ' p rases such as "th · s by using reporting IS report" "this chapte•" F verbs . is chapter presents the results 0 f th '· or e experiment. "

SEMI-FORMAL WORDS FORMAL WORDS

Ascertain Commence Conduct Consider Demonstrate Discuss Exceed Indicate Manufacture

Find out Begin Carry out Think about Show Talk about Go over Point out Make

acknowledge assert conclude estimate foresee mention ropose quest lpulate

it assume confirm expect guara ntee note rea lize revea l suggest

agree believe consider explain hold notice recall rule suppose

allege claim decide fear hope object reckon rumour think

announce comment decree feel imply observe recommend say understand

163

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PUTTING IDEAS INTO WORDS

9.3 .5

Vary your vocabulary, sentence length and sentence structures

Repetition is boring. Use the thesaurus function and grammar check in your word processing program to vary your vocabulary. Doing this will help you create a more readable report that will keep the reader 's attention.

Present continuous t Th ense . used . fte present continuou s is o en. used in interim re o in any situation that i . so it is translated as 'b P ns): There is no Dutch t s ongoing (and is ez1g z11n met ' or 'is aan het~~se that conveys this,

165

DUTCH INCORRECT ENGLISH

~ Writing correctly

CORRECT ENGLISH

The growing trend for bilingual education and the use of English as the standard language in business has led to the need to write professional texts in English . Dutch researchers are very active when it comes to publishing articles. Although Dutch researchers write a lot of reports and articles, there is often a difference between texts written by native speakers and those written by non-native speakers. This section aims to highlight some of the signs that betray reports written by non-native speakers of English.

9 .4.1

Tenses

Formal writing employs all of the tenses of English . The most problematic

Windturb ines worden steeds gebruikeliik , er.

9.4.2

Windturbines b commonplace. ecome more

Windturbines are b . more commonp/a ecoming ce .

ive voice

In English , th e ive vo1· . t' . I ce is used . P.~r 1c1p e wh ereas in Dutch the .with the auxiliary verb zun and a past participle ive is formed by th be and a past . e verbs Worden or

A common error is that Dut h the auxiliary verb be. c speakers sometime s use the wrong t ense of

are discussed below: Past simple The past simple tense is often used for descriptions of methods, procedures and results . Note that when there is a time adverbial in the sentence, Dutch uses the perfect tense (voltooide tijd) where English would use a past simple.

INCORRECT ENG LISH

DUTCH

Tusse n 19 46 en 1982 heeft Nederland radioactief afval gedumpt in de Atlantische en lndische oceaan.

The Netherlands has dumped radioactive waste in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean between 1946 and

CORRECT ENG LISH

The Netherlands dump radioactive waste in th Atlantic and Indian Oc between 1946 and 19

1982 .

DUTCH INCORRECT ENG LISH CORRECT ENGLISH

De verschil/ ende vluchtfases zijn eerder behandeld in hoofdstuk twee. It prototype is ontwikkeld oor de TU Delft.

Th e different flight ph ar t ases e reated previously (see Chapter 2).

This prototype is developed by the TU Delft

The different flight phas were treated previously es (see Chapter 2).

This prototype was developed by the TU Delft.

In these examples Dutch uses the past sim~/e ~::s the present simple ive wher E . ,4, e ng/1sh

3

Present perfect tense The present perfect tense is used for situations or actions that started the past and continue now. However, Dutch uses the present simple t with prepositional phrases of time .

DUTCH

INCORRECT ENG LISH

GRACE maakt al sinds 2002 zorgvuldige metingen van het zwaartekrachtveld van de aarde.

The GRACE satellite makes detailed measurements of Earth 's gravity field since March

2002 .

CORRECT ENGLISH

The GRACE sate made detailed measurements gravity field sin

2002 .

me . Word order times a mistake is ha . Yet the sentence do rd to pinpoint. The gramm . use the word order es not fee/ right to a native ar might be impeccable lM either at the be . is _not correct. In English . speaker. It may be on is the end f ginning or the end of a , important information ca sentence. In Dutch though the usual n ng sentence cf ion is placed at the be . . e opposite. Here, the early shows the influe ginning of the sentence Th nee of the Dutch way: . e

~ssentia/ info~m!~e

i~~~~~nce,

•

t

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Note that in sentences where the object is a clause er is translated by it. CORRECT ENGLISH POOR ENGLISH

DUTCH

. lly in the social Espec1a sciences, many are . . . about the effects optim1st1c of human rights on the pOSI.t .10 n of migrants.

Vooral in de sociale wetensc happen zijn velen optimistisch over de effecten van de mensenrechten op de pOSI·t·e I van migranten.

Many are optimistic about the effects of human rights on the position of migrants •. . lly in the social espec1a

DUTCH

Er wordt gezegd dat de planeet gevaar loopt. Er wordt vaak gedacht dat...

sciences.

9.4.5 . . SVO (subject-verb-object) . h t English is a t· The thing to remem~=~~:: f~llows the OVS order is incorrec . language. A senten

Op veel universiteiten wordt studenten gevraagd in groepen te werken.

There is said that the planet is in danger. There is often thought that. ..

CORRECT ENGLISH

It is said that the planet is in danger. It is often thought that .. .

Pronouns

In report writing, the personal pronouns I and we are avoided. Students sometimes try to get around this problem by translating Dutch men with the pronoun one, as in: One can find the information in Chapter 3. While this is correct English, it is outdated.

CORRECT ENGLISH

INCORRECT ENGLISH

DUTCH

INCORRECT ENGLISH

At many universities are k . · d to war in students require groups.

At many universities students are required to work in groups.

There are severa l ways writers can avoid using the personal pronouns I or we: • By using an inanimate subject

GENERALLY NOT ACCEPTA BLE ACCEPTABLE

94 4

There

T~e .Dutch word

. to there in English.

er translates in

I Interpret the results as [ .. . ] In this chapter I will discuss [ .. . ] In this report I will describe [ .. . ]

The results indicate [ .. . ] This chapter discusses[ .. .] This report describes[ .. .]

ENGLISH

DUTCH

I have been there. I es in Colombl There are many vo cano

• By using the impersonal pronoun it and a ive tense:

ACCEPTABLE

. ver b of the sentence,. er cannot be . t the main If a form of to be is nol k at the following sentences. translated with there. oo

DUTCH

Er zijn fouten gemaakt. Er is veel onderzoek naar gedaan. .. Van de tien zijn er v1Jf afgekeurd. Aan het eind van een cursus wordt er geevalueerd . Er wordt verwezen naar de site condities .

INCORRECT ENGLISH

CORRECT ENGLISH

Uld say that the prediction accuracy in area is inadequate. elleve this approach has significant ations. ct that this method will be highly Ve.

. takes made. There were mis There was much research done . ere five Of the ten there w discarded. At the end of a course there is evaluated. There is referre d to the site conditions.

Five out of ten w discarded. Evaluations are end of a cours

It can be said that the prediction accuracy in this area is inadequate. It is believed this approach has significant implications. It is expected that this method will be highly effective.

ACCEPTABLE

that the prediction acc uracy is insufficient. this approach has significant this method wi ll be high ly

The prediction accuracy in this area is said to be insufficient. This approach is believed to have significant implications. This method is expected to be highly effective.

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9.4.6

Countable versus uncountable nouns

The words number and amount , and much and many, are often confused. Wh ich word you choose has to do with whether it refers to a countable or uncountable noun . Countable nouns are nouns that have both singular and plura l forms . Countab le nouns often found in reports are:

9.4. 1

False friends

There are a few words in Dutch . mean different things Be and English that look very s · .1 . careful not to confus th im1 ar and yet e ese words: DUTCH INCORRECT ENGLISH CORRECT ENGLISH

chapter report task

idea effect machine

method issue problem

Example sentence : Two different methods were used to correct the data. Uncountable nouns have no plura l form and therefore take a singular verb. Another characteristic of an uncountable noun is that you cannot put 'a/an' in front of it. " He gave me an advice " is therefore incorrect English . Several

De volgende stap is het controleren van de resultaten.

knowledge environment equipment

machinery technology information

Example sentence: A great deal of research was conducted and good

The next step is to check the results.

Here is a list of common fa/ se f nends. .

DUTCH

ENGLISH

examples are:

research advice progress

The next step is to control the results.

current/ present draft consistent check Any/ possible job section systematic technology opinion

consequent controleren ventuee/ unctie aragraaf ructuree/ chniek le

progress has been made.

ENGLISH

DUTCH

actual concept consequent control eventual function paragraph structural technique vision

feite/ijk idee logisch gevo/g beheersen uiteindelijk doe/ a/inea echte structuur werkwijze bee/d van de toekomst

Note that collective nouns such as government or data can have either a singular verb or plura l verb. • The government has decided to invest more in promoting sustainable energy. • The government have decided to invest more in promoting sustainable: energy. • The data indicates that more research needs to be done. • The data indicate that more research needs to be done. Use number or many when talking about something countable and us amount or much when referring to an uncountable noun .

INCORRECT ENG LISH

Colombia has around 1 ,000 airports but only a small amount of them have paved runways. Too many snow can cause avalanches .

CORRECT ENGLISH

Colombia has around 1,000 al only a small number of them h runways. Too much snow can cause av,

B.4.S

Punctuation

Punctuation m tt Often d a ers beca use it facilitate . epends on accurate punctuation s dreading and because meaning an punctuation Ost of the punctuation rul es are the . . ever, there are some differ same in Engl ish as in Dutch sectio ences and th · n, a few basic rules will be' given . ese should be kept in mind. In comma • fore and or

.

or in a seri es of three

roads d ' ams, and ra il roads.

Parate two . r. independent cl 'so, or, nor, Yet) auses connected with a co n1unct1on . . (and,

.

gone through m r issue. any changes in the last century and b . ' o servat1on has

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PUTTING IDEAS INTO WORDS

3 After the introductory phrase, clause

clause or word and before the main '

d . the introduction, it is important to have a program Is state in d t · nd To achieve the goa the reliability of the a a. th the corresponding times a bserve the place on ear ' structure that ensures · a KML file. tellite is able to 0 h atellite are stored in t be taken into . If the sa positions oft e s hazards that have o However, there are some

. ·s 4 If the information I non-essential . a fault started to form. to orogenes1s, Then, because of all the stress due

I

INCORRECT ENGLISH CORRECT ENGLISH

De ingenieur die het contract wint, wil een idee krijgen van de mogelijke site problemen. Dit bepaalt de positie van de satelliet en berekent de minimale afstand.

The engineer who wins the contract, will want to get an idea of possible site problems.

The engineer who wins the contract will want to get an idea of possible site problems.

This defines the position of the satellite, and calculates the minimal distance.

This defines the position of the satellite and calculates the minimal distance.

The apostrophe In the English language, apostrophes are used in contractions (don't) and to show possession (Professor Brown's work).

DUTCH

. discourse an d a q uotation 5 To shift between the main

INCORRECT ENGLISH CORRECT ENGLISH

Residu's Collega 's

. t go to the window, look up, and smile for Stephen Wri.ght sa.:d, "Every s 0 often I like o a satellite picture.

Residue's Colleague's

Residues Colleagues

In English -s is used to show the plural form of abbreviated wordt such as CDs. 6 To set off geograp hical information

. .is located in a hilly area. Los Bambinos, Colombia,

7 To separate eac h group of three digits

The costs are estimated at $28 ,000,000.

The semi-colon Use the semi-colon to link two independent clauses not connected by a conjunction and that show a close relationship.

e values are set in Aircraft class; they are followed by an increment.

The colon Use a colon to introduce a list, a quotation or a final clause that explains ·

What went before the colon. Do not use a comma b. ct from the verb • to separate the su 1e t have the same subject. • to separate ve~bs th~ utch 5,5 is 5.5 in English to indicate decimals, D

171

DUTCH

aln causes are the following: poverty, lack of education and disease. la states: "Do not place a colon immediately after a verb." ompanies have two mobile device platforms with one similar thing in common: re unable to fully multitask.

Run-on sentences

•

Ing Punctuation can lead to run-on sentences like this one: Investment can contribute to the development of a country it can Vlde employment.

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173

We can correct th .is sen tence in several ways .

By using a semi. coo help the developmen t of a I n Foreign direct investment can

Some commonly used expressions with prepositions are:

GOU ntry .'

it can also

employmenp~rate

provide sentences I ent of a country. It can also By creating two se help the deve opm Foreign direct investment can rovide employment. country and it can also ~yForeign using a conjunction help the development of a direct investment can provide employment. is not possible. Using a com ma to separate the two independent clauses

Compa re something t o something (resemblances) Com pa re something with something (differences) Conduct/ pursue/ carry out research on something Differ from something The effect/ influence of something on somebody/something Give an in sight into something Have an effect/ influence on somebody/ something Present somebody with something Provid e information on something Write a report on something

Then vs. than

9.4.1 0

Miscellaneous

Then is an adverb that refers to time and often denotes the place in a sequence.

At last/ Last/ Lastly ressions at last with last or lastly. At last means after Do not confuse the exp a long de lay.

First, a simulation is made using a Java program and then calculations are done.

. wa s at last done. After 14 years, justice

Than is a conjun ction or preposition used in comparisons. Last or Lastly .is us ed at the end of a sequence.

The honeycomb structure is stronger than the cylindrical one.

· Chapter 6. Last/Lastly, the recomm endations: these w1-11 be discusse d in

Use of dictionaries and thesauruses u should aim to be . nee between last or lastly_but yo of a sequence then you There is no d1ffere d f1'rst at the beginning di" lastly are n consistent. If you have use d of that sequence. F.trs tly,' secon . British English t h should use last at the ~nand are also more common in considered mom forma in American Engl ish .

It Is important to vary your expressions. Using a database with standard Phrases is recomm ended. The Academic Phrasebank of the University of Manchester http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk contains a plethora Of Phrases you can use in your report, varying from ways to formulate the Urpose of your report to ways to express criticism. Some examples:

Prepositions . . in English have a tendency to use the same Id use in Dutch: Dutch writers wnting prepositions that they wou

DUTCH

Het doel van dit rapport is om inzicht te geven in het ontwerpen van een vliegtuig.

INCORRECT ENGLISH

h' eport The purpose oft ~si~sight in . to provide som design of an airplane .

~~e

CORRECT ENGLISH

The purpose o report is to pr insight into th an airplane .

Per Will focu s on/ examine/ give an of .. . say critically examines/ discusses/ traces .. . Of this paper is to determine/ examine .. . Ose of this paper is to review recent research into the . .. r Will review t he research conducted on . .. Per I argue t hat . . . • ter reviews t he lit erature concerning the usefulness of using .. .

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Highlighting a knowledge gap in the field of study (for research):

I

So far, however, there has been little discussion about ... However, far too little attention has been paid to ... Most studies in X have only been carried out in a small number of areas . The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than Y. In addition, no research has been found that surveyed ... So far this method has only been applied to ... Several studies have produced estimates of X (Smith, 2002; Jones, 2003), but there is still insufficient data for ... However, there have been no controlled studies which compare differences in ...

Identifying a study's weakness:

I

However ... The main weakness of the study is the failure to address how ... The study fails to consider the differing categories of damage that ... The research does not take into pre-existing ... such as ... The author offers no explanation for the distinction between X and Y. Smith makes no attempt to differentiate between various different types of X. The paper would appear to be over ambitious in its claims. The author overlooks the fact that X contributes to Y. What Smith fails to do is to draw a distinction between ...

to activate your computer's spell check to check the text tor spelling errors and inconsistencies between different varieties of English. Use a search engine such as Google to see whether your intended use of word is generally accepted. Do be discerning about the sites you are directed to. For example, if you are wondering whether you can use "empl cycle" you will undoubtedly find sites which mention this, but they will mostly be non-English websites . You can safely say, therefore, that the te "empiric cycle " derives from a sort of "in-between" language rather than correct English . The correct term is "empirical cycle."

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©Noordhotf Uitgevers bv 177

I

10 Persuasive writing

Aim the report at decision-makers with little time Answer the questions of readers whose opinion counts Formulate persuasively Techniques that border on deception

let us say you have worked for three months on deg an inclinometer for cyclists. The

~erson who commis sioned the instrument - a manufacturer of bicycle computers -

has to clde on the basis of your design report whether to take the inclinometer in production or t. The design meets all the requirements: it is easy to use and can be read while cycling. Wei/ as this, it can be integrated into the latest bicycle computers. But if this ingenious algn not backed up by a convincing report, the chances are small that cyclists will ever youris inclinometer.

chapter offers advice on how to increase the persuasiveness of texts. It deals Clal/y With texts on the basis of which a decision has to be made, such as feasibility les and design or policy proposals. times Writers balance on the divide between being convincing and misleading. What lcally justified or not may sometimes be a personal matter and may sometimes on the purpose of the text. As a reader, it is useful for you to know what techniques Use to mislead you. A number of tricks that are often used in real-life situations are th in the final section of this chapter.

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fI!D Aim the report at decision-makers with little t ime A convincing text improves the chance of your recommendation being adopted or your design or policy report being implemented. This chapter is all about achieving the desired result and how a text can contribute to that. Firstly, it is important for you to know who your readers are. Most important are those readers who will decide on whether to adopt your proposal or recommendations. Very often they do not have or take the time to read an extensive report from start to finish. As such, you need to make sure that the main message cannot escape them, even if they only spend a few minutes on your report. The following recommendations are formulated with the reading behaviour of decision-makers in mind.

I

The title should contain the main conclusion Put the most important conclusion in the title of the report. This is especially recommended if readers are likely to be either neutral or positive towards your advice. You need to give them a perspective from which to read the rest of the report. If you expect some opposition or objections, it might be more effective to formulate a relatively neutral title.

© Noordhott Uitgevers bv

PERSUASIVE WRITING

Conclusions and recommend t· Research has shown tha a .'°ns straight after th . strategies, both equal/ t dec1s1on-makers adopt two e introduction • Skipping to d y common:2 main reading an fro through knowledge very often the report. Readers wit looking for answers t already have questions in th h a lot of prior o. Their questions will dictatee1r heads that they are behaviour. • Following the d their reading 0 r er of the ch . The risk with this t apters but skippin fa . la st chapter and . ype of reading is that the reagd rge portions of text • in many r er will n t · your conclusions and eports this is where the . get to your You will take maxim recommendations. main information is· um advantag · the conclusions and th e of these readin . . . introduction. e recommendations immedg strategies If you insert lately after the

?

PLAN FOR A TABLE OF

CONTENTS Al

MED AT DECISION-MAKER

Executive summary

s WITH LITTLE TIME

1 Introduction 2 Conclus ions and re

3 (... )

commendations

TITLE SHOULD CONTAIN YOUR CONCLUSION

Infusion pumps for home use: a growing market with good opportunities

TITLE IS NEUTRAL

Deal with counter-arguments :eople who are critical of a immediately. If you hav proposal usually think of with any counter-a rg e a cnt1caf reading public it . counter-arguments Will increase th e cre~~~i~ts in the text and to refut~s t~ goo_d idea to deaf proposal will be accept /of your report and with it th em If you can. This e . e chance that your

Feasibility study into infusion pumps for home care DISPROVING A COUNTER-ARGUMENT

Summary in one paragraph The summary serves the important purpose of enabling decision-makers to familiarise themselves with the contents of the text. In the case of extensive reports, it might pay to include a very short (one paragraph) summary which deals with the main question and the main conclusion and/ or recommendation. You could either do this on the title page of the report or in a memo in which the main issues surrounding the decision a

fully automated park· rs on the same floor'~~::age (FAP) makes it possible to emselves: they drive it into . People do not drive their car .p:rk a greater number of car to a free parkin an elevator, get out and in o the garage ry make that extra a~ space. Our proposal counter a comp~ter-controlled FAP take :,1e business:s attract extra traffic. that neighbour: ng in the neighbourho d 1m~ed1ate vicinity. It has th is o~ly intended for o as it can reduce localized ek~otent1af to improve par ing pressure.

~nd

;~,~~~~ts

~h:n~Ao:1.ections

clarified.

THE REPORT SUMMARIZED

There is a growing need for infusion pumps for use in home care . The device hospitals are too complex for home use. This report demonstrates that the market is viable for our company from a financial, technical and marketing P view. The pump that is most suitable for home care is the type lnCare 210. adaptations, we can make this pump suitable for safe use in the home.

rt With the st re~der is infl~:~~=~\;roposal or argument With your Y the order in h' . Posa/ is ca rd and is presented. g too. Psychological rese a~ your last argument or arc shows that the first and

con~;~~~gest

make:~~: :~formation

...

utel!ng

s, R. (1997) D . eenteraads/e . e e1genzinntge lezer H den bele1dsteksten beo d . oe Tweede-Kamerleden en o~ elen o · iss. Den Haag: Sdu.

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············------------~=~d:h:off ©Noor Uitgevers bv . , pro posals , etc .) uments criteria . an enumeration (arg ' e that all of the While you should ensur an bear the the last elements in .

att~~~~o~.at

rea~ c~~:~ll;e~evant and the most

attract the most needs to be arguments in every d r limit yourself tot e . f critical rea e • scrutiny o a t or proposals . powerful argumen s

. e a point-by-point . strategy if you us . a You will profit the most fr~~i~~:our arguments or proposals in enumeration rather than continuous text.

ARG UMENTS ENUMERATED PO

I

;ooot~~~

~:rantee

H~h::swoold

w~~molition

years . This has to do with o J If the economic tide does not existing buildings . h building is cause for high rental prices for unusual 3 The rentab1l1ty oft e ·11 not be prepared to p y go our way, businesses w1 architecture.

conce~n.

l suits first ositive results before . . Mention pos1twe re our results , accentuate the p disappointing results.you Wh en you mention y ful ones . If there are n The following I s success · roved upo · dealing with the es these may be able to be imp "bes the design of a new should indicatef of starting a report comparisons o I m demonstrate e interface for a contro roo

:~~s

NEGATIVE ASPECT FIRST

Conclusion h e ·1s still a lot to f t that t er Despite the ac 1 0 the interface for improve on Global . ' k The design does wor · the control room . di yet and not all is not very -fr;;b: operated via systems can as y t nly two of the t the momen o I Global: a with the system. t operators can work b r before Global will take until Novemt eall eight desks. will be able to opera e t the beginning There w1·11 be an update a of next year.

NoordhofUitgevers bv PERSUASIVE WRITING

€I!B Answer the questions of readers whose opinion counts

Decision-makers and specialists read a report with different questions in mind . As a writer you can make use of this. The better you know your readers, the easier it will be to select the arguments that will convince them. It starts with the way in which you formulate the importance of the report. Decision-makers often look for an answer to standard decision issues and specialists also have standard points they look for when weighing up a proposal. Since specialists advise decision-makers, it is important that your text convinces them too. ·

·1 to abandon the planne

hy we are ad vising the counc1 been laying down new are three reasons w d town hall. estete w;th '" ao ooce\;able pacty. tmosfec the eofae 1 The developer has proven table to the council since h t are unaccep · h" two . . . be delivered wit in conditions t a e council. financial risk burden to that the building permit for the b"ections to granting a 2 The developer cannot g_

~~~~og

II

d

INT BY-POINT -

©

tt~att~:s~~proaches.

POSITIVE RESULT FIRST

Conclusion . o erating all The project aimed at I ~oom via one systems in the contro essful With; been succ . Global 1.0 on interface ha~ implementation of ontrol roorn k in the c the eight des s h d of schedul even two weeks a eta rs will be tr November, all oper; ~Y operation and Global will b;illube impleme second version This will beginning of next yet~·to the us further improve~~nthe two re and will meant a ning on systems currently r~; operate monitors can also

10.2.1

Convince your readers of t he importance of your report

Why should people read your report? You need to answer this question at the very start of your report. If your readers do not immediately realize that the report is important for them there is a great chance that it will disappear unread in a drawer. How can you make the importance of your text clear to your readers? One way of doing this is to point out serious problems that conflict with the company 's aims or the wishes of the readers . You will build up a certain tension in this way, a tension that the solution in your report will defuse. After all , a report se rves the purpose of providing a solution to a problem . The following introductions to the same report demonstrate the point.

IMPORTANCE CLEAR

During the production of elementary hosphorus , micros copically small rticles are fo rme d that are sufficiently filtered out using the sting techni ques at Chempro . earch has been done into ways of Ing these small pa rticles to grow, Ing separation poss ible.

During the production of elementary phosphorus, microscopically small particles are formed that are insufficiently filtered out using the existing techniques at Chempro. As a consequence, the aimed-for reduction in emissions to below the norm that will be in force from July next year cannot be met. Exceeding the norm after 1 July will lead to hefty fines (€25,000 per incident).

not always necessary to make the conflict fully explicit. If, for example , described situation is evidently contrary to general business aims, is no need to spell out why a solution is imperative:

ember and January, there were three instances of problems at Stipra BV Shutting down the press installations for maintenance. In two cases, Were caught in a j am when an installation was started up prematurely. Were the cause of another employee having to be hospitalised with roblems.

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10.2 .2

Answer the questions that decision-makers usually ask

Decision-makers usually seek answers to questions revolving around the necessity for change and the feasibility of the proposed plan.

@ Noordhoff

Uitg evers bv

PERSUASIVE WRITING

Questions specialists want answered M in question of the report

• aHas the right question been asked? Questions decision-makers want answered

.

Research method

The need for change

1 Are there problems in the current situation that justify new measures? 2 Are these structural problems?

How was the research carried out? . Is this a good way of answering the central question? , Has the investigation been carried out well and have responsible choices been made?

Feasibility of the proposal

3 4 5 6

What is the proposal? Is the proposal practicable (financially, technically, etc.)? Is the proposal efficient (will it solve the problems)? Are the advantages greater than the potential disadvantages?

Quality of the information used

, Have the right data been used? , Has no relevant information been left out? Specifications and other evaluation criteria

'

Whether you need to address all questions in equal detail will depend on the purpose of your report. Sometimes everybody will be aware of the urgency of the problem: take, for example, the car manufacturer whose brake problems have led to a lot of publicity. If this is the case, you need only mention the problem briefly, shifting the focus to the cause and an assessment of the possible solutions (questions 2 to 6). Your purpose might be to convince management first that measures are necessary. In this case, your report or memo need only deal with questions 1 and 2. In the example of the car manufacturer, this could be relevant If doubts had arisen about the braking system during the tests in the factory, The severity of the problem will determine whether management should c for further research or look closely at what measures are available. For a text to be convincing it is not enough to state that there are serious problems . You have to show what the problems are and preferably substantiate them with facts (research results , figures, opinions of expe etc .) that demonstrate that the problems are really serious .

10.2.3

, What specifications/criteria have to be met? Why these specifications? • To what extent do th e options meet the specifications? 1 Was the evaluation done correctly? 1

Consequences of th e investigation

Do the conclusions follow from the results? 1 , Are the recomm endations practicable? What this means for the report is that the introduction needs to raise the main question and briefly describe how to answer that question . An extensive justification of the method used is best put in an appendix: often It Is only relevant to a limited number of readers. Acknowledge the information that you use to base your report on. In the case of data in figure form , always quote your source so that the data can be verified. The readers should be able to easily locate the specifications and other criteria in the report (preferably all in one section).

Questions specialists want answered

Specialists can play a crucial role as advisors of decision-makers, especially when the subjects are technically or financially complex. Like decision-makers, specialists rarely take the time to read the whole repo They want to find a quick answer to their questions . A badly organised report will give them the idea that you will not have carried out the investigation carefully and may easily lead to advising management that recommendations be turned down. It pays , therefore, to put plenty oftl into convincingly presenting information that is important to specialists. Somebody from the Planning and Control Department will look at a text different way to his colleague from the Production Department or the fl legal advisor. However, even though they will be looking for different answers in the report, they will want to know whether the right things ( of their particular area of expertise) have been investigate~ and critically examined , and whether this has been done in a responsible manner.

WLEDGMENT OF INFOR MATION SOURCES

easuring the effect we have chosen scores on the 2009 performance indicators r benchma rk . We did this because they have been used as a benchmark in a er of nation-wide stud ies. Consequently, we can compare our findings with nal figures.

.2.4

Present t he choice of alternatives convincingly

ters regularly have to j ustify a choice between different options (for tance, between different des igns or measures). Whenever this happens mai · · ' .n cntena for the pe rson who commissioned the report or other Pie l~Vo!ved need t o be shown, the alternatives tested according to e cntena and a recommendation arrived at. For decision-makers it is ortant to se th . . e e resu1t s of the selection process presented 1n a.clear ner. Such an overview is also handy for specialists though they will Want to kn ow how you reached your conclusion. . '

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© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv PERSUASIVE WR ITIN G

There are several ways of visua li sing a comparison on the basis of criteria. Two are described below, together with their advantages and disadvantages. Multicriteria analysis A multicriteria analysis (see Table 10.1) is a common way of comparing alternatives in an organised way. Every criterion is given a weighting, indicated by a figure or by - -, - 0, +, + +. Sometimes a so-cal led "killer criterion " is included: a concept must meet the minimum demands of that criterion to qualify for a role in the discussion. "Safety" is an example of such a criterion . If a concept does not meet the minimal requirements in that regard it is not included in the table.

TABLE 10.2 Example of a scorecard with co/our marking· de . 'th . . t . a 1ing w1 noise pollution at an a1rpor

Alternatives New runway

Noise-reducing measures

Number of dwellings with noise problems Exhaust gasses (in tons) Long-term employment

neutral

Investment required (Meuro)

100 TABLE 10.1

Comparison of drive mechanisms

Concept Criterion

Weight

Caterpillar track

Climbing arm

speed

1

8

5

9

constructability

2

6

8

2

reliabi lity

2

8

6

4

36

33

21

total Legend: 1 ~ does not meet criterion; 10

~

Telescopic arm

Attract attention t hrough visualisation ·nf t· Limit visualisation of resu lts or alternatives to that 1 h . . orma ion t at you want to emphas ize especially. Readers who leaf through . . your report are easily tempted to linger over an attractive illustrat·ion th t · . . a 1s c1ear at a glance. It 1s a good idea to test that on a few people h · . . w o are not involved m your project: can they explain to you what it is all about or do makes some changes to it? you need to

FIGURE 10.1

Energy use of alternatives to the conventional light globe

meets criterion fully Energy saving

Weighting the different criteria often only provides a false sense of securll:Y' and can have a negative effect on the persuasiveness of your case. • The weighting that is al lotted and the score assigned to an alternative a criterion are relatively subjective. The writer can use them for manipulation purposes . There may also be a difference of opinion abo the scores. If there are a relatively large number of decision-makers o stakeholders, the weighting allotted might diverge considerably. One person might find cost the most important criterion, whereas another might give greater importance to environment. As such, the table is a good basis for discussion: it contains a mixture of fact and opinio • The importance that the person who commissioned the report attac to a criterion can change . Fuel consumption can suddenly become a major criterion if oil prices rise sharply. Score card Another possibility is using a scorecard (see Table 10.2). Criteria can b scored both quantitatively and qualitatively on a scorecard. Decision· then have to decide for themselves what they regard as most impo The writer can make the task easier for decision-makers by making t per criterion visib le by means of colours: green for the best score, ye neutral and red for the worst. (in the table: light blue, darker blue, an dark blue respectively)

1.85

Energy saving

Energy saving

Energy saving

r 70-80% Consumption 50-60% Consumpti on

20-30% Consumption Conventional incandescent bulbs

European Commi ssion, 2009

c-c Iass improved incandescent bulbs (halogen lamps filled with xenon gas)

B-class improved incandescent bulbs (halogen lamps with infrared coating)

<20% Consumption

Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs)

Light emitting diodes (LEDs)

..

Banning noisy planes

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PERSUASIVE WRITING

Formulate persuasively

.

.

f lated text may no t be taken seriously. (Extensive advice An awkwardly ormu d been given: see Chapter 9.) on formulation has alrea y

10 3 1

Choose

th appropriate tone e . d b how formally it is phrased (are

• • t . partly determine y d I t?) The tone of a repor is h th ive voice been use a o . · ti ddressed as e · the readers direc Y a . ' .11 ften reduce its persuasiveness. Formulating a report too informally w1 ho Id be avoided too, especially if it h. h . ative in tone s ou Making a text too imper h me hierarchical level or ig er up. I who are on t e sa is intended for peop e . t . tone will not go down we II e1'th er too subserv1en 1n Formulations that are across as decisive. as the writer will not come

RECOMMENDATION FORMULATED TOO IMPERATIVELY

I

© Noord hoff Uitgevers bv

.

. s that immediate measures are required. A d to these problems should be installed Absentee-related problems are so senou Health and Safety officer who can put an en immediately.

10.3.2

Choose a perspective that will help you reach your aim

It is essential that you sell your results and your insights to the reader. It is not a matter of presenting the matter in a rosy way but of using strategies that will make the reader more receptive to the results achieved or to fol/owing your recommendations. Perhaps it suits your purpose more to choose a negative perspective rather than a positive one. Negative information has a greater impact Many people have a natural tendency to formulate positively and to emphasise the profits that can be made from implementing a proposal. The psychologists Kahneman and Tversky discovered that people run faster to avoid loss than they do to gain a profit. We dislike losing €50 more than we like winning the same amount. Their research , for which they received the Nobel Prize in 2002, shows that the perspective - the frame - from which a message is formulated can be of crucial importance to the choices that people make.

DIFFERENCE IN EFFECT BETWEEN NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE FRAMING

Alternative A (nega tive perspective)

The result of t he proposed policy will be 10% unemployment. Alternative B (pos itive perspective)

RECOMMENDATION FORMULATED TOO S UBSERVIENTLY

The result of t he proposed policy will be 90% employment. . with absenteeism . It might be advisable to There are some problems ass~c1~t;d officer can offer an opinion on what to do. enquire whether a Health and a e y

RECOMMENDATION NEUTRALLY FORMULATED

.

It is advisable to employ a Hea Ith and Safety officer who can resolve the high absenteeism problem .

. ma y be approprl . . erative formulation .g Naturally, in some situations anl im~he formulation should leave nothm In safety regulations, for examp e, the imagination.

f h"s

· rtance · his readers of the 1mpo It is hard for a writer to convince If You should avoid words like he does not seem sure_ of h1~si~ ~he recommendations of your "try" in the main question an

HESITATING STYLE

. . d escribed in this During the invest1gat1on report we tried to find a solution for t~e problem of sudden material fracture. hope to clarify the factors that play a crucial role in this problem.

o thirds of decision-makers will want to take alternative A measures: unemployment as a negative connotation. Although alternative B is the same in content, the positive rmulation will spur less people on to action.

PURPOSEFUL STYLE

.b s a solutlo This report descn e . I fr roblem of sudden matena

~ives an insig~t in~o t~~bi:~~ a crucial role in this P

o " 1n hoprt. 8 repo

It is not very useful to ask people what convinces them. 3 Many people think that they are more motivated by profit than by loss and are often on the lookout for "win-win situations." But research that measures behavioural effects often shows a different picture: negative information influences 8haviour more often. Studies of the brain show that we can process gative information in a fraction of the time that we need for positive ormation. Because negative information stimulates brain activity it would am that more attention is paid to the contents of that message. 4 tr types Of framing

sages can be formulated from a host of different perspectives, and the t and loss perspective is only one of these. The way you frame your lage Will contribute to how a reader processes your text. an gain a lot by framing your message to suit your goal. Take the title Ive Your text or project. A project with the name Betuwe route conjures Picture of a railway line running straight through the beautiful nature

..

lerhuis, A., & Aarts, H. (2003 ). On wildebeests and humans: The preferential Ion of negative stimuli . Psychological Science, 14, 14-18. Pol, B., C.Swankhuisen, P. van Vendeloo (2007) . Nieuwe aanpak in l /dscommu · t· . n1ca 1e. Mythen m1sverstanden en moge/ijkheden. Bussum: Coutinho.

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k a lot of oppos1.t.on I . If the railway line area of the Betuwe. This may proftvoer~he motorway that it follows, there d the A15 route , a had been cal le b en fewer objections. would perhaps have e

10.3.3

. f mation concrete . Make abstract m or of convincing their readers by us_1n_g

. Writers often miss out on a chance t A manager w ho has to make a dec1s1on· argumen ts that are too abstrac leaning· polluted soi.1 w1. 11 reJ·ect vague " formu 1at1ons about a new method for c more effective or cheaper]. l'ke "the new method is better_[or t t thing is how much better and is required :_ concrete by using comparisons . w method 1s. a h cheaper t e ne . ke the text more persuasive . or an example will ma

~uantification

theM1~inogr t~~ngs

. as much oil flowed into the ocean ever~ During the oil disaster i_n the Gulf of :a7;~~odisaster. Until then, that was the worst oil five days as happened m the Exxon disaster in North America.

. that border on deception Techmques . ues that verge on deception. That . Sometimes writers res.ort to techni~oose to leave out information that is border is crossed if writers s1m~ly the decision-making process. But readers th ·r conclusions or o relevant to . ei d . more subtle ways . can be manipulate in

10.4.1

Hiding relevant

infor~~~i~~es not suit their purposes in an

Writers sometimes put inforhmap~~~at their readers will overlook it. In ~thhea . place in thef om a thick report of 1 ges dealing WIcil h inconspicuous 50 pa following example - taken . ro f new golf links for which the city cou~ proposal for the construct1o;d~rs were (apart from council m.embers to give its approval - the ;~o lodge a protest against the project. citizens who were entitle

HIDDEN NEGATIVE INFORMATION

· k s.. methods with Construction of the golf /1n ds the ground will be loosened an d ·mproved I nd approxl

tr~~

fa1rw~yss

On fairways that follow bold bunkers will be dug on the aThe botto ill have a depth of up to 0. 75 me r~able on the t!I from adjacent fields . A ou 36 along the greens. is virtually free of humus the sa bunkers will be made o san to make the level of the a1 . -11 be necessary . Behln Some earthmoving WI . that of the greens an d the tees tructed in the same way as the . fairways. net will be

T~ese ~that

(a:a~ays

The driving range will be con;ential blocks and the plantat_1ons) ~ug up driving range (along the res~ 6 metres. Any tree stumps will be constructed with a height o

and~

.

The catch is in the last paragraph: the neighbours will be getting a six metre high fence in their backyard. The writers of the report are clearly afraid of the NIMBY ("not in my backyard ") effect and have tried to circumvent objections from the neighbours by hiding the information from them. It may well have a reasonable chance of success: council and th e public will only read this section globally (only the topic sentences). For them the way in which the golf links are constructed is of minor importance. Council will want to know if the links fit into the zoning plan and whether it is advantageous for the council to have the links constructed (extra income; employment) . Citizens are looking primarily for implications for their living comfort, but they do not expect any information about that in this section because of the title. Incidentally, hiding arguments or manipulating information in other ways can also be to the writer's detriment. If the information really is important it will almost always get out and cause the writer to lose credence for any subsequent proposals he may submit. It is often more convincing to mention the disadvantages of the proposal and then to take the edge off them, or alternatively, to show why the disadvantages are unavoidable. A tried and true method is to present the disadvantage as a positive measure:

DISADVANTAG E PRESENTED POSITIVELY

People who live in the vicinity of golf links often complain about golf balls in their garden. In order t o avoid this problem, a net will be constructed around the golf links.

10.4.2

Not spelling things out or doing so misleadingly

Sometimes one cannot avoid the impression that things have not been spelt out on purpose . In a report on the expansion of Schiphol airport, the following calculation of probability was made: if the plans were carried out, eople in the vicinity of Schiphol would have a chance of one in ten million fbeing involved in a plane accident - seemingly a small chance. But a ember of the House of Representatives calculated what that meant in r&ctlce. Taking into the number of flights per year, people in the lnlty have a chanc e of experiencing an incident once every 14.5 years, Ing an unacceptable ri sk.

Manipulating the amount of informat ion Particular alternative is usually discussed more extensively than rs, Particularly in reports that evaluate a number of alternatives . This is st always the alternative the writer prefers. It might have the effect teaders Will stop regarding the other alternatives are serious. rlation on this, when a writer knows that the readers are considering 8r alternative to the one that has his preference, he or she may that alternative extensively, but emphasising the negative aspects. +

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10.4.4

Deliberately vague formulations

Formulating things in a deliberately vague way is a technique that requires skills of its own. It may not always be with the purpose of misleading, especially not in reports for readers with diverging interests who have to decide tly on the proposals. Vagueness may be necessary for reaching agreement . It is easier for all parties to agree on "in the coming year the budget will have to be cut drastically" than the more specific alternative "in the coming year the budget will have to be cut by 3.5 million." Information deliberately phrased in vague may be regarded as bordering on the misleading if it is to the disadvantage of others. If the company's management makes the decision to axe a complete department and informs its employees that "the downward turn in the economy has forced the company to adjust the organisational structure," this can be construed as being deliberately misleading, as would a letter informing the public about a new railway through their municipality in which it is mentioned that a number of dwellings will be relocated. "Demo lish " or "pull down" might be closer to the truth.

Fig. 10.3 By changing the zero . exaggerated. The reader who o~loinl t the effect has been greatly Y ooks at the he d' cursory g1ance at the picture will . d a ing and who throws in eed see a marked growth . a FIGURE 10.a

Exponential growth in th

50%

2009

I

10.4.5

Illustrations that mislead

. . e sa le of sta1rl1 fts in 2009-2011

2010

0

Northern Netherlands

•

Central Netherlands

•

Southern Netherlands

2011

While mislead ing illustrations may be nothing new, new technologies make it very easy to manipulate images. Thanks to Photoshop, pictures of unnaturally beautiful and skinny photo models are a daily occurrence, as are news pictures that are manipulated to make them a fraction more dramatic. In reports too, it is sometimes very tempting to cross the border between factual and misleading information. Misleading by means of diagrams and graphs happens a Jot and is not always done consciously. A writer might exaggerate the differences between two alternatives by presenting the information in a certain way, as the following illustrations show. While this is not necessarily misleading, it can be. Depending on the interpretation the writer gives to it, it can be acceptable or manipulative. Fig.10.2 shows a graph that has not been manipulated.

FIGURE 10.2

Number of sta irlifts sold per region in 2009- 2011

60%-

2009

2010

2011

..

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11 Illustrations

The importance of putting things in visual form General guidelines Suitable material for illustrations

There are two reports in front of you, one with illustrations, figures , drawings, schedules, done with nothing but text. Chances are that you, just like most readers, will look at the port with illustrations first. Such a text is more inviting to the reader and yields up its formation more quickly than a massive wall of words. Did you look at b first too?

• b Layout with illustrations

© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv

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OE The importance of putting things in visual form Putting things in visual form (from tables to photographs) is part and parcel of the job of reporting and you should get into the habit of doing it as soon as you can. Temporarily inserting a quickly scanned or photographed sketch in the initial stage of the writing process will help you see what visual information will have to be created later. Texts with spatial information clearly demand at least one illustration, whether it be a map, an electrical diagram or a photograph. Making an adequate drawing or figure need not take much extra time at all. Nowadays, readers expect you to make an effort to show them what you mean. They are used to texts being visually ed: communication in the twenty-first century is to a large extent visual communication , regardless of whether the medium is newspapers, magazines or the Internet. As such, a professional presentation is increasingly coming to mean one which includes visual elements. This does not mean, of course , that illustrations make a text better by definition. Some writers are so taken away by the countless possibilities of graphic programmes that their illustrations lose their functional value and tend to detract from the text. Illustrations that are chosen for their appropriateness have a lot of advantages. • They attract immediate attention . • They ensure fast transfer of information. • They ensure that information is ed more easily. • They emphasize main points convincingly. • They make complex information accessible.

OE General guidelines Three suggestions for using illustrations effectively are shown below, followed by some general hints on making illustrations.

11.2.1

© Noord hoff Uitgevers 1.Jv ILLUSTRATIONS

A NON-INDEPENDENTLY FUNCTIO

NING ILLUSTRATION

A single-lens reflex camera d b th . epends on four th' g f . in s or its operation· a th I . e mirror, c. the viewtinder d th I' found in the camera is show ' . e ight sensor. Where these four.th : e ens, If we look through the viewti ndon the ~allowing cross-section of an SLRings can be b' camera . n er we will see th an d a pnsm. If we press the ex e su ~ect through the len . · . hit the light sensor directly (se pFo~ure button the mirror swings up and th via,. a mirror e 1g.1). e 1ght rays

c

RE 1 Single-lens reflex camera

DEPENDENTLY FUNCTIONING ILLUSTRATION

Ingle-lens reflex camera (see F' inder of the ca mera, we see ~~~1~;orks as follows. If we look through the m. If we p~ess the exposure button through ~he lens via the mirror and a e mirror swings up and the light sensor direct ly · rays hit the

;:ct

Make sure the illustration can be understood independently of the text.

A reader must be able to understand figures and tables without further: explanation. You should always indicate exactly what the picture show therefore, by adding a suitable caption, a legend, or, in the case ofa explanatory notes. If so presented, the illustration can function on Its Make the captions or titles of every illustration informative. Do not "The influence of anodising" but "The influence of anodising on the corrosion resistance of aluminium." For a figure, the caption is usually put underneath the figure. With the caption is usually put above the table. In reports with a wide putting the captions next to the illustrations is an attractive altern The following examples show how adding legends and a more pre caption enable the reader to interpret a figure without needing to text. The figure in example B can function independently, in cont example A.

a= lens b =mirror c = view finder d =sensor e =prism ss section of

. a single-lens retie

x camera (situation before i"ressing th

e exposure

195

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ILLUSTRATIONS

11.2.2

Refer to t he illustrations in t he text

Give each illustration a number and refer to it at least once in the text. Illustrations that only serve a decorative function, such as cartoons , form an exception to this. You can refer to an illustration in the following ways:

• Use existing illustrations sensibly. Often you can use illustrations that

have bee n made by others and have been made available via the Internet (for example, stock photos). You can work much faster this way You should always acknowledge the source. In the case of tables and · the like, you should refer to the work you have taken the illustration from . In the case of photographs, drawings and cartoons, it is usual to mention the author. • A/ways work with copies of your illustrations. Making a good graph ,

• Fig. 4 clearly shows the effect of . . . . Because of the pressure, the capstan has shifted to the left (see Fig. 7). • Tables 5 and 6 give an overview of the measuring results of .. .

Number tables and figures separately. Your software programme can make references and numberings automatically and you should make good use of this. \twill ensure that your numbering is always right.

I

11.2.3

Suitable material for illustrations In this section we will look at a few different types of illustrations and suggest how could you use them.

Put illustrations where they have the greatest effect

Illustrations should, of course, be as close as possible to the text age they relate to. Only then will they really have the effect you are aiming for. For typographical reasons such as a lack of room on the relevant page they sometimes have to be shifted to the next one. To save time it is sometimes more convenient to postpone the insertion of illustrations. Do reserve some space on the page so that you can have an idea what the page will look like. Try to put the figures in a similar position on the page (for inst~nce, at the bottom or at the top). This will create a restful effect. By not tying the illustration to the text but to a place on the page , the software can ensure that the text runs on normally while your illustration stays at the top or the bottom of the page. There are three situations in which it is preferable to place illustrations at the back of the report in an appendix: • \f the same illustration is required in different places in the text (thou placing the same drawing or photograph twice is sometimes a better solution). • \f the figures are so numerous and large that they would interrup~ tha text too much (but do place the most important of these figures in th text)· . ddltlo • \f the figures are not very important and function _more as an _a tt But remind yourself that an unimportant il\ustrat1on in your text IS be than no illustration at all.

11.2.4

drawing or photo always involves a certain amount of effort. A photograph that you have altered to fit into one text you might need to use in anoth er. Make sure you file the originals properly. Make a dedicated CD/ DVD of your collection of illustrations.

Work simply, quickly and safely

Three hints to finish off with. . t m 0 • Keep the illustration as simple as possible. Do n~t try to mak~a oh te things clear in the one illustration. Too many variables in a g P • • d do not choo make it confusing. Use embellishments sparing 1Y an e-dl fantasy font for texts in an illustration. Extensive use of thre t"mne effects (such as adding shadows) does not .improve an i\\ustra 10 • case of photographs , remove distracting elements with your so

11.3.1

Tables: present all the data clearly

Function Atable is an excellent way of presenting entire sets of data succinctly. The reader usually read s a table from the left column to the right. You should therefore put the sea rch entry in the left-hand column. When presenting research data , the 1n_dependent variable is put into the first column; the other columns contain the data of the dependent variables (the values measured). Design It is e~sy to make a table : most of the work is done by your word processor. Sometimes_ it pays to find out whether you should adapt the basic design . Do you, ~or instance'. need all the lines in the table? Since the data (usually figures) is arranged in columns, the amount of white between the columns aerves the same purpose as lines. Professional designers therefore often omit the lines - it makes the figure quieter, as the following example demonstrates. !Nlth larger tables, it is advi sable to insert a line of white here and there r Instance, every fifth row). This makes it easier for the reader to find his If In the table.

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ILLUSTRATIONS

. a mt·nimum number of lines Examp le of a table - with

Simple illustrations are also an option

. ultural land (millions of kg) Mineral balance for agric 2000

2005

2007

2008

Supply to soil

845

721

680

668

Supply animal manure

409

356

340

346

Fertiliser

330

269

248

230

Other supply

106

96

92

92

Removal via crop yields etc.

429

380

391

397

Net impact

416

341

289

271

If you have a small number of figures - too few for a real table - do not bury the data in the running text. You could create an informal minitable (without a number or a title) to present the information. For example:

Nitrogen

Phosphorus

I

108

93

80

77

Supply animal manure

76

67

61

62

Fertiliser

27

21

16

12

5

5

3

3

Removal via crop yields etc.

60

55

56

58

Net impact

48

38

24

19

Supply to soil

Other supply

DATA IN RUNNING TEXT DATA IN MIN/TABLE

At the moment, commercially available solar ce lls convert a maximum of 15% of the sunlight that falls on them into electricity. Monocrysta lline silicium is usually used. But ongoing developments may mean that a theoretically possible conversion yield of 85% can be obtained. At the moment, a conversion rate is reached of 21% with polychristalline silicium. Cells that are based on gallium arsenide have a very high yield. The yield of the very best laboratory cells is 35% at the moment.

11.3.2

At the moment, commercially available solar cells convert a maximum of 15% of the sunlight that falls on them into electricity. But ongoing developments may mean that a theoretically possible conversion yield of 85% can be obtained. Yields: • monochristalline silicium 15% • polychristalline silicium 21% • gallium arsenide 35%

Graphs represent one particular aspect of the data

Source: Statistisch Jaarboek 2010, CBS

Function

two to a single page. If so, it is usua II y beltter t"onto inmake A table may not fit on d r and a more elegant so u I • • for the rea e 1 t bles: this is c earer .

It is, of course, possible to present your research data in table form, though the reader will have to work through a lot of information to get to the essence of the data presented. If you use a graph, that task will take your reader on average about 25% less time.

Splitting long ta bl es

a layout of the repo rt . the table run on to the next page (not advisable, eat the Alternatively you c.an let the . In this case you will h~ve t~ rep

:;~o~;~utomatically

upb:~:~~~ thl

but sometimes it. is the by setting it headings. NB: this can . /most always preferable to put ta software programme. It is a an appendix.

Use possibilities offered ~ :~:~~~~~=~: possibilities to offer and you Your software programm them often c should make efficient use of t d~ta is a problem that people have How to include your most ~:c:~lved almost automatically. ,If ~:e-con up against but which last moment it can be to II include new results at cell of a table. It is possible, h blishing a disk, to make changes to every adsheet programme. By es.ta contents of a table to a ~~~~e in the text and the data f1l~l~~n the connection between the be transported directly to the tathe text to on the spreadsheet can d heet when transferring not forget to include the sprea s computer.

c~~e

e~treme:wever,

Why is this? It is because a graph represents a certain view of the data. Not all data need be presented as being equally important - only those aspects that you, the writer, regard as important. Your view of your research Is ed on to your reader. The other side of the story is, of course, that the reader is more easily deceived by graphs than by tables . Many readers appreciate it if you include I table showing the basic data in the appendix to your report. lllgn

Ost calculating programmes (spreadsheet programmes, statistical grammes) can convert the data you collect directly into a graph . In the e of a Presentation programme you will usually still have to type in the le data for a graph yourself. The quality of the graphs of these ammes is almost always better than that of hand-drawn ones . If you need a rough draft in the starting phase of your writing process a rawn graph is usually quicker. Take a photograph or make a scan of drawing to put it in the text.

of~our

drawing graphs you should keep the powers of observation in mind. Research shows that people are less able to judge angles 1as than to judge positions along a longitudinal scale. Compare, for e, the difference between a pie chart and a bar chart (Fig.11.1). The

199

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ILLUSTRATIONS

difference in length of the lines is more obvious than the difference in area between the pie pieces.

TAB LE 11.1

~ln~s;tr~u~c~t~io:n:s~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Type of graph Line chart

FIGURE 11.1

Overview of graph forms

Diffe rence in observed area and length information

in one or

g J==::::1

Example

~hr~ao:i: ~:i~u want to show changes in a number of

mo;: :t~~rc~a~i~~::s~hese changes with changes

'""

Choose a line chart for: • trends (exact figures are not important) • data collections that have many subsequent values • several data collections in one chart data relating to periods • frequency distributions

dl=======::::::i c ~=======:::::!~

• estimates, predictions, interpolations or extrapolations

b F=================~

a!====================:::::1..

I

t

0

10

5

15

Bar chart

20

Choose a bar chart for: • comparing size or amount

With your software you can shape the same data collection in different ways. Without much trouble you can present the same graph in three dimensions. However, striving for effects like these is usually a matter of trying to impress: the graph often suffers from it. Compare the two examples in Fig. 12.2. Observe that the May figures in the graph on the right are hardly visible.

FIGUUR 11.2

15

In the 3D version so b ' me ars can disappear behind others.

Pie chart

g~ 201· >.,.

• differences within a variable at d"ff . . 1 erent times • differences between variables at a set time

Difference between a two-d imensiona l and a three-d imensional

rea li sation

"'

A.ffbar chart compares different entities shown as bars of d1 erent lengths (h · . onzontally or vertically). The /en th the bar is proportional to th e amount. g of

-

AK4

=

RTD

~~~ ~~~o~hw~nt~o show the rnlationship between a part chart

=asr

.

usua~,;~o~~a~;: :~:~nT~~~~~~i~nc~~~! ~~e:~;r

Keep the following in mind:

•~:'~:ts~:~; :o~~~;~~s

between a part and the whole I ive segments per pie chart a ways put the labels outside the pie chart itself

10 -

~:~:: 3D version, the graph has to be tilted a bit

0

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jan.

s some distortion.

which '

Use if you want to show th . . the total over a cert . e contribution of several items to

Graphs can be manipulated relatively easily. By simply changing the S on the axes you can present your readers with a steep or an almost I graph. A large degree of exaggeration is usually regarded as mislead however. Do make sure that the effect you want to show is clearly visibl~- To 8 demonstrate the point, we have put the most common graphs in Table 11.1. The best graphic solution is obvious. Note that the 3 add no new information and are sometimes even confusing.

charts, the relations~;~ essential here.

~:;~:e~f time. Just as with pie

a part and the whole is

Keep the following in mind: • limit the numb f . er o 1ayers to a maximum of five • Pl ace the items w·th th this m I I e least variation at the bottom· a <es the graph easier to follow. .

80

,;;- -

__

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11 3 3 · ·

. represen tation: presenting relationshi ps Diagrammatic d t and concepts . the relationship between ideas or between a a .

· ntat1on shows II A diagrammatic represe tain this simplicity. You can usua y . Make sure you re . I d t w·1th a square or a tnang e an events in a simple way. . ber of concep s · h It . then up to the text to explain w at suffice with framing a num then connec t .1n g them with an arrow. is the schedule really means.

Simple conceptual schedule

A high degree of trust

11 .3 .4

Photographs and drawings: representations of reality

A report that deals with tangible objects should always have illustrations. Although an illustration gives the impression of representing a neutral, objective vision, the writer can influence the reader by his choice of perspective, choice of detail, and choice of what is shown in the photo or drawing (and especially by what is left out). You can choose between such things as technical line drawings and photographs. With a technical drawing you can show the exact details the needs and you can leave all irrelevant detai ls out. By doing this you can also give a picture of things that do not exist as yet. In the case of photos, this is somewhat more difficult. With both technical drawings and photographs it is a good idea to keep a check on the size of the file you are adding to the text.

Photographs

Ahigh level of J)8rformance The relationship between trust and performance

use photogra phs if you want to give the reader an impression of the situation as it exists in reality. A photograph does not only give an image of the object but of its surroundings as well. For general readers this often means that they can place the object in its particular context more readily. A photograph may also show unimportant details (a vase with flowers that just happens to be there, a rusty spot, an old-fashioned computer) which can sometimes lead to the intended effect (better orientation) being lost.

FIGURE

. n easily become complicated. The A diagrammatic representation_ ca t pressing the various factors that mple aims a ex f · diagram in the. next exa . Th . t on a project. e way this is done creates con us1on have a dynamic 1mpac instead of clarity.

Confusing diagrammatic representation

FIGURE

Important factors in project planning

A digital photograph is like a drawing built up of a grid, the squares of which may be filled or not. Each square forms a dot in the drawing and is called a pixel. The more pixels on any given area, the greater the detail that can be seen on the illustration. This is called the resolution of the image. If part of a Bitmap of 2 by 2 centimetres is enlarged to 2 by 2 centimetres once more, the detail will not be greater - quite the contrary, the enlargement will be qualitatively inferior because the eye is starting to see the individual pixels and loses sight of the original image (see the following enlargement of the axle of the instrument in the example at the end of this chapter).

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ILLUSTRATIONS

Hint for designers: take photographs of your work in your workshop;

photograph all the immediate stages of your model. Photographs from 2 megapixels can be used in a report. In the case of photographs with more pixels it is possible to use part of the photograph. Rule of thumb: the width in centimetres of the photograph should equate to the number of pixels in the image divided by 100.

Technical drawing: a represent t' a /On of something that does not exist as yet.

water tank

payload FIGURE 1

Photograph of an international stage

gas tanks

parachute FIGUUR 2

I

Source: www.amersfoort.nl

Hint: cut irrelevant details out of the photograph (make sure you are left

with a picture with enough pixels). Hint: use copies to work with. Make a backup of the originals and make

sure you keep an overview. Rename your photos (not: IMG100456.jpg, b SuitcaseProject_firstphase_handles.jpg). Technical drawings Technical drawings are usually made with the aid of a CAD (computer-aid design) programme. Corrections, adjustments and additions are thereto less time consuming. A technical drawing is not built up of pixels but f~ a mathematical description of the drawing. For this the drawing is divld into a large number of mathematical primitives called vectors (lines, C circles, ovals, squares , etc.). With this descriptive method there is no quality loss when enlarging or reducing: a line remains a line, a circl a circle. To use a drawing in a report the drawing file has to be adap converting line pieces into pixels. When enlarging details, the resol the picture has to be kept in mind.

Model for re-entry module

Try to .keep non-relevant aspects out of the d . parts in the drawing as close a . rawing. Place the names of s possible to th makes the drawing cluttered put th . e parts concerned. If this ' e names 1n a leg d en and refer by means of numbers. If it becomes unclea h · . r w ere a certa· use~ thin line (0 .5-1 point) to connec in name bel~ngs to you can drawing. t the name with the object in the Partic.ularly with instructions to laymen a . technical drawing. Make sure your hoto photograph is often clearer than a should do (task orientation· see th P shows clearly what the reader · e next example).

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DIFFERENC E IN USE BETWEEN A PHOTOGRAPH AND A TECHNICAL DRAWING

Task orientation The photograph shows the real situation: the position of the hand in relation to the machine. It is clear how the task (feeding staples into a photocopying machine)

should be done.

\I I

I

Product orientation The drawing shows where the heads of an audio recorder have to be cleaned. Because the sealing cover has been left off, the will, however, never have this view. The illustration is mainly of use to technicians.

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209

12 Layout

12.1 12.2 12.3

Layout re quirements The bas ic layout of a report The layo ut of t ext elements The layo ut of individual parts of a report Common layout pitfalls

A report whose pages are all full from top to bottom and without lines of white, headings or Illustrations will be dismissed as "boring" or unintelligible. People are unlikely to be motivated to read a report like that. It is the layout of the report that stops them , not the ontent. The layout will prevent the reader from tracking down the main points.

LIKE A WALL OF WORDS (U NI FORM, VISUALLY NOT ATTRACTIVE) No!111wr11ersenJoywrillng. Somesee thewritingofreportsorarticJesasanannoying hulllleontheroadto a ca1eer and happiness, one that can be got around by copying lbts..mortyor In part from somebody el se. The right to make a copy for your own use

11.howe-.-e,,somethlngqulteditferentfromthe righttocopy.ltisadifficultworldforthe

'Mllet of tem. If You are not car eful. somebody else might flaunt your treasured work .. thel1 OM. For teache1s too, these are difficult times. You might want to keep your

ltudtntsonthe straight and narrow.but how do you protect te:
Not all writers enjoy writing. Some see the writing of reports

or articles as an annoying

hurdleontheroadtoacareerandhappiness,onethatcanbegotaroundbycopying textswhollyorlnpa rtfromsomebodyelse. Therighttomakeacopyforyourownuse is,however.somethingquitedifferentfmmtherighttocopy. ltisadilficultwor/dforthewriteroftexts. lfyouarenotcareful,somebodyelsemight flauntyourtreasuredworkastheirown.Forteacherstoo.thesearedifficulttimes.You might want to keep your students on the straight and narrow, but how do you protect

1Acic:iortnng Biendan Scott 12001), the ancien t Greeks, Romans and Chinese already had

texts from being scavenged by a cut·and-paste generation? As a writer or teacher. should yousimplyleamtoliveandputupwlthit?

lllonil •imse of lhe wrongs of plaglarlsm. However, copyright was a more flexible llClllari In the Pils! than at J>Jesent. Copyists In th e Middle Ages thought little of !mp10-

According Brendan Scott (2001), the ancient Greeks. Romans and Chinese already had a

:::an1 Wise on the orlglnal authors during the ir copying work. During the past 1

rnarrt writers and compo sers Incorporat ed

the works of others enthusiasu. . . lltd . Wlthou1 bolhe1lng about payment or acknowfe<1gement. Greats like Shake..

•

..,.;~~: :e~:Cal W/Jllngs of the first professors of Dutch were influenced -

'Goethe and Bach some IImes recycled th e Ideas of their tolleagues in their own

Ill '-nuon ol the

by the

other side of the borde r, Th e first copyrigh t laws were made after

"1ttnuon was lo ...Printing press In 1445. There was no mention of authors' rights;

moral sense of the wrongs of plagiarism. However, copyright was a more nexible notion In the past than at present. CoP'fists In the Middle Ages thought little of Improving conterit wise on !he original authors during their copying work. During the past centuries, many writers and composers incorpomte<1 the works of others enthusiasUcalfyand without bothering about payment or acknowledgement. Greats like Shakespeare. Goethe and Bachsomelimesrecycledtheideasoftheir col 'W!gueslntheirownwork, andtherhetorical writings of the first professors of Dutch were Influenced by the work of those

on the

0U1er side of the border. The first copyright laws were made after the invention of U1e printing press in 1445. There was no mention of authors" rights; the Intention was to ...

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© Noord hoff Uitgevers bv LAYOUT

Thi s chapter is ing your own software and printer to do your own, home-grown layouts. The layout of documents to be published is best left to experts in the field.

Functionality

Layout requirements A good layout s and reinforces the purpose of the text. In business communication contexts, your purpose is likely to be to convey information and/ or convince your reader. A good layout is a down-played one that serves a functional purpose and reinforces your image as well as that of the organisation.

A functional layout should therefore provid b k f attention to important par~s and help' ing to et act up or the text, drawing . s rue ure the information in th text. A fun ctional layout is an understated la t Pl . e page and spa ring use of lines will enhance P~~~e.ss1·enngtyofotfhwehlte on the information.

12.1.1

Understate your layout

A good business text layout is one that is not too overt. You do not have to show that you have mastered all the possibilities of your software programme (see the next example). An understated layout is what readers are used to. White paper, normal fonts (no fantasy fonts) and functional illustrations are classic layout elements. As well as being plea sing to the eye, a text with these elements will be regarded as a no-nonsense text. Pages in landscape format, coloured letters and a large number of cartoons are not suitable for business texts and will distract the read er's attention and cause annoyance. You are more likely to attract comments on the layout than aid understanding of the contents. Eye-catching layouts are the domain of magazines and advertising and serve to attract attention to the text. These texts are usually short, not much information has to be transferred and reader irritation may even se rve a useful pu rpose .

I

12.1.2

A layout should be functional· . · to help the read er d"1gest the information in the text. It should assist the reader to: • separate the main issues from side issu .k es see qu1 c ly where the main parts are keep an overview of the text.

FUNCTIONAL LAYOUT. THE TEXT IS VISUALLY INFO INFORMATION EASILY RMATIVE: THE READER CAN FIND

kopregel kopregel 2.1

The Import ance of writing In professlonal s ituations

2 .2.1

beforetherelsaproduct.feasibilitystudleshavetobewritten,research reports produced, progress reports published and a lot of memos sent howcl_e_veryourresearchplanorhowdeclslvetheconclusionofyour feaslb1htystudy,nobodywilleverput itlntopracticeifyouarenot successful lnconveyingyour_findlngsclearlyandconvincinglytoothers· to your colleagues, to thoseinchargeandtoyourcllents. Andeven . though oral communication is very important, you will find that you will havetocommunlcate!argelyonpaper. Thatwllltakeuparotoftlme· sometimes up to a thlld of your working time. 11 will take up so much. tlmetha'.ltlsfalrtosaythatveryoftentheprimaryresultofan englneersworklsnottheapparatusorasystem,butte:irt.

ments fo~ ·good oral and written communication skills". And it lsalsonotsurprlsingthatshortcomingsinthisfieldareottenacause forcomplalntbyemployerorganlsations.

2.2

Strateglcfact or1

A.fhor Fimmglm;J Wtry do so many people experience problems with writing at work that

.

"'" " " " .i,,,.,\

..

~~::::- ~:·~~ ~~:·::~~:~:~;.·~ ::::i~::=.·.::! ~~~

~:~~r;~.~·(:~~~~~~;~~::_:~~·.::t~;:~~:~~?.?7~~~~;~.~~~£~i

~h~~:Jl::i~n; three. factors a1e characteristic of professional situations:

..;.. .o mn

i;. u ~;i .., r

Wll • h .VI I ,. >>' , O: V O• •O ll"' " ' ~ • I" ' " · ' ' ' " '·

Mhor Fionnghail

:~: :~: 1;:::~~~: ;hn: ; 0: : ~fd~c;;~~ays of soMng these. Technical data 1

' The th.logs you write in a work situation are usually directed towards acl/on.measurestobetakenordecisionstobemade. Thetechnfca! data andana!yses~ouprovfdewiUbe lndispensibleforthis, bu t mainly asaveh/c/eforbasmgthenecessaryacUonon.Thlsunderlinesthe

lmportan~e of firstly making it clear to the

reader why something should

be done (m. other words, why they should read the report). That should

beem~has1zedinthe lntroduction.Anothercentralaspectiswhatthe reader I~ supposed to do with the results. This Is why there Is a strong empha~1s on the conclusions and especially the recommendations. Theac11onconcerned~i!lalmostalwayshaverepercussionsforvarlous departmentsand lndiv1duals. Ameasurelnthefieldofproductioncan have

c~nsequencesforthepurchaslng, inventorymanagementand

marketmgdepartments. Decisions with far-reaching consequences

presuppose~elnvolvementofseveralpeoplewithlnthefirm "shierarch

_ or at le~st prior knowledge on the part of these people. This means Iha~· ~:Is un/1keJy.thatyaurreportw/llonlybeseen bythosewholssuedyou Ith the assignment. For many readers. the technical data will at most

~::;~:r;:~:~n~:~~g~:~~~ information only, and not something they

theydldnot, oronlytoa minor extent, encounter during their studies? Thereasonforthls lsthern/ethattextsplayinprofesslonalsituation.sa role thatlsdlfferentfromthatintheeducatlonalsettlng. ,

,1.,.,;,k .i. .... 00... ., , ••n. r,;1 .. J :" J , Jl.n.n.... ,,.,,,

2

i,;u. ~ J~-'

demonstrate that thewriterismoreorless able to independently

back and forth. Nomatterhowbri!liantyouridea fora new product was

ltlsnotsurprlslng.therefore,thatemployersoftenasklnernployrnent

: . .. ~ ••1.11t,i..

Thereportsthatstudentswritedurfngtheirstudyserveaneducational purpose.Theyaredeslgnedtoexercisethestudent'sskllfsand

careers.Takeengineers •. forlnstance:ofcoursetheyhavemainlybeen tralnedtodeveloporopt1mize technical products and processes. But

A RESTLESS AND OVERSTATED LAYOUT

M., "''''""'--.h'" , JO. f
AcUofHllrec ted writing

Hlghtytrainedpeopleusuallyfindthatwritingtakes up more of their working hours than manyofthemhadimaginedatthe start of their

gJspumarllyaJmedatmeasuresanddecislons. Thereareavarletyofreaders,eachwithdifferentlnterests Readers are not prepared to spend much Ume on reading..

2 · 2 · 2 Wrltlngfor avarlety of readers

T~e read~rs who will

look at your report will usually either be readers

w1th.spec1fic.backgroundknowledgeorreade1swhoreadthereportonl part1allyorw1th aspecifiurposeinmind: Y • Oecision·makers. These are the people who will decide whether the

;i:~:l~mendations are to be Implemented (managers and other generaMt1nyWJ1tersareJnsufficientryawareoftheconsequencesofthese characterlsUcs.Wewlll dealwlththemnext.

Speci~lisls. T~ese

are the people who are especially interested In the techmcalbas1sandthemethodadopted(thepeoplewhoare responst·

~:~:;~:~~enling the recommendations; staff who advise

[I

D Ma c\la 11 Zo 11 Man age m e n t BV

•

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LAYOUT

12.1.3

Image reinforcement

PAGE WITH (AJ MARGINS, (BJ MARGIN LINE

The layout you use for a page will also depend on the impression you want to make on your public. You might think for example, that using grey recycled paper will highlight the fact that your company holds the environment dear, or that colourful abstract elements will create a modern image befitting a progressive engineering firm. However, if you focus on elements like these and overlook the key requirements mentioned above (an understated and functional layout), you are likely to miss the mark. You will eventually find yourself looking for a professional designer who understands how to find a balance between understatement, functionality and image reinforcement.

AND (CJ TAB STOPS

/~

..... i/f !bu,.pnrocn

a - -- - ---J.....

==~~--

b - -- ---L__.._1

c -----J.-~ •

ftE The basic layout of a report c

Your teachers or your firm will usually prescribe the layout of your report (or at least dictate some guidelines) . An A4 format (21 x 29.7 cm) is usually required, and this will dictate line length and font size to some degree. When you are drafting your text it is a good idea to print two pages next to each other on one sheet of A4 . This will give a good overview and save paper.

·Jqnl1ijt1•ur

-----+-i(~:r~~ :;j !~1~;~~:~:::::,

§~iir~::~;~:

' ' ,- - - - - - - - - - - .

I

One important decision you will need to make is how much white to have on a page . A report with a lot of text and little white on the page creates an impression of greyness and is unattractive. On the other hand , too much white or white in unexpected places will create a messy and restless impression . Determine beforehand, therefore, where you want to have text and where not. Choose the margins you want at the top and bottom and left and right.

One l_ast word: sometimes your financial . . margins of your publications Th I margins will determine the (your image message : "we d~ n~ ;ss white, the lower your paper costs plash our money about") . Margin lines

The margins Use functional criteria to determine the width of your margins: • Are there notes to be made alongside the text? (If so, a margin of at least 6 cm is necessary.) • Will the text need to be filed away in a ring binder or document file? (A margin of at least 2.5 cm will be necessary for any perforations.) • Will the text be bound or glued? (To be able to open the text without th glued binding coming loose you need a binding margin of at least 3 cm • Will the text be cut by the printer to obtain a smooth outside edge? (Count on 0.3-0.7 cm margin loss.)

The text usually sta rts immediate! . also known as the margin line Bu{ ~o the right of the left-hand margin somewhat away from the marg.1·n 1· _ome textual elements are placed • an ·in dented paragraph ine. • an enumeration or fist (with bullet . an enumeration w·th· points) 1 in an enumeration Where you · d . . in ent to is predetermine 1/ewnters When tab stops physical! d by tab stops (a term from the era of fact, tabbing is creating a series ; ~~~~ped the car_riage of a typewriter).

ty

Yi Presentation plays a role as well: the more white there is, the better it look. After all, a gourmet meal looks best when served on a plate with broad rim.

'

en margm Imes.

our text should . l'ou Will US '.Without exception, start from find that you need t h one of these margin points mmon prually t· · ac ice to relate th d' o ave at le as t th ree tab stops It . ,:~o the size of the basis f~nt is~ance bet.ween a tab stop to the .ma~s in urement for th e distance b Yt u are using. For example: a good g th of a 1 e ween two t b . st ower case letter m At 11 . a stops is four times the ops at ever 0 · points Times Ro . ally on the .dY ..9 cm. Your software's default man, this amounts to w1 e side . setting for tab stops is

Ice of font ing 0 .. th .Y ur margins you have . e line length determines y~~~~~vely determined your line length. In o1ce of font size · The b'1gger the

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© Noord hoff Uitgevers bv LAYOUT

letter, the less text will fit onto a line. The optimal line length is between 50 and 70 characters (letters, spaces , punctuation marks and the like). The size of the letter is usually given in points. One point is approximately 0.04 cm. The size of the letter is measured in length from the top of the tallest ascender (d) to the bottom of the longest descender U). Letter size says nothing about the width of a letter. Useful font sizes for the main body of your text lie between 10 and 12 points. The choice of a particular font depends on what is available and your personal preference. Exotic fonts are generally regarded as being hard to read (for instance, the left letter in the following example). Stick to one or at most two fonts (with their bold and italic forms). Too many fonts draw the reader's attention away from the contents and make it more difficult to read quickly. Whether to use a font with or without a serif depends on your personal preference. Nowadays, a sanserif font seems to be regarded as more modern and one with a serif as conservative and respectable.

12.2 T he basicl11youtof a repo r t Your tcn~h~rs or your firm will usually prescribe the layom of your report (or m least dictate some gu1dhncs) . .AJJ A4 fom1:it (2 1 x 29.7 crn) is usually required, and 1his will dictate !inc length and font size to some degree. When you are draft.ing your text it is a good idea to prim two pages next to each other on one sheet of A4. This wi ll give a good overview :md ~al'e

paper.

O~e irnpor1m1t decisio.n you 1~·ilf need to ma ke is how much white to have on a pa!;c. A repon with a lo~ of text and little white on the page ~reates an impression of greyness and is unattrnct1\"c. On the other hand, too much whuc or white in unexpected places wilt create a messy and restless impression. Detem1ine beforehand, therefor
•-

LETTERS WITH AND WITHOUT A SERIF

.W......-'iLJ<9"" Ilg

t)

Ko

I

In the example , the letters in the section heading (heading 2) are 14 points in height and are bold and in italics. Each time you give a sentence this format it will be formatted as a section heading. You only have to go through the procedure once and do not have to go through a number of different menus. You can always change a style or a format retrospectively: with a click of the mouse you can change the chapter titles into a 22 point letter of the type Times Roman. What this means is that you do not have to go through the whole text to see whether you have forgotten to adjust something. The software programme can also make sure that all texts that you have given the "section title " format to will be put into the automatically generated index.

A;\ (g)

Example of a representation of the format in Word (via Shift-Fi)

FIGURE 1 2 .1

The layout of text elements 12.3.2 A report may contain some text elements that require a separate layout. In this section we will deal with some of the most common ones, briefly discussing their function and giving some layout hints. But we will firstly look at an important tool for ensuring a consistent layout of text elements: the layout format or style.

12.3.1

Consistent layout by using formatting and

Function Titles and headings are not a part of the text proper. Theoretically, they could be left out. Writers often make the mistake of running the title into the text itself.

styl~s

Regardless of whether you are working alone or with others, knowing how to use the layout tools of your software programme can come in very han One of the most useful tools is the formatting tool. It is a simple tool to use (only a single action) but it can save you a lot of time and ensure consistency of similar textual elements. The standard default settings your software programme are a good starting point for experimenting with the layout of your text. A format is a set combination of layout characteristics . Fig. 12.1 shows you how a title was formatted.

Titles and headings

Titles and headings By this we mean text elements that... Titles and headings Titles and headings are text elements that ...

rm

~teadlng should be directly recognisable as a separate text element. The er has four ways of achieving this·

~hite _on the page (above, below, a.longside) •Ont size

:~tter type (bold , italics, underlined)

..

nes, etc. (above , below, alongside) these four lin 0 f · ing ( ' es white are the most effective. For each type of chapter sect· b · • ion , su section, etc.) you choose a fixed combination

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LAYOUT

. g example). Preset your format to this of these options (see the fo IIow1n combination. . t font for titles if you wish: for example, a sanserif You could use .a d1ffe.ren while the main text has a font with a serif for the title (Anal , Un1v;~s) Avoid underlining as underlined words tend to (Times, Bookm your software programs jump outDutch' from the page. )Th e default values that . gives for titles are usually of a reasonable size. included word-for-word in the table of contents Titles are numbered an are do this automatically if you have given the (your software programme cann s are not numbered and are not included titles a spec1f1c headings are used in the text if you in the table of content . th section level but want to provide the reader do not want to include ano er . d

forma~. ~~~~~~ered

with extra orientation points within the text.

enumeration - the introductory sentence - should be grammatically complete. It usually ends with a colon.

INCOMPLETE INTRODUCTORY SENTENCE COMPLETE INTRODUCTORY SENTENCE

.. ...

We rega rded the possibilities: We regarded the following possibilities as important:

. ..

. ...

as im porta nt.

Drawbacks to this solution:

. ...

This solution has the following drawbacks:

EXAMPLE OF LAYOUT TITLES AND SECTIONS

Machinvragmentatie

1

An enumeration should have a minimum of two elements and a maximum that depends on the type of enumeration. A numbered enumeration may be somewhat longer than an enumeration of the bullet point type. For the latter type , aim for a maximum of six.

Mar de mod can fiel chamon

i.1 Bolde bals vain gfema son Im fortinster blatgo doh fa limans ~rix bra. Baa l schr;m~nk d:lkvr~xp;:s~a~: con brio en book bleuband lmfortmsterblatgodoh a ima~ ·

~:~tri~~onk

Do not make the elements of a enumerated list too long (a maximum of 12 to 15 lines) otherwise the reader will no longer see it as an enumeration. If the elements are relatively long, add a heading to each element.

dol ve pansa. DI festvaconbrioen bookbleuband Im fortmsterblatgo

~~l~~~i::;:~1:::s~:~u~:{~:ians krix bra. Baalschrimonk dol ve pansa. Di fest va con brio en boo k bleuband Im forti~ster blatgo dbo'h fa 11::": ~;~:::~dBl:lfortinster schrimonk dolvepansa.D1festvacon rmen

v~

: blatgo doh fa limans kri x bra. Baal schrimonk dol pansa . .Di fest va . brioenbookbleubandlmfortinsterblatgodohfallmanskr1xbra.Baa

~on

schrimonkdolvepansa. Di festvacon brio en book bleuband

\\/rams dre lwre mons frak/ .

1 lm fortins terblatgodohfa !!mans krixbra . Baas

Give the elements of an enumeration the same sentence structure. • Structure: a phrase or sentence, if necessary followed by an explanation . Make sure that you structure all of the enumerations in the same way (parallel structures).

chr"monk dol ve pansa. Di fes t va ; . krixbra Baal schrirnonk

l~_fo~~n::: :1:1~:b:~~ 1:11r:1r~~nsster bla~o doh fa llmans

con b1io en boo_k bleuband dolve pansa D1fes t va con no

.

krix bra. Baa; schrimonk dol ve pansa. DI fest va

b

d Im

~on brio ~n boo :s:1e~i ~:st va con

for tlnster blatgo doh fa li~ans krix bra. ~aal s~h~::~;u~~ n;I~: fort ;nster blatgo doh brio en boo kbleuband 01 festvacon bnoen

°

Za~~:cnh~i~:n~r:~I

bl euband..,~mc::~~i:t:~

ve pansa. Di fest va con brio en book blatgodoh fa limanskrixbra. Baa l schrirnonk delve pansa. DI fest bookbleuband

PARALLEL STRUCTURE

e research identifie d the following ee possibilities: the current cana l system should be adapted; building storage elements such as servoirs;

1 2 .3.3

Enumerations and lists

Function . h as a numbered list or a list with Information in the form of units sue in a well-laid-out list will be tak points is easily surveyed. lnformat10~ t'on in paragraph form. and ed more easily than in orma I

Form . d t or announcing phrase o nd gives an indlc A list should be preceded by an intro uc ory sentence This sentence announces the ~·u~.os; ~umbered one, yo t he of elements in the list. If the is is t ce that precedes refer to the exact number of e Ieme nts . The sen en

numb~r

se the river Vecht fo r drainage.

The research identified the following three possibilities: • adaptation of the current canal system; • building storage elements such as reservoirs; • using the river Vecht for drainage.

Design: begin with a signalling sign - a letter, figure or typographic sign: asterisk(*), bullet ( · ), dash (-) - on the margin line of the text proper. The text of the enumeration element should be indented to the next tab atop (a hidden margin line). Begin: begin the text with a capital if the introductory sentence en€1 s with

~full ~top. If there is a full stop within the enumerated element, the llowing sentence should tart in lower case .

start with a capital letter. In all other cases,

l~se: 1 close each element off with a semicolon and the last one with a stop, If the elements are very short (a few individual words) you need

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not include closing punctuation marks. If the element closes with a complete grammatical sentence, close with a full stop. • Division: make short enumeration elements follow each other directly (no lines of white). Longer elements should be separated by a line of white. The enumeration as a whole is often separated from the rest of the text by a line of white above and below. If an enumeration forms the end of a chapter or a section it is advisable to add a concluding sentence, thereby rounding off the textual unit.

12.3.4

Running headlines and footers and page numbering

Function Headers and footers make it easier for readers to find their way through the text. They also provide an opportunity to mention the firm's name and/or the firm's logo - an image consideration. A header or footer should also contain the page number. If you wish, you can also include the following: • the title of the publication • the title of the chapter or section Form Placing a header or footer is a standard option in software programmes. You may even be able to choose two lines: one for the left-hand page and one for the right-hand page. Some programmes allow you to relate the content of the headers or footers to titles in the text. In this case you can be sure that the header or footer refers to the chapter or section it

belongs to. The following layout instructions are important ones. • Use a smaller letter for headers or footers. This makes them stand out less prominently. They are obvious enough because of where they are placed. • Make sure there is a clear division between the header or footer and the main text: for example, by leaving a line of white and/or by adding a thin horizontal line (a hairline - 0.5 points in width). • Place page numbers on the outside of the page preferably (in the case of one-sided texts, on the right-hand side). Page numbers are an important means of orientation and having them on the outside ensuret that they are visible when the reader is leafing through. • Keep the text in headers and footers short. If necessary, abbreviate thl title of the report.

TITLE IS TOO LONG FOR A HEADER/FOOTER

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LAYOUT

f

219

ABBREVIATED VERSION

Levels of analysis safety procedures 12

, Do not use a footer if you also have footnotes. Doing so will cause a piling up of various textual elements, leaving the page looking unbalanced. , If you have headers and footers, limit your use of such things as lines and logos. They will be distracting.

12.3.5

Boxed texts

Function Aboxed text is a type of text illustration. In a boxed text you could put such things as an elaboration on implementing policy plans that you have devised. Alternatively, if the main text contains an elaborate description, you could put your mathematical derivations in a boxed text. Form A boxed text consists of two elements: the box and the text. The box is sometimes indicated by a thin line (no more than 1 point) or by a thick (2 point) top and bottom line. It is, however, more common not to put a line around the box but delineate it using a 10% grey background colour. Adding a shadow for a 30 effect may show off your ability to use your software but the layout will suffer for it. The text is usually printed in a smaller letter. If that is not a good idea (grey tones and small letters may reduce the impact of the text to some degree), choose a different font. If you align the boxed text to both the left and the right margins ("justified text") you may end up with some disturbingly large gaps between the words. Unlike a figure , a boxed text does not have a caption. Refer to it as follows: "see boxed text on p.35."

The layout of individual parts of a report Some parts of a report need a layout that differs from the rest. In this section we will look at three of these parts: the table of contents , the index and the bibliography. We will briefly look at the function each of these serve and give instructions for their layout.

The table of contents

Levels of analysis for the improvement of written safety procedures e table of contents is the main means of orientation for the reader. It is sential that the titles in the table of contents be identical to those in the ~nd that the page numbering is correct. Your software programme can 0 this automatically for you (another reason for mastering this functi on).

•

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LAYOUT

Form

The default layout of a software programme is usually quite adequate for creating a table of conte nts. Th e table of contents is more or less like a table in the text: a text element with its own tab stops . Your layout should be as functional as possible: for example , indent to ind icate a section or sub-section.

FUNCTIONAL TABLE OF CONTENTS REPORT

Table of contents

Preface

Some professional designers tend to use aesthetic rather than functional criteria: in the following example, compare the visually more attractive table of contents with the more functional one: the latter.

·············· ······· ············ ·· ···· ····

1

Introduction

2

Long and short term effects

···· ··· ··· ··· ··· ·· ···· ····vii

···· ··· ··· ······ ··· ··· ······· · .. ... .... ........ .. ... ....... ..... ... 1 ··· ······· ···· ······· ···· ··· ··· ······· ····· ·· 3

3 ESTHETICALLY PLEASING BUT NOT VERY FUNCTIONAL TABLE OF CONTENTS

The appearance of the letter Introductory formulatio~~········ ·· · · ·· · · ·· ·'· · · · ······ · · ····· ·· ·· 5

3.1 3 .2 3.3

Contents

Standard elements ·· ··· ···· ·· · ··· ··· ·· ·· ··· · ··· ···· ·· ··· ·· 6 The layout .. . · ·· ·· · ··· ·· · ··· ··· .... ··· ··· .... ··· · ··· ···· .... .. 8 ••

•

•

••••• •••••••

•• •• •

••••

•

•

•••• ••• ••• •• •

•

•

••• •• •• •

•• •

•• 0

I I

Introduction

4

3

The appearance of the letter

2 2.1 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.2.1 2.1.2.2 2.1 .2.3 2.1.3

The style of the letter

2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6

5

Introductory formulations 6 Standard elements 8 The layout 12 The structure of the letter 13 Connection with previous communications Subject 15 Purpose and motives 16 Closing off 18 Number of paragraphs 20

53

4 ·2

14 5

5.3

6

The structure.~f-~h~·;··t·t············ · · · ····· ···· ···· ··· ·· · ·· · ···· 13 e er .... 4 ·1 .1 Connection w"th :··· ······ ······ ······ ···· ···· ··· 13

4.1.2 Subject ........ i previous communication ... 14 4.1.3 Purpose and ~~-~i~~···· · ·········· ··· · · · ···· ······· ·· 15 s. ...... .... 16 4 ·14 · ···· ··· ···· ··· ··· ··· · Closing off 4.1.5 Number of ~~-;~·g· ~~-·h·· ·· · ·· · ·· ·· · · · · · ··· · ······ · · · ··· 18 The s t YIe of the letter p s · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 20 ·· ····· ··· ···· ···· ···· ·· ·· ······ ······ ··· ·· 21

Letters of application

5.1 5.2

21

Letters of application 25 Introduction 25 The letter itself 27 Open application 28 Replying to an ment 29 Eight hints 31 The resume 33 Application letters in English 37 Introduction 37 Introductory formulations 38 The application letter proper 43 The resume 44 The application form 46 The most common mistakes 47 Bibliography Index 55

The letter proper ...

4.1

1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.4.5

Introduction ··· · ···· ·· ···· ·· ···· ··· ··· · ·· ···· ·· ·· · ·· ···· ··· ··· .. 25 The letter its·~·,[· · ····· · ···· · ·· · ····· ·· · · · · · ··· · · ······ · ······ · · · ·· ·· 25 5.2.1 Open a~~li~~~i·· · ········ · ······ ····· ····· · ··· ·· · · ·· · ··· 27 on ..... ... . 5 ·2 ·2 R_eplying to an advertis~~-~~~·--······· · ·· · ·· · · · ··· 2 8 5 .2.3 Eight hints · ···· · ·· ··· · ····· ·· 29

The resume .......... ."." ." ." ."."." ."."."."."." ."."."."." ."."." ." ."."."."."."."."." ."."."."." ."." ." ."."."."." ." ." ."

~~

Application letters in English .. ...... .... .

6.1 6.2 6.3

Introduction ·· ······· · ······· ··· ·· · ·· .... 37 Introduction ~f-~h~ ·;~~~-~~· ··· ····· ····· · ······ · · ·· · · ···· · ····· ·· · 37 The standard elements .. ···· ······ ········ ········ ········ ····· 38 6 ·4 The application letter pro.. ..... . ··········· ···· ·· ···· ······ ···· 4 o 6 · 5 Th e resume per··· ··· ···· · ··· ··················· 43 6.6 The app/icati~~-f~~~ · ··· · · · ····· · ··· · ······ · ····················· 44 6.7 The most common ~i~~~k···· · · · ········ · ·· · ······· · ·· ······ ·· 46 es······ ··· ····· ···· ······· ··· ····· 47 7

12

A step-by-step preparation

····· ····· ········ ··· ··· ······ ········ ·· ···· · 51 Bibliography .. .. ... .. .. . Index .. .... .. ... ... .........

."."."."."."."."."." ."."." ."."."."."."." ."."." ."."."."."."."." ."."."."."."."." ."."."."."."." ." ."."."."."."."."."."." ." ."~~

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The dots between title and page number (the software programme can create them automatically) are a point of contention. Some people dis like these dots immensely. On the other hand, they are very functional and ensure that the page numbers are connected directly to the title (the reader's glance is unlikely to accidentally stray to the wrong page number). We think the criterion of functionality should dictate your choice.

12.4.2

The index

Function Entries in the index enable readers to find the information they seek easily. In the past it was not usual for a report to have an index, but since it is now relatively easy to construct an index with a software programme, they tend to be more common. Weeding out superfluous page numbers in an index may be timeconsuming. But if you have to choose, it is better to have too much information in the index than no index at all.

I

I

I..

11

1,

Ii JI

I

Form An index is, in fact, simply a long alphabetical list with references. • Use columns . A list of entries is re latively narrow so it should be easy to make two columns . If you choose a smaller font you can perhaps even create three columns. If you can, this is certainly preferable . • The index should have the head ing Index (and be shown in the table of contents though without chapter number). • Page references should be placed directly after the entry and be separated by commas. • If an entry appears on several consecutive pages, you need only give the f irst and the last page, connected by a dash. • Page references that run onto the next line or onto a number of lines are indented on those lines (about 0.5 cm) . • Important references can be printed in bold or ita lics.

EX AMPLE OF AN INDEX IN THREE COLUMNS

A Abstract 152 Acti on res earch 52 Anonymous 84, 90 Appendices 152 Appli ed re search 14 Article 140 Assoc iation and projective materia l 81 Auditt ra il 139 Author 142 Average 117 Axial coding 132 B Barchart 115 Birthday rule 5 6

Cross tabulat ion 114 Cumulative percentage

Fixed research question 17 Focus group 41, 87 Forced choice 93 Frequency of event 97

114 D Data matrix 107 Data reduction 130 Data triangulation 7 4 Definition 69 Degrees of freedom 123 Delphi research 41, 86 Demand characteristics

G Generalization 20 Golden Standard 59 Graphs 115 Grounded theory 42, 128 Group approach 87 Group testing 88

51 Dependent variable 48 Descriptive 38 Descriptive research 28 Descriptive statistics

H Hawthorne effect 52 Histogram 115 History 50 Homogeneity 77 Hypothesis 30, 144 Hypothesis-test ing research 30

111

c CAPI (= Computer Assisted Pe rs onal Interviewing) 83 Case study 29, 40, 64, 136 CATI program s (= Computer Ass isted Telephone Interviewing)

83 Causal rel ationships 44,

Design 37, 142 Desk research 74 Dimensions 70 Discourse analysis 103 Discrete variables 110 Discussion 149 Double-blind research

48 Duration of observation 97

145 Chance 70, 120 Chat conferences 88 hi-square 124 hi-square calculator

124

onclusion 149 onfidence level 60 Onfidential 84, 90 nstruct 20, 69 nstruct vali dity 75 ntent analysis 102 tlnuous variables

0 Venience sam ple 58 elation 11 7, 125 ert observation 96 ach 's alpha 77

E Ecological validity 76 Editing 13 6 Effect variable 48 E-mail surveys 85 Essays 81 Ethnographic research 40, 13 4 Event sampl ing 97 Excel 106 Exceptional groups 57 Existing sources of information 73 Exploratory research 42 Extent of the range 118 External validity 144

F Fa ce-to-face approach 83 Figures 147

Identifying number 108 Image research 81 Incentive 32 Independent samples 122 Independent variable 48 Indicators 70 Individual approach 8 7 Inferential statistics 111 Informant 73 Instrumental validity 144 Interim event 50 Internal validity 144 Internet chatting 86 Interval measurement scale 110 Intervention 48 Introduction 89, 142 Iterative process 130 K Keywords 24 Kurto sis 119

L Labelling 13 0 Literature list 152

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LAYOUT

Literature search 2 3 Logbook 130 Longitudinal survey 43

M Margin of error 60 Matching 50 Matrix 93 Maturation 50 Median 118 Mediator variable 46 Member checking 139 Memo recorder 96 Meta-analysis 102 Minimum 120 Missing data 108 Mixed methods research 39 Mode 118 . variables 46 Multi-stage sampling 56 Mystery shopping 95

N

.

Negative case analysis

139 Negative correlation 117 Nominal measurement scale 109 Non-parametric testing 112 Non-response 32, 57, 82 Normal distribution 116

0 Observation 73 Observational direction 97 Observational list 96 Once-only survey 38 One-tailed test 123 Open coding 130 Open interview 80 Open question 80 Open unstructured observations 96 Operationalization 37, 69

EXAMPLE OF A BIBLIOGRAPHY LAYOUT

Ordiinal measurement scale 109 Organization of data 129 outliers 116

Bibliography

V. (2010). Technical communication. A reader-centered approach. 7th ed. Anderson Boston:, P.Wadsworth.

p

Paired.t-test 122 research 43 Parametric testing 112 Participant study 96, 136 Peer debriefing 139 Pie chart 115 Placebo 48 Plan your time 31 Plausibility 76,138 Plausible 145 Policy and management research 41 Population 20, 144 Population 55 Positive correlation 117 Postal surveys 84

Beno it, W.L. & Benoit, P.J. (2008). Persuasive messages; the process of influence. Ma lden/ Oxford/Victoria: Blackwell Publishing. Broek, J. van den, Koetsenruijter W. , Jong, J. de & Smit, L. (2012) Visual language. Perspectives for makers and s. Den Haag: Boom Lemma Uitgevers. Butterman, D. (2007). English for high-flyers. A reference book for those who wish to perfect their English. Amsterdam: Boom. ThePress. Chicago Manual of Style (2010). 16th ed. Chicago: the University of Chicago

Cialdini, R. B. (2008). Influence: science and practice (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Cohen , S. ia: (2001). Columb IRE. Numbers in the newsroom. Using math and statistics in news.

Lindsay-Roberts, S. (2009). Strategic business letters and E-mail. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

I

1 2 .4.3

The bibliography Swales, J.M. & Feak, C.B. (2004). Academic writing for graduate students. Essential tasks and skills. 2nd ed. University of Michigan Series in English for Academic & Professiona l Purposes.

Function . etica l li st of the publications you have The bibliography is an alphab "dea of the authoritativeness of the consu lted. It can give the reader at_n I 4 2 deals with the elements that . material the writer has us ed . Sec ion ·Use our software programme to need to be included (title, author, e~c.)base/on the references to literature automatical ly generate a b1bl1ograp y in your text.

Form . . n enumerated list. . h tab The bibliography is laid out as~ aded Bibliography and included int e The bibliography should be e b .

:n~~~arated by a line of white, .

• of contents (but without page num • The entries in the bibliography can e

than one line it is a good idea to though this is not necessary. If the title description covers more f the author will become more f t line The name o . th"s will facilitate searching. ritta indent after the_ irs prom inent in this way an I grammes and other non-w . t es computer pro Reference video ap ' heading in the bibliography. sources under a separate

d

Zlnsser, W. K. (2006). On writing we//. 30th Anniversary Edition: The Classic Guide to Writing Nonfiction. 7th ed. New York: HarperCollins.

Common layout pitfalls There are many ways of making a nice text illegible in the layout phase . Beginners often make the following errors. • Too little White (margins, lines of white between text elements). The text gives the impress ion of being a massive block and is not inviting to the reader. Important elements of content are not directly visible. A handy rule ofper thumb White pageis . to always ensure that you have at feast three fines of Too many fonts. People who are experimenting with layout often become lost in the many poss ibilities their word processing or layout programme has to offer. The result is always confusing and not very attractivE!. A Well-known designer once compared it to using spices in food : "A little 1 can enhance th e fl avour, but beware of using too much." One font for e main text and anoth er for the other elements (chapter or section les, captions, titles of tables and figures, formulas, etc.) is enough.

~t

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Too many italics or other ways of emphasising. Too much emphasising has the opposite effect. Try to limit the number of emphases on a single page to between 5 and 7. It is likely that having more italics or capitalized words than th is has the opposite effect. Too many hidden margin lines. If the various parts of the text start at seemingly arbitrary distances from the left margin , the effect will be messy (compare the difference between the two examples), particular if tab stops are not used. Lists within lists can also mean an overabundance of margin lines. Lists of this. sort should be avoided . Not using software properly, causing such things as mistakes in the table of contents, missing page numbers, or paragraphs that are not indented when they should have been.

TOO BUSY; RANDOM MARGIN LINES

MORE BALANCED LAYOUT: LIMITED NUMBER OF FIXED TAB MARGIN LINES

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Too few enumerations. Even when there are enough lines of white on a page , a text that presents all its information in running sentences is not very -friendly. Enumerations are an efficient way of presenting information. They also serve to break up the text in a functional way: readers remain alert. Too few illustrations. Illustrations help to focus the reader's attention. A technical report without clarifying drawings, figures or other illustrations is hardly imaginable.

If you are working in a group, it might be wise to choose the simplest layout. This is to say, do not format your work: it will give the editor tewe~ headaches.

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13 Presen ting a report orally

13.1 13.2

Preparing your presentation Delivering a presentation

While a written presentation is an irable form of communication, giving an oral presentation of your report can certainly increase the value of your report. • Speakers have a greater impact. As well as words, they can use gestures, tone and the force of their emotions to get their message across . • Speakers have a greater control over how their message gets across than writers have. Speakers can determine the order of the arguments that the listener has to process and can choose the right moment for presenting the conclusion. While a writer is never sure when and how a reader will read a report (or even whether it will be read at all), speakers can make sure of attracting the listener's attention through the use of visual and other presentation means. As well as this, speakers can interact with the audience and can improvise to make their come across better. • Listeners can react directly. Listeners can ask any questions they might have and get an immediate answer. Misunderstandings or conflicts can be resolved immediately. • Listeners do not have to put as much effort into a good presentation . Listening to a Person is less tiring than reading - provided the person has a professional manner.

Presentations also have certain disadvantages: they can be time-consuming and getting all

the People together for a presentation could be costly. Furthermore, presentations that are not Prepared well can become chaotic: the audience may interrupt and interact in other Ways to try and get the information they want. •

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Regardless of this, professional people often choose to present their report orally, and for several possible reasons: sometimes in order to get a first reaction to a draft version of the report from those who commissioned the report or from a part of the target group, sometimes in order to increase the effect of a finished investigation and the report and to prepare the way for the recommendations. It would seem that it is worth the trouble . This chapter is about the art of oral presentations. The following are nine guidelines for how to prepare a presentation of your report and four for how to present it.

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13.1.1

PRESENTING A REPORT ORALLY

-

Gear your speech to your audience's interests, their background knowledge and their perspectives

While the subject of your speech is fixed, your angle and your line of approach are not. You need to make them dependent on your audience's interests , what they know and what their attitudes are . It pays to make a few phone calls. Sound out the organiser of the meeting you are speaking at, and if possible, people who will be in the audience. • What is the audience interested in? A good speech has news value. Your audience is there to learn something: perhaps the latest technical developments (techniques for avoiding traffic jams on freeways, for example). They may want background information on a topical subject (smart drugs on the shop floor) or they are interested in something that they can put to immediate use (what can the new colour printers do?}: You can also make a topic interesting by adopting a contrasting view to the prevailing one (in a time of reduction of working hours, advocating longer working hours). What does the audience know? Try to get an idea of how much the audience knows about your subject. Try to avoid technical if you expect that the audience will not be familiar with them. If certain are essential to your talk, give a clear explanation, preferably illustrated by an example. What are the audience's views and perspectives on things? If your audience is likely to be critical or negative it is a good idea to start with perspectives and points of view that you know you share with the audience. Make sure you are aware of what they are likely to see as the "bad news" in your and deal with that carefully, backing up what you say with convincing arguments and examples. It helps if you know what the audience thinks of you. A female engineer who has graduated in transport policies will be accepted readily as an expert in the transport field. But if she says something about the architecture of the new business premises she will have to establish her authority or credibility in this field first.

13.1.2

Formulate your aim clearly

What exactly do you want to achieve with this presentation and this audience? For a presentation to be effective, it is essential that you formulate your aim beforehand.

&D Preparing your presentation

I

t

Your report is finished. And to thank you for meeting the deadline on time, the person who commissioned the report has a surprise up his sleeve: you can present it orally. It is a great way to increase its impact, but a fifty page report in twenty minutes? A nice challenge .... Luckily, preparations for an oral presentation are quite similar to how you would go about preparing a written report. You start by noting down the issues: what public is the presentation intended for and what is its purpose? With a view to the limited speaking time, what is the most logl way of structuring the information and arguments? What parts of the thlo report should you highlight? What is a good way of introducing you~ topic and what is a good way of rounding it off? What visual and other aids ca you use to maintain the attention of the audience? After you have made a draft of your presentation, write down the mal~ points and practice presenting them orally. You may find that you nee make some changes as you go.

Posing a question at the beginning of your presentation and addressing it during the course of your speech is a useful way of presenting your research aims. Concrete questions are easier to work with than theoretical matters. With the latter, like "will be dealt with," "will be raised," or "information will be provided in respect of" tend to creep in . By focussing ~n a question you can largely avoid hedging formulations. Compare "The investigation into our personnel policy will be dealt with" with the following:

• Why should ma nagement give its employee s more frequent opportunities to follow courses during working hours? (convince those present of the necessity for change or action ) What are the fo ur main points of ou r personnel policy for the next year? (informing those pre sent: bringing them up t o date with a project, event or policy) How do you cond uct a performance intervi ew? (instruct those present on how to carry out som ething)

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s uch a concretely formulated aim or main question can be used as a selection criterion for the contents and structure of the speech . ("Scrap this?_ Yes, because in the light of the main question this is simply a side track.") When formulating th e aim, keep the length of the speech in mind. " In fifteen minutes I cannot possibly explain this complicated subject , about which I have written a thick report," is no excuse for presenting your audience with an incomprehensible talk. The main issue addressed by the presentation could be the same as that of the report, though you could restrict it to some extent. After all, the report can always be referred to for more extensive information.

13.1.3

13.1.4

Structure the core of your talk to suit your immediate purpose: there is no need to automatically follow the structure of your report. Find a way of doing it that appeals to the audience you are addressing. Compare the examp les below. ·

Select concise, interesting and convi ncing subject matter

Speakers who follow the structure and phrasing of their report too closely are likely to bury their audience under an avalanche of information and details. A strict selection of the contents is essential: after all, listeners are not readers . Listeners cannot concentrate full y for longer than twenty minutes. Readers can. Listeners have to understand everything in one goes: the presentation cannot be put aside for a while . This is why it is a good idea for a speaker to keep the presentation short and concise and to limit the to one main issue which is looked at from three or four main perspectives . Let us assume you have done extensive re search into the Sick Building Syndrome . Your report contains chapters that describe the syndrome, the many misconceptions that exist about it, the causes of building-related complaints, procedures for dealing with those complaints and an inventory of the problems associated with dealing with those complaints. You have round ed it off with a proposal for a new procedure.

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A bui lding society has bought a church building and wants to protect it against lightni ng. An expert of the firm Lightning Protection has written a research report and is holding a presentation. Origina l report

Not: But:

"the following seven causal factors were behind the complaints." . "In this presentation I will look at the two main causal factors behind the complaints." "The first problem was ... The second problem was ... " "The most fundamental problem was ... "

. Make sure your selection is relevant to the au d1ence an d that you stick to . as much as poss1'bl e.. ·inc 1ude the best our most interesting material Y pieces of research or the trickiest problems .1n your presen t at'10n· ChoOSS aspects that can be presented well visually or that have a good story attached to them. Choose those arguments that you can present m . . h .in t eres ting facts, exa convincingly and that you can substantiate wit or references to authoritative research.

Possible structure for the core of the presentation

Contents Preface .... Summary

...... ..... ... .. ..... ............. .. .. ....... 3 ...... 4

1 Introduction .... ...... ....... .. ........ ........... ..... ... ... ........... s 2 Lightning s trikes: a frequent occurrence .... ... 6 2. 1 Direct hit ..... ... ...... .......... .... ...... ........... ..... .... ........ 6 2.2 Power surges ....... ........ ...... .7 3 Protection possi bilities .. .. .. .. 9

This is where you get your scissors out. You might choose to focus on a main question: for example , what procedure for dealing with complaints should we follow? Matters such as the origin of the complaints and problems in handling them can form the backbone of your presentation. Avoid looking at all of the problems and do not analyse every complaint.

Not: But:

Give the subject matter a clear structure

If you want your listeners to understand and your presentation t hey mu st be able to store your main points mentally. Unless you structure yo_ur presentation c_learly and simply there is no chance of that happening. It is best to stick with the old but still relevant structure of introduction core and conclusion. The core will be looked at first. The introduction a~d the conclusion serve a special purpose, about which we shall hear more later.

3. 1 Extern al protection ... .. .............. ........ .... .... ........ g 3.2 Interna l protection ... ......... .. .. ...... .. .. .... ... ........ .. ll 3.3 Power surge protection ...... .... .. .... .... ...... .. ....... 13 4 Risk assessment ............ .. ...... ... .............. 15

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4.1 Descrip tion present situa tion . ......................... 15 4.2 Safety class determinati on .... ... .... ......... ........... 19 5 lnstalJ ation procedure ... ... .. .. 31 5.1 Determining safety zo nes ........... ..... .. .. ... .. 31 5.2 Poten ti al balanci ng ...... 32 5.3 Connecting energy and data leads .. ....... ..... .... 33 5.4 Selection surge diversions ............. 35 6 Conclusions & Recomm endations .................... ... 37 App endix A ........ 41

Appendix B: Delivery p ossibililies

...... ... .. 45

[problem structure] Main question: how can we resolve the safety issues? First and foremost, we need to look at what the issues are and then what solutions are available. [geographic structure] Main question: what measures need to be taken? (The audience is then taken on a walk through the building and are shown what measures need to taken from top to bottom. [alternatives structure]. Main question: why is the debatable solution x the best one after all? The symptoms of the problem are discussed first, then the obvious measures. Show why they do not work. Finish with a solution that does work. This approach can be useful if you have to defend an unpopular measure.

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The fol lowing wil l also help your audience to take in and your main po ints: • Announce how you intend to structure your presentation (at the end of your introduction and preferably in no more than three or four points). • Indicate when you are moving on to the next main point. • Summarise the main points in the end (do not enumerate al l of them but choose the most important) .

• Ask a question. The audience will be drawn into the subject by thinking about the answer. An added advantage for the speaker is that he h . f as a d t t. rea Y_s ar mg point or the conclusion of his speech: he can answer the q_uest1on t~en. He could also answer the question immediately or pose a kind of a nddle and postpone giving the answer for a while.

"What is the difference between a management consultant and a tram? [Short pa use] A tra m stops when it loses track."

Sometimes choosing a variety of ways in which to arrange your points can ensure that your presentation is memorable. The important thing is for your audience to be able to see the broad outlines of your presentation.

13.1.5

Introduce your presentation in a lively way and conclude succinctly

The opening and closing moments of the presentation are important ones and they need to be prepared well. Improvisation does not usually work. Introduction

Inexperienced speakers often come straight to the point. They tend to neglect their relationship with the audience, failing to prepare them for what they are about to hear, not making clear what they intend to do and not making apparent what they expect from the audience. The listeners are likely to be confused and irritated and less accepting of what you have to say. Our research has shown that listeners less of your presentation if you spend too little time on the introduction. How should you start? The Greek and Roman rhetoricians were already aware of the three most important aims of the introduction: to gain the attention of the listeners, to call on their good will and to prepare them for the main part of the presentation. 1 Gain the attention of the listeners You can do this in several ways: • Focus attention on the interests of the listener. For example:

"The faces I see in front of me this morning are not all happy ones. This is very understandable. However, the new sales registration system will work for you if you understand how to work with it. For most of you this will be your first introduction to the new programme. We want to make this introduction as pleasant as we can and we want you to tell us how we can help you. During this meeting we will outline so of the ways that are available."

• Come out with a controversial proposition. The chairman of the Product Board for Livestock and Meat caught the attention of the audience immediately when he opened his speech at the Grand Gala of Plenty with the words:

"Vegetarians think they live longer than others, but that is not the case. They just look older. There, now you know immediately where I stand.''

• Give examples, tell anecdotes or include quotes. They can come in handy in the introduction as we ll as elsewhere:

"Nowadays , nobody sticks to the speed limit any more. During a cabaret performance by Hester Macra_nder, I heard the ultimate solution. "Only when cars are being produced that will put the exhaust fumes back into the car at speeds above 120 kilometres an hour will people stick to the speed limit.'' I want to talk to you about less drastic measures for enforcing the speed limit."

2 Make your audience favourably inclined towards you Make yourse lf credible in the eyes of your audience: indicate in one or two sentences that you are competent or that your approach has been successful in the past. Our research shows that this works. Do not talk about yourse lf too long because people find that boring.

"During the last few months we have been working enthusiastically on a new model to predict _cha nges in river flow. The approach chosen by us is more practical and more efficient than that of our rivals in Twente."

;au can _i~crease the likelihood of your presentation going down well by mphas1z1ng the importance of what you have to say for your audience or by flattering your audience.

"It i~ well known t hat engineers do not like beating about the bush, so I shall come straight to the point this morning ... "

3 Provide point t h I . ers o e P your audience follow your presentation . is IS a two-fold approach: Firstly: formulate your purpose. Be concrete:

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Not: Not: But:

I will say something about my research. I will say something about my research into noise pollution . How can you avoid problems resulting from noise in the office?

"This is the crux of the matter: I don 't mind if you forget everything else."

Repeats (and graphic material) greatly increase the chance of the main points of your talk being ed. If the audience is strongly opposed to the ideas of the speaker it could be wise to build up the speech in such a way that the purpose only becomes clear at the end of the story. If you want to convince the employees of a firm that they have to work on Saturdays without pay, you will have to deal with the background history first. By doing this you may be able to create some acceptance for the measure. Secondly: announce the main points. Announcing the main points will enhance understanding and give the audience something to go on. For the speaker this is a way of making sure that he does not lose sight of the whole and listeners know what they can expect. Since the spoken word is more fleeting than written text, it is a good idea to put the main points on a PowerPoint slide (or on a whiteboard or flipchart).

3 Finish off with a flourish

Not every speech has to end with a flourish . You could also finish off with something aimed at starting a discussion. But you are likely to be more convincing if you save your trump card for the end: the best example, the anecdote that demonstrates your main point best. Or you could come back to your starting point and close the circle . The following can be effective too . • Quote:

"In short, ladies and gentlemen , what is a translator? I close with the definition that Dolf Ve rspoor, himself a translator once gave: "A translator is somebody who of five synonyms chooses the sixth ."

Conclusion

1 Alert the audience to the fact that the end of the presentation is near Your presentation should not simple fizzle out (" OK, that was it ... "). You can signal that the talk is coming to an end with formulations such as "Finally," "In conclusion," "To sum up" or "What have we learned from the failure of this project?" Our research shows that the audience will straighten up and listen to you with renewed energy. They will your conclusions better. 2 Summarise th e main points and give a conclusion Always summarise the main arguments of your presentation. Logically, there should be no need to do this because a summary is a repeat. Nevertheless, summaries are indispensible for a good speech .

A so-called indicative summary (" I have put the problem before you , have indicated the causes and hope you will agree to my proposal.") is unlikely to go down well. A more informative summary, phrased in a less clinical way, will give the speaker a chance to clarify his point of view and express his feelings once more , before the audience is required to give its opinion:

" So why am I pleading for a change in the constitution of our professional organisation? In order to make a more efficient way of decision-making possible. in order to avoid undemocratic situations."

• List of three: question-answer and repetition:

"Can we leave behind our mutual distrust? Can we as two groups with different cultu res come to form a real unity? And can we together start on a new project and make it into a success? I know we can - I know we have to - and I know we will! "

• Repetition:

"I shall go and get a breath of fresh air tomorrow by walking to the main building to vote th ere. I wish you all a breath of fresh air too - and afterwards, as a result of your votes - a bre ath of fresh air through our company."

It is important th at all these techniques reinforce the main point of the speech: a joke about an insignificant detail will detract from the core issues.

13.1.6 With more informative speeches too , you will be paying the listener a service if you summarize the main points:

Make sure the visual aids are meaningful, legible and of a high quality

Good visual of your presentation is important. You can make use of a Whiteboard , a flip chart, maps, replicas and obiects not to mention of co J ' Urse, prese ntation programmes like PowerPoint or Prezi . Prezi is a Progr~mme th at instead of slides uses one big screen on which the whole text, image and vid eo of the presentation is presented. By zooming in and out You bring th e parts under discussion to the fore in a playful way. 1

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Powerpoint slides have a lot of advantages. They are cheap, easy to produce and make a presentation attractive, easy to follow and, as research shows, easier to . Slides 1 Do not make too many (but not too few either) Research shows that a presentation without visual is less well ed than a presentation with visual . Make sure the slide does not show information other than that in the spoken explanation. Make sure the audience does not have to choose between listening and reading. 2 Make them readable Choose a big and clear basic font: the 30 point Arial, for instance. A bigger font size is preferable to putting the entire text in capitals or italics - these make the text hard to read. The standard settings of a presentation programme are usually satisfactory. Make sure background illustrations do not interfere with your text.

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3 Do not make them too full • Have a maximum of 7 lines, with no more than 7 words per line, but preferably fewer. Simplify schedules and technical drawings. Do not import illustrations from the Internet indiscriminately: eliminate superfluous details by using a drawing programme. Only include information you can say something about, or make "growing slides" (a sequence of slides in which more and more of a drawing is shown).

Asthma management • Action plan: describes what a patient should do when having an asthma attack -7 Only 35 % have an action plan • Instructions for the use of the puffer: important for therapeutic efficiency! Who instructs the patient on how to use the puffer correctly?

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. . Only 23% are instructed by the pharmacist!

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Presentation slides

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Asthma management 0 Mtli>np11n:<1ewit1U\l>holo1>J!l 1tta.<1< -00W,JS1>;/111;,, 1111a

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4 Make them in a house style Maintain one style during your presentation (the logo always in the same place, the same margins, footer, background colour) Computer programmes such as powerpoint will help you make something attractive of your draft. Keep to the layout principles mentioned in Chapter 12: make it quiet, functional and image reinforcing. 1 Check the equipment

Delivering a powerpoint presentation Audiences often expect you to summarise your report in a powerpoint presentation. While slides that are rich in information form a useful reference source, they are less suited as a means of presentation. Lead your audience through complex slides step-by-step, focussing the attention of the listener on specific parts of the slide using arrows, circles and underlining. These can be left out of your printouts of the slides. A print out of a slide from a presentation on the decision to involve pharmacists in patient education:

Do you know how to link up the projector to the computer? Can the projection be seen by everybody or will you be standing in the way? Have you tried out your video clips and have you checked the sound? 2 Funnel attention

• Only show the information you are talking about. Information that you want to deal with step-by-step should not be shown yet. Showing everything at once will distract the audience rather than your . The audience will only start listening after they have read the entire text on the slide , and in the meantime you may have said quite a bit. • Use the programme's various functions to accentuate that part of the d~awing or the text you are talking about. You can, for example , place a simple circle around that part of the table that the audience's attention should be drawn to. • Use a l.aser pen or a pointer when you want to highlight something, but ma1nta1n eye with the audience.

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3 Take the time to explain what is on your slides With text slides: each line on the slide corresponds to approximately one paragraph of verbal explanation (about 120 words) . . . • With slides showing images: make sure not to rush things. Do not think "they will see that for themselves ," but take the time to describe what is to be seen .

13.1 .7

Use rhetorical devices to keep your listeners' attention

A catchy opening is no guarantee that you will have a captive audience during the rest of your speech . What can you do to keep the attention of the audience or to regain it? 1 1

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"You ~ill no doubt accept my statement that the environment is not served b dumping 011 in the surface water. But how bad is it if a captain lets the last liit_le b' oil flow into the wat:r? If you realized that one litre of oil makes a million litres of it of water unfit for drinking purposes you would have an answer to that question."

Make clear when you are moving on to t he next main point Indicating the transitions from one part of your speech to another is very important. In the first place, the audience will find it easier to information if you clearly indicate to which main point it refers, and secondly, it is a way of recapturing the listener's attention if he or she has been momentarily sidetracked. Marking the transitions in your speech clearly gives the listener an opportunity to regain the thread .

"Information technology is therefore crucial for the world economy, but there are quite a few obstacles to overcome before we can make optimal use of it. How do we do that? Let us look first at the s of information services."

Take the time to make it clear that you are starting on a new main point. Do not be afraid of a moment's silence: a short pause indicates that a new subject is being broached and often refocuses the attention of the audience on the speaker. Our research shows that the timing of your announcement matters quite a lot. Announce the change of topic first and then go on to the next slide, not the other way around . Use examples and models What do people of a talk? They usually do forget the formulas and abstract discussions and the examples and models. Whether your subject is fireproof baby seats, the advantages of porous asphalt roads or the newest latex colours, show the audience what you are talking about. Bring the object along, produce a model, show colours and

samples. . . back to You can make complicated matters easy to grasp 1f you bnng them . human proportions . The pronouncement "dumping oil in surface water IS very damaging to the environment" is too abstract to make an impa?t 0 ~ the listeners They will believe it but will not understand how damaging ith 1s, . 1t . concrete ·increases th e impact oft a and th ey will ·soon forget .1t. Making statement and makes it more believable.

Comparisons with a familiar measure give meaning to an inconceivably small or large number:

Every year we throw away 2:5 billion plastic bags . That is enough plastic to provide nearly half of the country with a plastic wheelie bin .

The statement "India has an area of 3,28 7,782 km 2" does not mean as much to the average listener as "India is more than 78 times larger than the Neth erlands - or 6 .5 times larger than Spain."

13.1.8

It ~s better to have a speech plan than a completely written out text

Talking t o the audience is a different thing to reading a text. A reader is more concerned with his paper than with his audience. He loses his abil't t . . d h' d I y o 1m.prov1.se an. 1s elivery tends to become monotonous and uninspiring, causing his audience to lose interest. Good spea kers deliver their talk largely by heart but have a speech plan as an aid to memory. It is a good idea to make one, therefore. As your basis, use your PowerPoint presentation handout. You can include elements other than the main points of the talk : • Transition sentences. Insert these between the various sections to make sure the structure remains coherent. • Details that are hard to . These include figures , formulas , dates and quotes . • Instructions on how to use audiovisual appliances and other aids. Prompts for facial expressions, gestures, tempo, volume and so on.

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Welcome Introduction: (Ariane de Zwart, on behalf of BB, lightning career in high tension: Developed into the biggest firm in the field in three years) . Item from yesterday's television news: 1 billion damage each year in NL through lightning strikes ~ does not have to happen to you : a small investment will prevent major damage

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Use spoken language throughout , including written introductions and conclusions . Resist the temptation to copy large parts of your report: instead, give a spoken version of it. Do not make your sentences too Jong and avoid typical written expressions ("As I mentioned in the preceding chapter.. .") Speakers sometimes get themselves into needless trouble by bringing along notes that are written or printed in letters that are too small to read or are in the form of chaotically arranged bits of scrap paper. Write in letters that are big enough to be read without effort from a lectern or a table. Some speakers prefer putting their notes onto system cards that can be held in the hand easily. Deal with one main point per card.

13.1. 9

Practise your speech and make sure you have an emergency plan

Give yourself enough time to practise your speech and check whether it sounds right. Will your speech plan serve the purpose well? Practis ing aloud is also the only way to find out how long your talk will be. It is a good idea to ask somebody if you can practise your speech in front of them: every comment that you get beforehand will be invaluable in ensuring that the real presentation goes off as smoothly as possible . Your "practice audience " could perhaps focus on the following things: • Is t he purpose clear? What exactly does the speaker want from his audience?

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• Does t his introduction immediately draw the attention of the audience? • Are the visualisations, examples , jokes and anecdotes relevant? Do they come across?

Strike despite conductors

• Is the conclusion clear and convincing? Does the conclusion answer the questi on/ aim of the introduction? • Does th e speaker speak clearly and is his posture good? Emergency plan

• Direct strike • Indirect strike • Power surge

Timing is cru cial in many presentations. You may often be given twenty minutes speaking time or half an hour of the lunch break for a product presentation . With an emergency plan to fall back on you can make sure your talk fini shes exactly on time . Select a part of the story that can be scrapped in case of lack of time and a part that ca n be enlarged on or added if you have time to spare. Make the emergency plan such that you can decide at the last moment to expand or scrap the next part. Naturally, a flexible approach will only work if you keep an eye on the time during your speech. Acute lack of time? Execute your emergency plan promptly Assess your chances of exceeding the allotted time by a couple of minutes Without getting into trouble with the chairman or the audience. Since it is almost always better to speak for a shorter time than to exceed your time, do not activate your emergency plan too late. • Avoid talking twice as fast. Suggest that you would like to deal with the other points afterwards or at some other time. "I see that the time_,ti as caught up with me. I would like to talk about. .. some other time " and immediately go to your final slide. Do not flip through the remaining slides. • Present the conclusion in its entirety calmly and as you have prepared it. Never skip it.

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Do not panic! Do not hurry. Keep your control and most of the audience will not even realise that you have run out of time .

ftB Delivering a presentation Good preparation is a job more than half done. Some things , however, will require on the spot management.

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Focus on the excitement, not the fear Combat those thoughts that undermine your confidence and increase your feelings of stress. One consolation is that stress goes as soon as you are busy with your talk. Moreover, your audience is unlikely to notice your nerves unless you let them. And even if things go wrong , that a speaker is allowed to make mistakes. Nobody in the audience expects a perfect performance. Are you inclined to feel stress? Excellent: you need that excitement to give a good presentation. Know that you have prepared as well as you can Good preparation is the best way of ensuring that you can be confident of a good result. Start your preparations well in time and do not procrastinate. Be conscious of what you want to achieve, who your audience is and what the main points of your speech are . Make sure there are a number of points in your talk that are really worthwhile. Make sure of good visual . And rehearse your talk as much as possible. Familiarize yourself with the venue Unknown situations can cause insecurity. Make sure you familiarize yourself in time with the venue where you will hold your presentation. To avoid unwelcome surprises, check the following points. • Sound. Will you need a microphone? How do you switch it on and off? Test the microphone to make sure the amplifier is loud enough and has no acoustic . "f • Light and temperature. Where are the light switches? What can you do 1 the sun shines into the room too brightly? How can the room be darkened if you want to show slides or are working with a projector? How can the heating be adjusted? How does the air conditioning work? Can •

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you are waiting for your turn or even during your last visit to the toilet before you enter the room. • Take a slow deep breath through the nose , hold your breath for six seconds and breathe out slowly. Do this consciously a few times before you stand up to deliver your presentation. Keep breathing calmly throughout your presentation: good deep abdominal respiration forces you to relax. • Clench your fists slowly while breathing in and relax them while breathing out.

Find ways of dealing with stress

Do you suffer from nerves before your talk? Then you are in good company, because even actors and political leaders notice they are breathing restlessly and have butterflies in the stomach just before an important performance. Some speakers suffer more from it than others, however. What is the best way for you to deal with stress?

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the windows be opened? . . . . ctor? Position of the stage. Will you be standing 1n the light of your proJe Where will you put your notes? Is your laser pen .in t he n·ght spot?· Where is the computer placed?

Do relaxing exercises . . ·ust before Despite all your preparations you may become quite stressed J wh your speech. The following fairly inconspicuous exercises can be done

13.2.2

Make with your audience

Make eye Some speakers seem to derive satisfaction from simply making with their lectern. But we suggest that you put a large part of your energy into making with your audience during your talk. The main thing is to look at the people in the room and to really address them. Otherwise the audience will not feel involved in the talk and they may feel tempted to do something else, such as preparing for the next meeting. Anoth er advantage of eye is that you see how the listeners are reacting to your speech. People will laugh when they think it is funny, look knowl edgeable or confused, knit their brows if they cannot follow you (you will notice this and quickly expand your explanation) and will let you know if they cannot hear you properly. Eye makes for good customer relation s. Ask questions, including rhetorical ones A question during speech will attract attention because of its different intonation and syntax. It will draw the attention of the audience . You could pose a rea l question about which the audience has to think for a moment ("Do you know how many bikes are stolen per day in our province?") and to which you provide the answer later on. You could also ask rhetorical question s to which the audience already knows the answer or which is implicit in th e question ("We cannot all go to sleep with a pistol under our pillow, can we?" ). Address t he audience Make your talk personal by addressing the audience personally: use "you" and include th e audience in the situations you describe. Ensure that everybody fee ls a sense of involvement. The listener must get the idea that "This is meant for me too." Referring to "we" will reduce the distance between spea ker and audience and suggest that the speaker and the audience are in the same position: a handy little trick.

• "Let's ass ume that you have an extra hour up your sleeve each day. What would you ... " • "Yesterday I was in our old building for a moment. Do you how about ten of us wou ld smoke in the courtyard during breaks?"

.. You could make beli eve that you are having a dialogue with the audience:

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"You will probably be thinking 'that's easy for him to say: he doesn't have to do all that research."'

13.2.3

Project your voice and use your body language effectively

Many speakers suffer from a cold start. They start speaking but their voice falters and grates. They clear their throat forcefully a couple of times, hoping to get their voice going again. It usually takes a few sentences before the voice sounds all right. Such a false start does not give a good first impression. The following bits of advice can help you ensure that your voice remains a reliable instrument. Advice for the preparation • Smoke and drink as little as possible. If you are preparing for your talk really seriously it is a good idea to smoke and drink as little as possible. Alcohol and smoking may help you relax but they also irritate the mucous membranes and cause hoarseness. Other things that are certain to ruin your voice are whispering loudly, yelling and disco "conversations ." Loosen up your voice. Here are three well-tried exercises to avoid becoming hoarse during the first minute of your speech. Snorting like a horse is a nice exercise to loosen the whole of the voice area: flap your lips. Snort at first without a tone, after that with a tone - from high to low and vice versa. - Stretching: Stretch out, open your mouth wide and draw in a sound while you are doing this: aMiah. Do not force it. - Speech-singing, or your customary opera act under the shower. Try saying and singing the opening sentence of your talk ("Do you drink enough, ladies and gentlemen?") with varying emotions: angry, happy, sad, slightly amused. This exercise will lift the dynamic range and expressiveness of your voice. • Try out the acoustics of the hall. It can give you a good feeling to project your voice into an empty hall. You will get a good idea of how loudly, emphatically and fast you have to speak. • Relax. Relax your muscles (especially the jaws, shoulders and neck). Be aware of how you sit (or stand). Feel your own weight and see how your breath sinks to the bottom of your stomach. Advice for during the talk • Adopt a relaxed posture: Stand up straight but with a relaxed_ posture. Walk calmly to the spot you will speak from. Then pay attention to your posture for a minute. Balance your body weight over both feet, stand up straight but remain relaxed. Breathe deeply and calmly. Avoid quick and shallow breathing as you start your speech. Begin calmly and slowly. Your pace should be slower . h· · ht em unnatura 11Y than with a normal conversation, even thoug 1t m1g se slow to you. If there is a bit of echo in the hall it is better to speak slowly and emphatically. the • Speak so loudly that you can be heard in the back of the hall. Varyf ur . · h ssages o yo pitch of your voice depending on how important eac pa

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speech is, but never let your voice drop to such a low level that you can hardly be understood any more. Do not force your voice. Do not try to fill the hall with sound but fill yourself with it (resonance). • Vary your intonation. Prevent sleep-inducing monotony by varying your pitch and doing it often. A bit of drama in your intonation will make your speech livelier. Pause immediately after an important statement or to indicate that you are starting on a new point. Try to avoid fillers, stopgaps and stereotypes ("er," "um," "so," "well," "you know"). Posture Just like your voice, your body posture is an important source of information for your audience. By being conscious of your posture and gestures you can add a lot to your talk. You can talk about two parties or theories in an abstract way, or you can typecast them by using gestures and miming (one party or theory: huddled up, frowning, with small gestures and with a small voice - the other party or theory: up straight, open face, large gestures, a lot of sound). Think about ages in your talk where you can express something or can them by gesturing (for instance, keeping count during an enumeration). Exaggerated movements that serve no apparent purpose give a tense impress ion and make the audience restless. Are you a "dancing" speaker (a step forward, a step backward)? Do you tend to pace up and down, clicking a pen in and out, stroking your hair compulsively? Try to move more deliberately. Your "at rest" posture should convey an impression of calmness : two feet firmly on the ground, hips at ease. At those moments that your story needs visual underlining, let the movement come from your hands and arms. The other extreme should also be avoided: there is nothing engaging about a speaker whose posture is wooden, and what that speaker has to say may not even be listened to.

13.2.4

Answer questions politely

You have ended your speech with a final sentence that clinches things, and the audience applauds. Do not spoil that moment by coming in too quickly with the usua l "Are there any questions?" What happens next is an essential part of the communicative process: your monologue - possibly already interrupted by one or two brief questions becomes a dialogue. The listeners have the opportunity to test their understanding and to test your statements and proposals critically. Cordially invite your audience to ask questions. Five steps Follow the process outlined below when you answer questions. 1 Listen carefully to the question that is being asked. If necessary, jot down a quick note. Determine whether you can or want to answer the question and how you will do that. 2 Repeat th e question. In large halls, the question is not always audible. Summari se the question in a few words. This will also give you the chance to find out whether you have understood the question correctly. 3 Answer th e question. Sometimes a short answer will do sometimes it Will _need to be expanded on. Try to avoid using that go over your audience 's head or engaging in a private chat with the questioner. Look around during your answer to make sure everybody feels involved.

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4 Round off the answer. At the end of your answer, look back at the person who raised the question and check whether the question has been answered to that person's satisfaction : "Does this answer your question?" 5 Keep in charge of things . Unless there is a chairman it is up to you to make sure things go smoothly. Try to the word to other people in a friendly way. (" Do you mind if we see whether there are other people with a question?") Keep an eye on the time during qu estions. Announce the last question with "I think we have time for one short question." Difficult situations Most questions you get are likely to be simple requests for more information or explanations. Naturally, you will answer these as concisely and pleasantly as you can . But questions are not always friendly and to the point. What do you do then? Look at the following three types of question .

1 The emotional question What do you do if a clearly overwrought listener stands up and starts lashing out? It is important that you realise that this "questioner" is not really asking a question but is mainly interested in getting something off his chest. He wants to be heard and be taken seriously. If you ignore this and only give a matter of fact answer you will probably pour oil on the fire. Start off by acknowledging his emotional state : go with the flow. Hopefully this will calm him down a bit and you can then calmly give a more relevant answer. 2 The hostile question You can react in different ways to this. You can disregard it completely. "That's a personal question and I'm not going to answer it. Is there anybody with a more relevant question?' You could also rephrase it in your own words , removing the sting. Then you could answer the question in a neutral way. "Let me rephrase that question. What you are really asking is .. ." Try and parry the attack. Stay calm, remain in control.

Question: "All those beautiful plans of yours to build these big apartment blocks will ruin our neighbourhood . Is that what you want? " Answer: "You are talking about our plans for urban renewal. Well, we want to build a healthy neighbourhood where people can live and do business."

3 The question you do not have an answer to . You will sometimes find that you do not have the answer to a question, perhaps because it falls outside your field. Usually it is best to it . straight away that you cannot answer the question. However, if you co~tinue · s1·t ua r10 n might to have trouble answering the questions, an embarrassing develop. The following might help you get out of your difficulties :

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PRESENTING A REPORT ORALLY

Postponing:

I do not have the exact details available at the moment. But I ca n make sure you get them via email later today.

•

Making things con crete:

I don 't quite understand what you mean . Can you give an example?

It is much easier to respond to a concrete example . Or you can try to make th e question concrete yourself. • Returning the question:

A ve ry interesting question. You have obviously had some experience with thi s. Can you te ll us a bit more about it?

You could al so return the question to the audience as a whole or to an expert in the field who might be present.

Has anybody here had some experience with this?

• Break th e tension with a joke:

You want to know a great deal, sir! I'll do my best to .. . It wa s my intention to be a bit provocative and I seem to have been successful ...

• Evading: answering a different question to the one that was asked for exampl e. Thi s approach is not entirely ethical and will not be succ~ssful with persistent question ers, but many politicians use it successfully.

I am glad you asked that. Because it brings me to the point that is at the core of thi s matter: .. .

.. If you are able t o come across as a credible and authoritative speaker you ~~y not even need th e above hints. Do not lower yourself to the level of "yes It 18 - no it isn't" · correct and polite, and do not lose your temper. , remain

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Recommended literature ------------------------------------ Reporting Anderson, P. V. (2010). Technical communication. A reader-centered approach. 7th ed.

Boston: Wadsworth. Cohen, S. (2001). Numbers in the newsroom. Using math and statistics in news.

Ap e dix Evaluation report form ------------------------------------Evaluation

Columbia: IRE. Standard parts of a report Reporting in English Butterman, D. (2007). English for high-flyers. A reference book for those who wish to perfect their English. Amsterdam: Boom. The Chicago Manual of Style (2010). 15th ed. Chicago: the University of Chicago Press . Scientific writing Swales, J.M. & Feak, C.B. (2004). Academic writing for graduate students. Essential tasks and skills. 2nct ed. University of Michigan Series in English for Academic & Professional

Purposes. Convincing readers Benoit, W.L. & Benoit, P. J. (2008). Persuasive messages: the process of influence. Malden/

Oxford/Victoria: Blackwell Publishing. Cialdini, R. B. (2008). Influence: science and practice (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Letters Lindsay-Roberts, S. (2009). Strategic business letters and E-mail. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. Attractive language use Zinsser, W.K. (2006). On writing well. 30th Anniversary Edition: The Classic Guide to Writing Nonfiction. 7th ed. New York: HarperCollins. Illustrations and layout Broek, J. van den, Koetsenruijter W., Jong, J. de & Smit, L. (2012) Visual language. Perspectives for makers and s. Den Haag: Boom Lemma Uitgevers.

The title page: conta ins all standard elements that belong on a title page makes clear what the report is about

•

.

The preface: • gives the framework within which the report was written

..

The table of contents: is complete does not contain mistakes in arrangement • makes the internal story line clear: - the titles are informative - the t itl es show the relationship between a chapter and the corresponding sections and subsections

.

The summary: contains the following parts: - problem - main question - method - arguments justifying the conclusion - conclusion • the formulation is succinct can be read independently

.

The introduction: gives background information about the problem the report dea ls with • contains a formu lation of the problem/main question contains a description of the research method • contains the main and conditions pertaining to the research

•

. •

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contains an explanation of how the report is structured

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Remarks

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.. . .. . . .. .

The conclus ions: answer the ma in question fo ll ow logica lly from the previous chapters can be read independently The recommendations: fol low on logically from the conclusions are usefu l to the reader can be read independe nt ly The bibliography: contains title descriptions that comply with the

guide li nes is ordered alphabetica lly on ly contains titles referred to in the text contains all t it les referred to in the text

.. .. .

The appendices: have a title and a number have all been mentioned at least once in the chapters Figures and tables: have a title and a number can be understood independently (have a legend, for

example) are referred to in the accompanying text

Structure

. . .

Chapters: are sufficiently subd ivided into sections and subsections start with a chapter introduction describing the

. . .

structure follow each other logical ly: the steps in t he reasoning can be fo llowed wit hout difficulty

Paragraphs: start with a topic sentence that indicates clearly the subject of the paragraph are not too long: there is on ly one subject per

.. .

paragraph where necessary, paragraphs have been given extra structure in the form of paragraph groups

Enumerations: contain a lim ited number of items (no more than six) contain parts that are interrelated in of content have been constructed in the same way

Argumentation and justification of choices

. • . . .

The text: describes the alternatives clearly explains why these alternatives are inc luded in the assessment

compares the alternatives systematically, based on fixed criteria gives the strong and the weak po ints of the alternatives in a choice matrix or score card makes a convincing, we ll-argumented choice of one or more of the alternatives, or shows that a choice cannot be made, or at least not now

Use of sources

• •

.

all ideas, text fragments , figures and data that have been taken from somewhere else have been referenced properly in the text and in the bibliography litera l quotes are indicated by quotation marks and page number paraphrases are not too close to the original

Formulations

. . . .

The formulations are: clear: the explanation is expl icit and the sentences are not too long succinct, without the writer resorting to a telegram style attractive: the length of sentences varies, where appropriate, examples are used correct: there are no grammatica l or spe ll ing mistakes, punctuation is correct; the style is neither too formal nor too informal

Layout

..

The layout of the report is qu iet and functional: a business-li ke font has been used the headings are easy to identify

APPENDIX

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About the authors

Index

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Dr Bas Andeweg is a lecturer in technical communication at Delft University

of Technology, Centre for Languages and Academic Skills. His main field is oral communication. Together with Jaap de Jong he wrote a doctoral thesis in 2004 entitled De eerste minuten. Attentum, benevolum en docilem parare in de inleiding van toespraken. Dr Rien Elling is the director of the Centre for Languages and Academic

Skills, at Delft University of Technology. He has specialized in written communication, especially in the technological sectors. Among other publications, he has written on safety rules in the process industry (his doctoral thesis).

A

Active voice 163 Advisory report 105, 106 Aim of the research 82 APA 50,90 Appendices 35, 76, 90, 91 Area chart 201 Arrangement according to alternatives 99, 100 Arrangement according to criteria Attachments 148 Audience 23

Endnotes 91 Enumeration 68, 69, 70, 217 , 218, 226 Executive summary 78 Experimental research 32 Experimental research report 114, 115

99, 100

Prof. dr Jaap de Jong is professor of Journalism and New Media at Leiden

University, where he also teaches discourse studies. He is the editor of the monthly journal Onze Taal and has written many books on language, writing and rhetoric. Ors Kim van der Linden currently divides her time between giving lectures

on English language skills and technical communication at the Centre for Languages and Academic Skills, at Delft University of Technology. She has previously worked at universities in the UK and Japan as well as private institutions in Italy helping students reach a sufficiently high level of English to successfully complete their studies. Ms Christine Swankhuisen has been a partner of Tabula Rasa, a consultancy firm in the field of communication and behavioural change, since 1998. Prior to that, she worked at the Department of Communication and Knowledge Transfer of the Delft University of Technology for seven years. Tabula Rasa operates in an area where theory and practice overlap. As well as doing advisory work for the government and business, Christine Swankhuisen does research in collaboration with a number of universities and regularly gives lectures.

B

Background 21 , 27 Background information 81 Background questions 27 Bar chart 199, 201 Bibliography 45, 50, 90, 224 Business letters 128

c

G Global and selective reading Glossary 9 1 , 92 Graphs 199, 200 Group report 37

56

Chapters 57 , 58 , 59 Collaborate 37 Conclusions 85, 86 , 87, 88, 179 Cover 74 Curriculum vitae (CV) 140, 144, 145

Headers 218, 219 Headings 215, 216 Hedging 155, 156

D Decision-makers 15, 16, 17, 23, 24, 25, 39, 78,85,96, 100, 115,178,179, 181,182, 183 Design report 84 ,119, 120, 122 Drawing 197, 203 , 204 ,206

Illustrations 193, 194, 196, 197 Index 92, 222 Internet 48, 52 Introduction 80, 81, 179 Introduction to a chapter 85

E Editor-in-chief 37, 39 Electronic sources 52 Email 146, 14 7, 148

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F Feasibility study 96, 97, 98 Figures 193, 194, 196 Figures of speech 161 Font 213, 214, 216, 225 Footers 218, 219 Footnotes 4 7, 91 Formal writing 162 Framing 187

H

J Jargon

154

K Key questions

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L Layout 209 Layout of the letter 128 Letter conventions 130 Letter of application 139, 140, 143 Letters 127 Limitations 84 Line chart 201 Line length 214 Li st 216, 217 List of symbols 91 Literature report 108, 109 Literature research 32

Q Qualitative research report Question plan 28, 29 Quoting 44, 45

M

Salutation 134 Scientific summary 78, 79 Score card 184 Sections 57, 58 , 59, 77 Sender 130 Set of requirements 84, 121 Signalling formulations 65 Social media 148 Specialists 15, 24, 25, 39, 78, 96 , 100, 115,181, 182,183 Styles 214 Subdivisions 57, 58 Subsections 77 Subtitle 75 Summary 77, 78, 178

Main question 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 82, 83,84,86 Management summary 78, 79 Margins 212, 213, 225 Memo 150 Memorandum 149, 150 Minitable 199 Multicriteria analysis 184

N Notes

91

0 Open question

26, 27

p Paragraph group 66, 68 Paragraphs 61, 62, 63 Paraphrase 49 Paraphrasing 45 ive voice 163, 165 Persuasiveness 177, 186 Photograph 196, 197, 203 , 204 ,205, 206 Pie chart 199, 201 Plagiarism 43, 45, 46, 53 Plain English 154 Policy paper 101, 102, 103, 104 PowerPoint 34, 38, 237, 238 Preface 76 Prezi 237 Priorities 34 Problem 81 Progress report 111, 112, 113 Project leader 37, 38 Project manager 39 Punctuation 169

117

R Readers 15, 16, 17 Reading strategy 24 Receive 130 Recommendations 88, 89, 179 Referencing 44, 45 Referring 45

s

T Table 194, 196, 197, 198 ,199 Table of contents 29, 30, 32 , 38, 57, 58, 76,219,220 Tenses 164 and conditions 84 Time schedule 31, 37 T~e 58,59,60,61,74,75, 76 ,215,216 Title page 7 4 Topic sentence 38, 64, 65

w Websites 52 Weighing factors 100 Wikipedia 45, 46 Writing clearly 154 Writing compellingly 161 Writing concisely 158 Writing correctly 164

y Yes/no question

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In the higher education sector, Report writing for readers with little time is a textbook that is widely used when compiling reports of a technical nature. It is a particularly popular reference book for professional writers. Report writing for readers with little time shows you ho'h to write convincingly, even for readers who are used to simply scanning reports. The book's many examples demonstrate how to structure reports but also how to formulate and illustrate matters effectively. Simultaneously, plenty of tips are given on graphic presentation. It deals with writing under pressure {with, for instance, organizing team-based writing) and provides concrete advice on how to give oral presentations, write job applications and avoid pitfalls when writing in English. This edition also includes a chapter on how to deal with information sources. In that chapter special attention is paid to deliberate or unconscious plagiarism. Finally, it elaborates on how to persuasively present one's case.

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NUR 810 I SBN 978-90-01-81259 - 1

9 789001 812591

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