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Section 1 Basics Module 1 Basics
TMO 18047Issue 01
RNE RNE (Radio Network Engineering) B11 Fundamentals TMO54014 Issue 01
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Document History Edition
Date
Author
Remarks
01
2010-01-07
Hille, Helmut
First edition
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TMO54014 Edition 1
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RNE Fundamentals
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Objectives By the end of the course, participants will be able to: Plan a standard GSM (single band and single layer) network in urban, suburban and rural areas fulfilling defined coverage probability; Choose suitable BTS site configurations for different clutter types: Omni sites/sectorized sites, Number of TRX, Antenna height and antenna type, Feeder cable. Plan site locations: To achieve planned coverage probability Inter site distance Antenna azimuth and tilt.
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Table of Contents Page
Switch to notes view! 1 Introduction Standardisation & Documentation 1.1.1 www.3GPP.org organizational partners 1.1.2 TSG Organisation 1.1.3 Specifications and Releases 1.1.4 Specifications out of Release 1999 1.2 Radio Network Architecture 1.2.1GSM Network Architecture with out GPRS 1.2.2 GSM Network Architecture with GPRS 1.2.3 OMC-R 1.2.4 GSM Network Elements 1.2.5 RF Spectrum 1.3 Mobile Phone Systems 1.3.1 Access Methods 1.3.2 FDMA 1.3.3 TDMA 1.3.4 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) 1.3.5 Analogue Cellular Mobile Systems 1.3.6 AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) 1.3.7 AMPS - Technical objectives 1.3.8 AMPS Frequency Range 1.3.9 TACS Total Access Communications System 1.3.10 TACS - Technical objectives 1.3.11 Different TACS-Systems System) All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010 1 · 1 · 6 1.3.12 TACS (Total Access Communications Basics · Basics1.3.13 Why digital mobile communication ? RNE · RNE (Radio Network Engineering) B11 Fundamentals 1.3.14 GSM - Technical objectives 1.3.15 DECT (Digital European Cordless Telephone) 1.3.16 DECT - Technical objectives 1.3.17 CDMA - Technical objectives 1.3.18 CDMA - Special Features 1.3.19 CDMA - Technical objectives 1.3.20 TETRA - Features 1.3.21 TETRA - Typical s 1.3.22 TETRA - Technical objectives 1.3.23 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System 1.4 RNP Process Overview 1.4.1 Definition of RN Requirements 1.4.2 Preliminary Network Design 1.4.3 Project Setup and Management 1.4.4 Initial Radio Network Design 1.4.5 Site Acquisition Procedure 1.4.6 Technical Site Survey 1.4.7 Basic Parameter Definition 1.4.8 Cell Design CAE Data Exchange over COF 1.4.9 Turn On Cycle 1.4.10 Site Verification and Drive Test 1.4.11 HW / SW Problem Detection 1.4.12 Basic Network Optimization 1.4.13 Network Acceptance 1.4.14 Further Optimization 2 Coverage Planning 2.1 Geo databases 2.1.1 Geographical data needed for Radio Network Planning ? 2.1.2 Maps are flat
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Switch to notes view! 2.1.3 Mapping the earth 2.1.4 Map Projection 2.1.5 Geodetic Ellipsoid 2.1.6 Global & Regional Ellipsoids 2.1.7 Geodetic Datum 2.1.8 Different Map Projection’s 2.1.9 Geo-Coordinate System 2.1.10 WGS 84 (World Geodetic System 1984) 2.1.11 Transverse Mercator Projection 2.1 Geo databases 2.1.12 Transverse Mercator Projection (e.g. UTM ) 2.1.13 Universal Transverse Mercator System 2.1.14 UTM - Definitions 2.1.15 UTM Zones (e.g. Europe) 2.1.16 UTM-System 2.1.17 UTM Zone Numbers 2.1.18 UTM-System: Example "Stuttgart" 2.1.19 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection 2.1.20 Geospatial data for Network Planning 2.1.21Creation of geospatial databases 2.1.22 Parameters of a Map 1·1·7 2.1.23 Raster- and Vectordata All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010 Basics · Basics RNE · RNE (Radio Network Engineering) B11 Fundamentals 2.1.24 Rasterdata / Grid data 2.1.25 Vectordata 2.1.26 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) 2.1 Geo databases 2.1.27 Morphostructure / Land usage / Clutter (1) 2.1.28 Morphostructure (2) 2.1.29 Morphoclasses 2.1.30 Morphoclasses (2) 2.1.31Background data (streets, borders etc.) 2.1.32 Orthophoto 2.1.33 Scanned Maps 2.1.34 Buildings 2.1.35 Buildings (2) 2.1.36 Traffic density 2.1.37 Converting one single point (1a) 2.1.38 Converting one single point (1b) 2.1.39 Converting one single point (2a) 2.1.40 Converting one single point (2b) 2.1.41 Converting a list of points (3a) 2.1.42 Converting a list of points (3b) 2.1.43 Converting a list of points (3c) 2.1.44 Provider for Geospatial data 2.1.45 Links for more detailed infos
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2.2 Antennas and Cables 2.2.1.1 The Antenna System 2.2.1.2 Antenna Theory 2.2.1.3 Antenna Data 2.2.1.4 Antenna Pattern and HPBW 2.2.1.5 EIRP 2.2.1.6 Linear Antennas 2.2.1.7 Monopole Antenna Pattern 2.2.1.8 Antenna with Dipole Array 2.2.1.9 Dipole Arrangement 2.2.1.10 Omni Antenna 2.2.2 Antenna Parameters 2.2.2.1 X 65° T6 900MHz 2.5m 2.2.2.2 X 65° T6 900MHz 1.9m 2.2.2.3 X 90° T2 900MHz 2.5m 2.2.2.4 V 65° T0 900MHz 2.0m 2.2.2.5 V 90° T0 900MHz 2.0m 2.2.2.4 X 65° T6 1800MHz 1.3m 2.2.2.5 X 65° T2 1800MHz 1.3m 2.2.2.6 X 65° T2 1800MHz 1.9m 2.2.2.7 V 65° T2 1800MHz 1.3m 2.2.2.8 V 90° T2 1800MHz 1.9m 2.2.3 Cable Parameters 2.2.3.1 7/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Coaxial Cable 2.2.3.2 1-1/4" CELLFLEX® Coaxial Cable 2.2.3.3 1-5/8" CELLFLEX® Coaxial Cable 2.2.3.4 1/2" CELLFLEX® Jumper Cable All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010 1·1·8 2.3 Radio Propagation Basics · Basics RNE · RNE (Radio Network Engineering) B11 Fundamentals 2.3.1 Propagation effects 2.3.1.1 Reflection 2.3.1.2 Refraction 2.3.1.3 Diffraction 2.3.1.4 Fading 2.3.1.5 Fading types 2.3.1.6 Signal Variation due to Fading 2.3.1.7 Lognormal Fading 2.4 Path Loss Prediction 2.4.1 Free Space Loss 2.4.2 Fresnel Ellipsoid 2.4.3 Fresnel Ellipsoid 2.4.4 Knife Edge Diffraction 2.4.5 Knife Edge Diffraction Function 2.4.6 "Final Solution" for Wave Propagation Calculations? 2.4.7 CCIR Recommendation 2.4.8 Mobile Radio Propagation 2.4.9 Terrain Modeling 2.4.10 Effect of Morphostructure on Propagation Loss 2.4.11 Okumura-Hata for GSM 900 2.4.12 CORRECTIONS TO THE HATA FORMULA 2.4.13 Hata-Okumura for GSM 900 2.4.14 COST 231 Hata-Okumura GSM 1800 2.4.15 Alcatel Propagation Model (Standard Propagation Model) 2.4.16 Alcatel Propagation Model 2.4.17 Exercise ‘Path Loss’ 2.5 Link Budget Calculation 2.5.1 Maximum Propagation Loss (Downlink) 2.5.2 Maximum Propagation Loss (Uplink) 2.5.3 GSM900/1800 Link Budget 2.5.3 GSM900/1800 Link Budget 2.5.4 GSM1800 Link Budget 2.5.5 Additional Losses Overview
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2.6 Coverage Probability 2.6.1 Indoor propagation aspects 2.6.2 Indoor propagation: empirical model 2.6.3 Indoor Penetration 2.6.4 Body Loss (1) 2.6.5 Body Loss (2) 2.6.6 Body Loss (3) 2.6.7 Interference Margin 2.6.8 Degradation (no FH) 2.6.9 Diversity Gain 2.6.10 Lognormal margin 2.6.11 Consideration of Signal Statistics (1) 2.6.12 Consideration of Signal Statistics (2) 2.7 Cell Range Calculation 2.7.1 Calculation of Coverage Radius R 2.7.2 Coverage Probability 2.7.3 Coverage Ranges and Hata Correction Factors 2.7.4 Conventional BTS Configuration 2.7.5 Coverage Improvement by Antenna Diversity 2.7.6 Radiation Patterns and Range 2.7.7 Improvement by Antenna Diversity and Sectorization All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010 1·1·9 2.7.8 Improvement by Antenna Preamplifier Basics · Basics RNE · RNE (Radio Network Engineering) B11 Fundamentals 2.8 Antenna Engineering 2.8.1 Omni Antennas 2.8.2 Sector Antenna 2.8.3 Typical Applications 2.8.4 Antenna Tilt 2.8.5 Mechanical Downtilt 2.8.6 Electrical Downtilt 2.8.7 Combined Downtilt 2.8.8 Assessment of Required Tilts 2.8.9 Inter Site Distance in Urban Area 2.8.10 Downtilt in Urban Area 2.8.11 Downtilt in Urban Area 2.8.12 Downtilt in Suburban and Rural Area 2.8.13 Antenna configurations 2.8.14 Antenna Configurations for Omni and Sector Sites 2.8.15 Three Sector Antenna Configuration with AD 2.8.16 Antenna Engineering Rules 2.8.17 Distortion of antenna pattern 2.8.18 Tx-Rx Decoupling (1) 2.8.19 TX-RX Decoupling (2) 2.8.20 TX-RX Decoupling (3) 2.8.21 Space Diversity 2.8.22 Power Divider 2.8.23 Power Divider 2.8.24 Configurations (1) 2.8.25 Configurations (2) 2.8.26 Configurations (3)
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2.8 Antenna Engineering 2.8.27 Feeders 2.8.28 Feeder Installation Set and Connectors 2.8.29 Feeder Parameters 2.8.30 Feeder attenuation (1) 2.8 Antenna Engineering 2.8.31 Radiating Cables 2.8.32 Components of a radiating cable system 2.8.33 Comparison of field strength: Radiating cable and standard antenna 2.8.34 Example of a radiating cable in a tunnel 2.8.35 Microwave antennas, feeders and accessories 2.8.36 Parabolic antenna 2.8.37 High performance antenna 2.8.38 Horn antennas 2.8.39 Specific Microwave Antenna Parameters (1) 2.8.40 Specific Microwave Antenna Parameters (2) 2.8.41 Data sheet 15 GHz 2.8.42 Radiation pattern envelope 2.8.43 Feeders (1) 2.8.44 Feeders (2) 2.8.45 Feeders (3) All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010 1 · 1 · 10 2.8.46 Feeders (4) Basics · Basics RNE · RNE (Radio Network Engineering) B11 Fundamentals 2.8.47 Feeders (5) 2.8.48 Antenna feeder systems (1) 2.8.49 Antenna feeder systems (2) 2.8.50 Antenna feeder systems (3) 2.9 Alcatel BSS 2.9.1 Architecture of BTS - Evolium Evolution A9100 2.9.2 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (1) 2.9.3 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (2) 2.9.4 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (3) 2.9.5 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features 2.9.7 Generic Configurations for A9100 G4/5 BTS 2.9.8 Non multi-band configurations 2.9.9 Multi-band configurations 2.9.10 Extended cell configurations 2.9.11 Standard configurations 2.9.12 TRX Types 2.9.12 TRX Types 2.9.13 BTS Output Power 2.9.14 Feature Power Balancing 2.9.15 Cell Split Feature 2.9.19 Cell Split Example: High Power Configuration 2.9.22 Indoor BTS Rack Layout 2.9.23 Outdoor MBO1 Evolution and MBO2 Evolution cabinets 2.9.24 Micro BTS types 2.9.25 Technical Data 2.9.26 BSC capacities in of boards 2.9.27 Capacity and dimensioning for E1 links 2.9.28 Abis and atermux allocation on LIU boards
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2.10 Coveradge Improvement 2.10.1 Antenna Diversity 2.10.1.1 Diversity 2.10.1.2 Selection Diversity (1) 2.10.1.3 Selection Diversity (2) 2.10.1.4 Selection Diversity (3) 2.10.1.5 Equal Gain Combining (1) 2.10.1.6 Equal Gain Combining (2) 2.10.1.7 Maximum Ratio Combining (1) 2.10.1.8 Maximum Ratio Combining (2) 2.10.1.9 Comparison of combining methods 2.10.1.10 Enhanced Diversity Combining (1) 2.10.1.11 Enhanced Diversity Combining (2) 2.10.1.12 Tx Diversity 2.10.1.12 Tx Diversity 2.10.1.12 Tx Diversity 2.10.1.12 Tx Diversity 2.10.1.12 Diversity systems in Mobile Radio Networks 2.10.1.13 Space Diversity Systems 2.10.1.14 Space Diversity - General Rules 2.10.1.15 Achievable Diversity Gain 2.10.1.16 Polarization Diversity 2.10.1.17 Principle of Polarization Diversity 2.10.1.18 Air Combining All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010 1 · 1 · 11 2.10.1.19 Air Combining with Polarization Diversity Basics · Basics RNE · RNE (Radio Network Engineering) B11 Fundamentals 2.10.1.20 Air Combining with Space Diversity 2.10.1.21 Decoupling of Signal Branches 2.10.1.22 Cross Polarized or Hor/Ver Antenna? (1) 2.10.1.23 Cross Polarized or Hor/Ver Antenna? (2) 2.10.1.24 Conclusion on Antenna Diversity 2.10.2 Repeater Systems 2.10.2.1 Repeater Application 2.10.2.2 Repeater Block Diagram 2.10.2.3 Repeater Applications (2) 2.10.2.4 Repeater Types 2.10.2.5 Repeater for Tunnel Coverage 2.10.2.4 Repeater for Indoor coverage 2.10.2.5 Planning Aspects 2.10.2.6 Repeater Gain Limitation (1) 2.10.2.7 Repeater Gain Limitation (2) 2.10.2.8 Intermodulation Products 2.10.2.9 Repeater Link Budget 2.10.2.10 High Power TRXs 2.10.2.13 3x6 TRXs High Power Configuration 2.10.2.14 Mixed TRX Configuration 3 Traffic & Frequency Planning 3.1 Traffic Caspacity 3.1.1 Telephone System 3.1.2 Offered Traffic and Traffic Capacity 3.1.3 Definition of Erlang 3.1.4 Call Mix and Erlang Calculation 3.1.5 ERLANG B LAW (2) 3.1.6 Erlang´s Formula 3.1.7 Blocking Probability (Erlang B) 3.1.8 BTS Traffic Capacity (Full Rate)
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3.2 Network Evolution 3.2.1 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (1) 3.2.2 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (2) 3.2.3 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (3) 3.2.4 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (4) 3.3 Cell Structures 3.3.1 Cell Structures and Quality 3.3.2 Cell Re-use Cluster (Omni Sites) (1) 3.3.2 Cell Re-use Cluster (Omni Sites)(2) 3.3.4 Cell Re-use Cluster (Sector Site) (1) 3.3.5 4x3 Cell Re-use Cluster (Sector Site) (2) 3.3.6 Irregular (Real) Cell Shapes 3.4 Frequency Reuse 3.4.1 GSM Frequency Spectrum 3.4.2 Impact of limited Frequency Spectrum 3.4.3 What is frequency reuse? 3.4.4 RCS and ARCS (1) 3.4.5 RCS and ARCS (2) 3.4.6 Reuse Cluster Size (1) 3.4.7 Reuse Cluster Size (2) 3.4.8 Reuse Distance 3.4.9 Frequency Reuse Distance 3.4.10 Frequency Reuse: Example 3.5 Cell Planning All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010 1 · 1 · 12 Basics · Basics 3.5.1 Cell Planning - Frequency Planning (1) RNE · RNE (Radio Network Engineering) B11 Fundamentals 3.5.2 Cell Planning - Frequency Planning (2) 3.5.3 Influencing Factors on Frequency Reuse Distance 3.5.4 Conclusion 3.5.5 Examples for different frequency reuses 3.6 Interference Probability 3.6.1 Interference Theory (1) 3.6.2 Interference Theory (2) 3.6.3 DF - Cumulative Probability Density Function 3.6.4 Interference Probability dependent on Average Reuse 3.7 Carrier Types 3.7.1 Carrier Types - BCCH carrier 3.7.2 Carrier Types - TCH carrier 3.8 Multiple Reuse Pattern MRP 3.8.1 Meaning of multiple reuse pattern (1) 3.8.2 Meaning of multiple reuse pattern (2) 3.8.3 GSM restrictions 3.9 Intermodulation 3.9.1 Intermodulation problems (1) 3.9.2 Intermodulation problems (2) 3.9.3 Intermodulation problems (3) - Summary 3.9.4 Treating “neighbor” cells 3.9.5 Where can I find neighbor cells? 3.10 Manual Frequency Planning 3.10.1 Frequency planning (1) 3.10.2 Frequency planning (2) 3.10.3 Exercise: Manual frequency planning (1) 3.10.4 Exercise: Manual frequency planning (2) 3.10.5 Discussion: Subdivide Frequency Band? 3.10.6 Hint for creating a future proofed frequency plan 3.10.7 Implementing a frequency plan
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3.11 BSCI Planning 3.11.1 BSCI allocation 3.11.2 BSIC Planning Rules 3.11.3 Spurious RACH 3.11.4 Summary 3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques 3.12.1 Capacity enhancement by planning 3.12.2 Capacity enhancement by adding feature 3.12.3 Capacity enhancement by adding TRX 3.12.4 Capacity enhancement by adding cells 3.12.5 Capacity enhancement by adding sites 4 Radio Interface 4.1 GSM Air Interface 4.1.1 Radio Resources 4.1.2 GSM Transmission Principles (1) 4.1.3 GSM Transmission Principles (2) 4.1.4 Advantages of Signal Processing 4.1.5 Signal Processing Chain 4.2 Channel Coding 4.2.1 Speech Coding 4.2.2 Error Protection All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010 1 · 1 · 13 4.2.3 Interleaving and TDMA Frame Mapping Basics · Basics RNE · RNE (Radio Network Engineering) B11 Fundamentals 4.2.4 Encryption 4.2.5 Burst Structure 4.2.4 Synchronisation 4.2.5 Modulation 4.2.6 Propagation Environment 4.2.7 Equalizing 4.2.8 Definition of Bit Error Rates 4.2.9 Speech Quality 4.2.10 Dependence of BER on Noise and Interference 4.2.13 Frequency Hopping (1) 4.2.14 Frequency Hopping (2) 4.2.15 The OSI Reference Model 4.2.16 GSM Burst Types (1) 4.2.17 GSM Burst Types (2) 4.2.18 Logical Channels 4.2.19 Possible Channel Combinations 4.2.20 Channel Mapping (1) 4.2.21 Channel Mapping (2) 4.2.22 TDMA Frame Structure for TCHs
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All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010 TMO54014 Issue 01
1 Introduction Standardisation & Documentation
1 · 1 · 15
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1.1 Standardisation & Documentation
1.1 www.3GPP.org organizational partners www.3GPP.org organizational partners: Project ed by ARIB Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (Japan) CWTS China Wireless Telecommunication Standard group ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institut T1 Standards Committee T1 Telecommunication (US) TTA Telecommunications Technology Association (Korea) TTC Telecommunication Technology Committee (Japan)
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The Organizational Partners shall determine the general policy and strategy of 3GPP and perform the following tasks: Approval and maintenance of the 3GPP scope Maintenance the Partnership Project Description Taking decisions on the creation or cessation of Technical Specification Groups, and approving their scope and of reference Approval of Organizational Partner funding requirements Allocation of human and financial resources provided by the Organizational Partners to the Project Co-ordination Group
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Source: www.3gpp.org
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1.1 Standardisation & Documentation
1.2 TSG Organisation TSG ORGANIZATION Project Co-ordination Group (PCG)
TSG GERAN GSM EDGE Radio Access Network
GERAN WG1 Radio Aspects
GERAN WG2
Protocol Aspects
GERAN WG3
Terminal Testing
TSG RAN
Radio Access Networks
RAN WG1
TSG SA
Services & System Aspects
SA WG1
TSG CT
Core Network & Terminals
CT WG1 (ex CN1)
Radio Layer 1 specification
Services
RAN WG2 Radio Layer2 &3 spec
Architecture
RAN WG3
SA WG3 Security
Networks Interworking
RAN WG4
SA WG4
CT WG4 (ex CN4)
UTRAN O&M requirements
Radio &Protocol Aspects
RAN WG5 (ex T1)
Mobile TerminalTesting
MM/CC/SM (lu)
SA WG2
Codec
SA WG5
Telecom Management
CT WG3 (ex CN3)
MAP/GTP/BCH/SS
CT WG5 (ex CN5)
Open Service Access CT WG6 (ex T3) Card Application Aspects
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Source: www.3gpp.org
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1.1 Standardisation & Documentation
1.3 Specifications and Releases GSM/Edge Releases: http://www.3gpp.org/specs/releases.htm TR 41.103 GSM Phase 2+ Release 5 Freeze date: March - June 2002
TR 41.102 GSM Phase 2+ Release 4 Freeze date: March 2001
TR 01.01 Phase 2+ Release 1999 Freeze date: March 2000
For the latest specification status information please go to the 3GPP Specifications database: http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Information/Databases/Spec_Status/ The latest versions of specifications can be found on ftp://ftp.3gpp.org/specs/latest/
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TS – Technical Specification TR – Technical Report
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1.1 Standardisation & Documentation
1.4 Specifications out of Release 1999 TR 01.04 Abbreviations and acronyms TS 03.22 Functions related to Mobile Station (MS) in idle mode and group receive mode TR 03.30 Radio Network Planning Aspects TS 04.04 Layer 1 - General Requirements TS 04.06 Mobile Station - Base Stations System (MS - BSS) Interface Data Link (DL) Layer Specification TS 04.08 Mobile radio interface layer 3 specification TS 05.05 Radio Transmission and Reception TS 05.08 Radio Subsystem Link Control TS 08.06 Signalling Transport Mechanism Specification for the Base Station System - Mobile Services Switching Centre (BSS-MSC) Interface TS 08.08 Mobile-services Switching Centre - Base Station system (MSC-BSS) Interface Layer 3 Specification
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1 Intruduction
1.2 Radio Network Architecture
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1.2 Radio Network Architecture
1.2.1GSM Network Architecture with out GPRS GSM Circuit-switching:
MS
BTS
BTS BSC
MS - BTS
LapDm (GSM specific)
BSC
MSC
MSC
E B G VLR
Um
C D
VLR
I
F H
HLR
PSTN / ISDN
AuC EIR
GCR
AuC
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Abis
BTS - BSC
A
BSC - MSC
B C D E F G H I PSTN ISDN
MSC-VLR (SM-G)MSC-HLR HLR-VLR (SM-G)MSC-MSC MSC-EIR VLR-VLR HLR-AuC MSC-GCR
LapD (ISDN type)
(SS7 basic) + BSSAP (BSSAP = BSSMAP + DTAP)
(SS7 basic) + MAP
MSC-PSTN (SS7 basic) + TUP or ISUP MSC-ISDN
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AuC Authentication Center BTS Base Transceiver Station BSC Base Station Controller BSS Base Station System EIR Equipment Identity HLR Home Location ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network MS Mobile Station OMC-R Operation and Maintenance Centre – Radio PSTN
Public Switched Telephone Network
VLR Visitor Location GCR Group Call -The general architecture of GSM is maintained. In addition, a network function is required which is used for registration of the broadcast call attributes, the Group Call .
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1.2 Radio Network Architecture
1.2.2 GSM Network Architecture with GPRS GSM Packet-switching (GPRS/EDGE):
MS
Um (Radio)
BSS with PCU
MSC
SGSN
SGSN
Gs
Gn GGSN
Gn
MS - BTS
BSS with PCU
Gr
Gf
Gc HLR
EIR
LAPDm
(GSM specific)
Gb
BSS - SGSN
BSSGP
Gn Gr Gc Gf Gs
SGSN-SGSN SGSN-GGSN SGSN-HLR GGSN-HLR SGSN-EIR SGSN-MSC/VLR
IP IP SS7 IP/SS7 SS7 SS7
Gi
GGSN-Data Network
IP
Data Network 1 · 1 · 22
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Note: according to GSM 03.60, the PCU function (Packet Control Unit) may be implemented on the BTS, the BSC or the SGSN site. MFS Multi – BSS Fast Packet Server A935 PSTN
Public Switched Telephone Network
SGSN Serving GPRS Node GGSN Gateway GPRS Node VLR Visitor Location
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1.2 Radio Network Architecture
1.2.3 OMC-R
GPRS CN
BSS
OMC-G OMC-R SGSN
MS BTS
BSC
1 · 1 · 23
GGSN
Gb
Alcatel 9135 MFS TC
A
SSP + R
BTS A bis
Gn
A ter All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010
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GPRS Core Network (CN): Alcatel 1000 GPRS Packet Control Unit (PCU) function for several BSS: Alcatel 9135 MFS TC Transcoder
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NSS
1.2 Radio Network Architecture
1.2.4 GSM Network Elements Base Station System BSS
Network Subsystem NSS
Base Transceiver Station BTS Base Station Controller BSC
Mobile Services Switching Center MSC Visitor Location VLR Home Location HLR Authentication Center AuC Equipment Identity EIR
Terminal Equipment Mobile Station MS
Operation and Maintenance CenterRadio OMC-R
1 · 1 · 24
Operation and Maintenance Center OMC Multi-BSS Fast Packet Server (GPRS) MFS Serving GPRS Node SGSN Gateway GPRS Node GGSN
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1.2 Radio Network Architecture
1.2.5 RF Spectrum
System
Total Bandwidth
Downlink frequency band /MHz 460.4-467.6
Carrier Spacing
2x7.5MHz
Uplink frequency band /MHz 450.4-457.6
GSM 450 GSM 480
2x7.2MHz
478.8-486
488.8-496
200 kHz
GSM 850
2x25MHz
824-849
869-894
200 kHz
GSM 900
2x25MHz
890-915
935-960
200 kHz
E-GSM
2x35MHz
880-915
925-960
200 kHz
DCS 1800 (GSM)
2x75MHz
1710-1785
1805-1880
200 kHz
PCS 1900 (GSM)
2x60MHz
1850-1910
1930-1990
200 kHz
1 · 1 · 25
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AMPS : UK TACS : UK DECT: Cordless CDMA: System of next Generation TETRA: Digital communication System for Commercial use Frequency Ranges depends on country.
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200 kHz
1 Intruduction
1.3 Mobile Phone Systems
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.1 Access Methods
power
FDMA
cy uen q e fr
TDMA
power
tim e
y enc u q fre
CDMA
power
tim e
tim e
1 · 1 · 27
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y enc u q fre
1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.2 FDMA
Used for standard analog cellular mobile systems (AMPS, TACS, NMT etc.) Each is assigned a discrete slice of the RF spectrum Permits only one per channel since it allows the to use the channel 100% of the time.
1 · 1 · 28
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.3 TDMA
Multiple s share RF carrier on a time slot basis Carriers are sub-divided into timeslots Information flow is not continuous for an , it is sent and received in "bursts"
1 · 1 · 29
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.4 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) Multiple access spread spectrum technique Each is assigned a sequence code during a call No time division; all s use the entire carrier
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What is CDMA ? One of the most important concepts to any cellular telephone system is that of "multiple access", meaning that multiple, simultaneous s can be ed. In other words, a large number of s share a common pool of radio channels and any can gain access to any channel (each is not always assigned to the same channel). A channel can be thought of as merely a portion of the limited radio resource which is temporary allocated for a specific purpose, such as someone's phone call. A multiple access method is a definition of how the radio spectrum is divided into channels and how channels are allocated to the many s of the system.
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.5 Analogue Cellular Mobile Systems Analogue transmission of speech One TCH/Channel Only FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) Different Systems AMPS (Countries: USA) TACS (UK, I, A, E, ...) NMT (SF, S, DK, N, ...) ...
1 · 1 · 31
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NMT: Nordic Mobile Telephone System. Allianz von Nordischen Systembetreibern. AMPS: Advanced Mobile Phone System TACS: Total Access Communications System UK United Kingdom I Italy A Austria E Spain SF Finnland S Schweden DK Denmark N Norwegen
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.6 AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) Analogue cellular mobile telephone system Predominant cellular system operating in the US Original system: 666 channels (624 voice and 42 control channels) EAMPS - Extended AMPS Current system: 832 channels (790 voice, 42 control); has replaced AMPS as the US standard NAMPS - Narrowband AMPS New system that has three times more voice channels than EAMPS with no loss of signal quality Backward compatible: if the infrastructure is designed properly, older phones work on the newer systems
1 · 1 · 32
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.7 AMPS - Technical objectives
Technology RF frequency band Channel Spacing Carriers Timeslots Mobile Power Transmission HO Roaming
1 · 1 · 33
FDMA 825 - 890 MHz 30 kHz 666 (832) 1 0.6 - 4 W Voice, (data) possible possible
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.8 AMPS Frequency Range
Extended AMPS Uplink Channel number
AMPS 991 1023 1
666 667
799
Frequency of Channel 824.040 825.030 844.980 845.010 (MHz) 845.010 Downlink
991 1023 1
Channel number Frequency of Channel (MHz)
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Extended AMPS
Duplex distance 45 MHz
AMPS 666 667
869.040 870.030 889.980
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799 893.980
890.010
1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.9 TACS Total Access Communications System Analogue cellular mobile telephone system The UK TACS system was based on the US AMPS system TACS - Original UK system that has either 600 or 1000 channels (558 or 958 voice channels, 42 control channels) RF frequency band: 890 - 960 Uplink: 890-915 Downlink: 935-960 Channel spacing: 25 KHz
1 · 1 · 35
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.10 TACS - Technical objectives
Technology RF frequency band Channel Spacing Carriers Timeslots Mobile Power Transmission HO Roaming
1 · 1 · 36
FDMA 890 - 960 MHz 25 kHz 1000 1 0.6 - 10 W Voice , (data) possible possible
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Tacs disturb GSM because the same frequency- range!
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.11 Different TACS-Systems
ETACS - Extended TACS Current UK system that has 1320 channels (1278 voice, 42 control) and has replaced TACS as the UK standard
ITACS and IETACS - International (E)TACS Minor variation of TACS to allow operation outside of the UK by allowing flexibility in asg the control channels
JTACS - Japanese TACS A version of TACS designed for operation in Japan
NTACS - Narrowband TACS New system that has three times as many voice channels as ETACS with no loss of signal quality
1 · 1 · 37
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.12 TACS (Total Access Communications System)
Original concept (1000 channels)
Mobile Station TX (Base Station TX)
1st Assignment in the UK (600 channels)
E-TACS - 1320 Channels
Number of Channel
1329
Frequency of channel [Mhz]
872.0125 (917.0125 )
2047
11
0
890.0125 (935.0125 )
889.9625 (934.9625 )
23
44
Organisatio nA
34 32 4 3 Organisatio nB
1000
60 0
889.9875 (934.9875 )
Borders of channels [Mhz]
872 917
1 · 1 · 38
905 (950 )
890 935
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915 (960 )
1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.13 Why digital mobile communication ?
Easy adaptation to digital networks Digital signaling serves for flexible adaptation to operational needs Possibility to realize a wide spectrum of non-voice services Digital transmission allows for high cellular implementation flexibility Digital signal processing gain results in high interference immunity Privacy of radio transmission ensured by digital voice coding and encryption Cost and performance trends of modern microelectronics are in favour of a digital solution
1 · 1 · 39
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.14 GSM - Technical objectives
Technology RF frequency band Channel Spacing Carriers Timeslots Mobile Power (average/max) BTS Power class MS sensitivity BTS sensitivity Transmission HO Roaming
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TDMA/FDMA 890 - 960 MHz 200 kHz 124 8 2 W/ 8 W 10 ... 40 W - 102 dBm - 104 dBm Voice, data possible possible
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.15 DECT (Digital European Cordless Telephone) European Standard for Cordless Communication Using TDMA-System Traditional Applications Domestic use ("Cordless telephone") Cordless office applications
Combination possible with ISDN GSM
High flexibility for different applications
1 · 1 · 41
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.16 DECT - Technical objectives
Technology RF frequency band Channel Spacing Carriers Timeslots Mobile Power (average/max) BTS Power class MS sensitivity BTS sensitivity Transmission HO
1 · 1 · 42
TDMA/FDMA 1880 - 1900 MHz 1.728 MHz 10 12 (duplex) 10 mW/250 mW 250 mW -83 dBm -83 dBm Voice, data possible
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Frequency Range with 10 carriers, 1728 KHz channel spacing 10 carrier 24 timeslots 120 Duplex channels cell radius 200-300 meter no Equalizer HO und Macro Diversity Optional
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.17 CDMA - Technical objectives Spread spectrum technology (Code Division Multiple Access) Several s occupy continuously one CDMA channel (bandwidth: 1.25 MHz) The CDMA channel can be re-used in every cell Each is addressed by A specific code and Selected by correlation processing
Orthogonal codes provides optimum isolation between s
1 · 1 · 43
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.18 CDMA - Special Features Vocoder allows variable data rates Soft handover Open and closed loop power control Multiple forms of diversity Data, fax and short message services possible
1 · 1 · 44
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Vocoder: 8Kbps oder 13 Kbps. Multiple Forms of diversity: Frequency diversity (Spektrum 1.25 MHz) Spatial diversity (2 different receiving Antennas) Path diversity (Usage of Multi-path propagation) Time diversity (Interleaving, error correction codes….)
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.19 CDMA - Technical objectives
Technology RF frequency band Channel Spacing Channels per 1250 kHz Mobile Power (average/max) Transmission HO ("Soft handoff") Roaming
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CDMA 869-894 / 824-849 or 1900 MHz 1250 kHz 64 1-6.3 W / 6.3 W Voice, data possible possible
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.20 TETRA - Features Standard for a frequency efficient european digital trunked radio communication system (defined in 1990) Possibility of connections with simultaneous transmission of voice and data Encryption at two levels: Basic level which uses the air interface encryption End-to-end encryption (specifically intended for public safety s)
Open channel operation "Direct Mode" possible Communication between two MS without connecting via a BTS
MS can be used as a repeater
1 · 1 · 46
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.21 TETRA - Typical s Public safety Police (State, Custom, Military, Traffic) Fire brigades Ambulance service ...
Railway, transport and distribution companies
1 · 1 · 47
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For use in: Police, ambulance and fire Services Security Services Military Transport Services Closed Groups (CUGs) Factory site services
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.22 TETRA - Technical objectives
Technology RF frequency band Channel Spacing Carriers Timeslots Mobile Power (3 Classes) BTS Power class MS sensitivity BTS sensitivity Transmission HO Roaming 1 · 1 · 48
TDMA/FDMA 380 - 400 MHz 25 or 12.5 KHz not yet specified 4 1, 3, 10 W 0.6 - 25 W -103 dBm -106 dBm Voice, data, images, short message possible possible
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.23 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
Third generation mobile communication system Combining existing mobile services (GSM, CDMA etc.) and fixed telecommunications services More capacity and bandwidth More services (Speech, Video, Audio, Multimedia etc.) Worldwide roaming "High" subscriber capacity
1 · 1 · 49
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http://www.vtt.fi/
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1 Intruduction
1.4 RNP Process Overview
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.1 Definition of RN Requirements The Request for Quotation (RfQ) from the customer prescribes the requirements mainly Coverage Definition of coverage probability Percentage of measurements above level threshold
Definition of covered area
Traffic Definition of Erlang per square kilometer Definition of number of TRX in a cell Mixture of circuit switched and packed switched traffic
QoS Call success rate RxQual, voice quality, throughput rates, ping time
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.2 Preliminary Network Design The preliminary design lays the foundation to create the Bill of Quantity (BoQ) List of needed network elements
Geo data procurement Digital Elevation Model DEM/Topographic map Clutter map
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Expected receiving level
Definition of roll out phases Areas to be covered Number of sites to be installed Date, when the roll out takes place.
Network architecture design
Definition of standard equipment configurations dependent on clutter type traffic density
Coverage Plots
Planning of BSC and MSC locations and their links
Frequency spectrum from license conditions
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.3 Project Setup and Management This phase includes all tasks to be performed before the on site part of the RNP process takes place. This ramp up phase includes: Geo data procurement if required Setting up ‘general rules’ of the project Define and agree on reporting scheme to be used Coordination of information exchange between the different teams which are involved in the project
Each department/team has to prepare its part of the project Definition of required manpower and budget Selection of project database (MatrixX)
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.4 Initial Radio Network Design Area surveys As well check of correctness of geo data
Frequency spectrum partitioning design RNP tool calibration For the different morpho classes: Performing of drive measurements Calibration of correction factor and standard deviation by comparison of measurements to predicted received power values of the tool
Definition of search areas (SAM – Search Area Map) A team searches for site locations in the defined areas The search team should be able to speak the national language
Selection of number of sectors/TRX per site together with project management and customer Get ‘real’ design acceptance from customer based on coverage prediction and predefined design level thresholds
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.5 Site Acquisition Procedure Delivery of site candidates
Site candidate acceptance and Several site candidates shall be the result ranking out of the site location search
Find alternative sites If no site candidate or no satisfactory candidate can be found in the search area Definition of new SAM (Search Area Map) Possibly adaptation of radio network design
Check and correct SAR (Site Acquisition Report) Location information Land usage Object (roof top, pylon, grassland) information Site plan
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If the reported site is accepted as candidate, then it is ranked according to its quality in of Radio transmission High visibility on covered area No obstacles in the near field of the antennas No interference from other systems/antennas
Installation costs Installation possibilities Power supply Wind and heat
Maintenance costs
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Accessibility Rental rates for object Durability of object
1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.6 Technical Site Survey Agree on an equipment installation solution satisfying the needs of
BTS/Node B location Power and feeder cable mount Transmission equipment installation Final Line Of Site (LOS) confirmation for microwave link planning
RNE Radio Network Engineer Transmission planner Site engineer Site owner
The Technical Site Survey Report (TSSR) defines Antenna type, position, bearing/orientation and tilt Mast/pole or wall mounting position of antennas EMC rules are taken into
E.g. red balloon of around half a meter diameter marks target location
If the site is not acceptable or the owner disagrees with all suggested solutions
Radio network engineer and transmission planner check electro magnetic compatibility (EMC) with other installed devices
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The site will be rejected Site acquisition team has to organize a new date with the next site from the ranking list
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.7 Basic Parameter Definition After installation of equipment the basic parameter settings are used for Commissioning Functional test of BTS and VSWR check
Call tests
RNEs define cell design data Operations field service generates the basic software using the cell design CAE data
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Cell design CAE data to be defined for all cells are for example: CI/LAC/BSIC Frequencies Neighborhood/cell handover relationship Transmit power Cell type (macro, micro, umbrella, …)
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.8 Cell Design CAE Data Exchange over COF
ACIE A9156 RNO OMC 1
A9155 V6
COF
RNP
A9155 PRC Generator Module Conversion
ACIE
OMC 2
POLO BSS Software offline production
3rd Party RNP or Database 1 · 1 · 58
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ACIE ASCII Configuration Import Export PRC Provisioning Radio Configuration SC Supervised Configuration COF CMA Offsite CMA Customer Management Application CAE Customer Application Engineering
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ACIE = PRC file
1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.9 Turn On Cycle The network is launched step by step during the TOC A single step takes typically two or three weeks Not to mix up with rollout phases, which take months or even years
For each step the RNE has to define ‘TOC Parameter’ Cells to go on air Determination of frequency plan Cell design CAE parameter
Each step is finished with the ‘Turn On Cycle Activation’ PRC/ACIE files into OMC-R Unlock sites
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.10 Site Verification and Drive Test RNE performs drive measurement to compare the real coverage with the predicted coverage of the cells. If coverage holes or areas of high interference are detected Adjust the antenna tilt and orientation
Verification of cell design CAE data To fulfill heavy acceptance test requirements, it is absolutely essential to perform such a drive measurement. Basic site and area optimization reduces the probability to have unforeseen mysterious network behavior afterwards.
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.11 HW / SW Problem Detection Problems can be detected due to drive tests or equipment monitoring Defective equipment will trigger replacement by operation field service
Software bugs Incorrect parameter settings are corrected by using the OMC or in the next TOC
Faulty antenna installation Wrong coverage footprints of the site will trigger antenna re-alignments
If the problem is serious Lock BTS Detailed error detection Get rid of the fault Eventually adjusting antenna tilt and orientation
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.12 Basic Network Optimization Network wide drive measurements It is highly recommended to perform network wide drive tests before doing the commercial opening of the network Key performance indicators (KPI) are determined The results out of the drive tests are used for basic optimization of the network
Basic optimization All optimization tasks are still site related Alignment of antenna system Adding new sites in case of too large coverage holes Parameter optimization No traffic yet -> not all parameters can be optimized
Basic optimization during commercial service If only a small number of new sites are going on air the basic optimization will be included in the site verification procedure
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.13 Network Acceptance Acceptance drive test Calculation of KPI according to acceptance requirements in contract Presentation of KPI to the customer Comparison of key performance indicators with the acceptance targets in the contract The customer accepts the whole network only parts of it step by step
Now the network is ready for commercial launch
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.14 Further Optimization Network is in commercial operation Network optimization can be performed Significant traffic allows to use OMC based statistics by using A9156 RNO and A9185 NPA End of optimization depends on contract and mutual agreement between Alcatel and customer Usually, Alcatel is only involved during the first optimization activities directly after opening the network commercially
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2 Coverage Planning
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2 Coverage Planning
2.1 Geo databases
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2.1 Geo databases
2.1.1 Geographical data needed for Radio Network Planning ? Propagation models depend on geographical data Geographical information for site acquisition Latitude (East/West) / Longitude (North/South) Rectangular coordinates (e.g. UTM coordinates)
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2.1 Geo databases
2.1.2 Maps are flat
Latitude
x, y Longitude
Problem: Earth is 3D, the maps are 2D
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2.1 Geo databases
2.1.3 Mapping the earth
The Earth is a very complex shape To map the geography of the earth, a reference model (-> Geodetic Datum) is needed The model needs to be simple so that it is easy to use It needs to include a Coordinate system which allows the positions of objects to be uniquely identified It needs to be readily associated with the physical world so that its use is intuitive
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2.1 Geo databases
2.1.4 Map Projection
Ellipsoid
Geodetic Datum
e.g. WGS84, International 1924
e.g. WGS84, ED50
Map Projection
e.g. Transverse Mercator (UTM), Lambert Conformal Conic
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Geocoordinate System
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e.g. UTM
2.1 Geo databases
2.1.5 Geodetic Ellipsoid
Definition: A mathematical surface (an ellipse rotated around the earth's polar axis) which provides a convenient model of the size and shape of the earth. The ellipsoid is chosen to best meet the needs of a particular map datum system design. Reference ellipsoids are usually defined by semi-major (equatorial radius) and flattening (the relationship between equatorial and polar radii).
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2.1.6 Global & Regional Ellipsoids
Global ellipsoids e.g. WGS84, GRS80 Center of ellipsoid is “Center of gravity” Worldwide consistence of all maps around the world
Regional ellipsoids e.g. Bessel, Clarke, Hayford, Krassovsky Best fitting ellipsoid for a part of the world (“local optimized”) Less local deviation
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2.1.7 Geodetic Datum
A Geodetic Datum is a Reference System which includes: A local or global Ellipsoid One “Fixpoint”
Attention: Referencing geodetic coordinates to the wrong map datum can result in position errors of hundreds of meters 1 · 1 · 73
Info: In most cases the shift, rotation and scale factor of a Map Datum is relative to the “satellite map datum” WGS84.
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2.1.8 Different Map Projection’s Cylindrical e.g. UTM, Gauss-Krueger
Conical e.g.Lambert Conformal Conic
Planar/Azimuthal
Info: In 90% of the cases we will have a cylindrical projection in 10% of the cases a conical projection
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2.1.9 Geo-Coordinate System
To simplify the use of maps a Cartesian Coordinates is used To avoid negative values a False Easting value and a False Northing value is added
Also a scaling factor is used to minimize the “projection error” over the whole area
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X = Easting Y = Northing
2.1 Geo databases
2.1.10 WGS 84 (World Geodetic System 1984)
Most needed Geodetic Datum in the world today (“Satellite Datum”) It is the reference frame used by the U.S. Department of Defense is defined by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) The Global Positioning System (GPS) system is based on the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84). Optimal adaption to the surface of the earth
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2.1.11 Transverse Mercator Projection
Projection cylinder is rotated 90 degrees from the polar axis (“transverse”) Geometric basis for the UTM and the Gauss-Krueger Map Projection Conformal Map projection
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2.1.12 Transverse Mercator Projection (e.g. UTM )
Middle-Meridian
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2.1.13 Universal Transverse Mercator System
o
o
o
60 zones, each 6 (60 · 6 = 360 ) o ±3 around each center meridian o Beginning at 180 longitude (measured eastward from Greenwich)
Zone number = (center meridian + 183o ) / 6o
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2.1.14 UTM - Definitions
False Easting: 500 000 m (Middle-meridian x = 500 000 m) False Northing: Northern Hemisphere: 0 m Southern Hemisphere: 10 000 000 m Scaling Factor: 0,9996 (used to minimize the “projection error” over the whole area)
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2.1.15 UTM Zones (e.g. Europe) UTM-Zones
-6°
-3°
3°
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9° 15° 21° 27° 33° 39° Middle-Meridian
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2.1.16 UTM-System UTM-System False origin on the central meridian of the zone has an easting of 500,000 meters. All eastings have a positive values for the zone Eastings range from 100,000 to 900,000 meters The 6 Degree zone ranges from 166,667 to 833,333 m, leaving about a 0.5° overlap at each end of the zone (valid only at the equator) This allows for overlaps and matching between zones 1 · 1 · 82
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2.1.17 UTM Zone Numbers
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2.1.18 UTM-System: Example "Stuttgart" Transformation: latitude / longitude → UTM system
North 48o 45' 13.5'' East
y = 5 400 099 m
9o 11' 7.5''
x = 513 629 m
UTM-Zone: 32 Middle meridian: 9o (9o = 500 000 m “False Easting”)
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2.1.19 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection Maps an ellipsoid onto a cone whose central axis coincides with the polar axis
Cone touches the ellipsoid => One standard parallel (1SP) (e.g. NTF-System in )
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Cutting edges of cone and ellipsoid => Two standard parallels (2SP) (e.g. Lambert-Projection in Austria)
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2.1.20 Geospatial data for Network Planning
DEM (Digital Elevation Model)/ Topography Morphostructure / Land usage / Clutter Satellite Photos / Orthoimages Scanned Maps Background data (streets, borders, coastlines, etc. ) Buildings Traffic data
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2.1.21Creation of geospatial databases
Satellite imagery
Digitizing maps Aerial photography
Geospatial data 1 · 1 · 87
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2.1.22 Parameters of a Map
Coordinate system Map Projection (incl. Geodetic Datum) Location of the map (Area …) Scale: macrocell planning 1:50000 - 1:100000 microcell planning 1:500 -1:5000
Thematic Source Date of Production
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2.1.23 Raster- and Vectordata Raster data DEM /Topography Morphostructure / Land usage / Clutter Traffic density
y
Vector data Background data (streets, borders, coastlines, etc. ) Buildings
x
(x1,y1) (xn,yn)
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2.1.24 Rasterdata / Grid data Pixel-oriented data Stored as row and column Each Pixel stored in one or two byte Each Pixel contents information (e.g. morphoclass, colour of a scanned map, elevation of a DEM)
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2.1.25 Vectordata
Vector mainly used are: airport, coastline, highway, main roads, secondary roads, railway, rivers/lakes Each vector contents (x1,y1) Info about kind of vector (e.g. street, coastline) A series of several points Each point has a corresponded x / y -value (e.g. in UTM System or as Long/Lat) Info about Map projection and used Geodetic Datum
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(xn,yn )
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2.1.26 Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
Raster dataset that shows terrain features such as hills and valleys Each element (or pixel) in the DEM image represents the terrain elevation at that location Resolution in most cases: 20 m for urban areas 50-100 m for other areas DEM are typically generated from topographic maps, stereo satellite images, or stereo aerial photographs
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2.1.27 Morphostructure / Land usage / Clutter (1)
Land usage classification according to the impact on wave propagation In most cases: 7...14 morpho classes Resolution in most cases: 20 m for cities 50…100m other areas for radio network planning
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The clutter files describe the land cover (dense urban, buildings, residential, forest, open, villages....). Ground is represented by a grid map where each bin is characterised by a code corresponding to a main type of cover (a clutter class). The clutter maps are 8 bits/pixel (256 classes)-raster maps, they show an image with a colour assigned to each clutter class (by default, grey shading). Clutter file provides clutter code per bin. Bin size is defined by pixel size (P stated in metre). Pixel size must be the same in both directions. Abscissa and ordinate axes are respectively oriented in right and down directions. First point given in the file corresponds to the upper-left corner of the image. This point refers to the northwest point georeferenced by A9155
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2.1.28 Morphostructure (2)
Besides the topo database the basic input for radio network planning Each propagation area has different obstacles like buildings, forest etc. Obstacles which have similar effects on propagation conditions are classified in morphoclasses Each morphoclass has a corresponding value for the correction gain The resolution of the morpho databases should be adapted to the propagation model Morpho correction factor for predictions: 0 dB (”skyscapers") … 30 dB (”water")
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Morphodatabases (Landuse/Clutter) are a special kind of geodatabases. The morphodatabase is beside the topodatabase the basic input for radio network planning. Each morphoclass has a corresponding value of propagation loss. Together with a topographical database it is possible to predict the radio wave propagation. Each propagation area has different obstacles like buildings, forest etc. Those obstacles, which have similar effects on propagation conditions are classified in morphoclasses. This resolution of the morphodatabases should be adapted to the empirical propagation model for macrocellular radio network planning and the necessary planning resolution. In most cases the resolution of the rasterdatabases for morphostructure is around 50 ...100 m. With those values an optimum between calculation time and the necessary resolution of the prediction is reached in most radio network planning projects. For microcellular radio network planning a buildingdatabase is needed with a higher resolution. Each morphoclass is corresponding with a morpho-correction factor. The propagation loss is between 30 dB ("skyscrapers") ... and around 0 dB ("open area") The morphocorrection factors are achieved by calibration measurements
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2.1.29 Morphoclasses
Code 0 1 2
3
4 5 6
MorphoDescription structure not classified e.g. edge of a database skyscrapers / very high buildings ( >40m), very high density of buildings, buildings no vegetation on ground level e.g. cities like NewYork, Tokio etc. dense urban 4 or more storeys, areas within urban perimeters, inner city, very little vegetation, high density of buildings, most buildings are standing close together, small pedestrian zones and streets incl. medium 3 or 4 storeys, areas within urban perimeters, most buildings urban / mean are standing close together, less vegetation, middle density urban of buildings, small pedestrian zones and streets included lower urban / 2 or 3 storeys, middle density of buildings, suburban some vegetation, terraced houses with gardens residential
1-2 storeys, low density of buildings with gardens e.g. farmhouses, detached houses
industrial zone factory, warehouse, garage, shipyards / industrial
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2.1.30 Morphoclasses (2)
Code 7 8 9
Morphostructure forest agriculture / rural
Description all kinds of forest, parks, with high tree density high vegetation, plants: 1... 3 m, high density of plants, e.g. crop fields, fruit plantation
low tree low vegetation, low height of plants, density / parks low density of plants, some kinds of parks, botanical garden
10
water
11
open area
12
(optional)
no buildings, no vegetation e.g. desert, beach, part of an airport, big streets etc. huge parking areas, large defined by networkplanner if necessary
13
(optional)
defined by networkplanner if necessary
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sea, rivers, all kind of fresh- and saltwater
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2.1.31Background data (streets, borders etc.)
All kinds of information data like streets, borders, coastlines etc. Necessary for orientation in plots of calculation results The background data are not needed for the calculation of the fieldstrength, power etc.
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These data represent either polygons (regions...), or lines (roads, coastlines...) or points (towns...).
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2.1.32 Orthophoto
Georeferenced Satellite Image Resolution: most 10 or 20 m Satellite: e.g. SPOT, Landsat
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These geographic data regroup the road maps and the satellite images ; they are only used for display and provide information about the geographic environment. A9155 s scanned image files with TIFF (1, 4, 8, 24-bits/pixel), BIL (1, 4, 8, 24-bits/pixel), PlaNET© (1, 4, 8, 24-bits/pixel), BMP (1-24-bits/pixel) and Erdas Imagine (1, 4, 8, 24-bits/pixel) formats.
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2.1.33 Scanned Maps Mainly used as background data Not used for calculation but for localisation Has to be geocoded to put it into a GIS (Geographic Information System) e.g. a Radio Network Planning Tool
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2.1.34 Buildings
Vectordata Outlines of single buildings building blocks
Building heights Material code not: roof shape
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2.1.35 Buildings (2) Microcell radio network planning is mainly used in urban environment The prediction of mircowave propagation is calculated with a ray-tracing/launching model A lot of calculation steps are needed Optimum building database required (data reduction) to minimize the pre-calculation time
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2.1.36 Traffic density Advantageous in the interference calculation, thus for frequency assignment and in the calculation of average figures in network analysis Raster database of traffic density values (in Erlangs) of the whole planning area Resolution: 20...100 m
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2.1.37 Converting one single point (1a)
Example “Stuttgart” (Example 1) Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (WGS84) Exercise: Convert following example with the program “Geotrans”: Input: Longitude: 9 deg 11 min 7.5 sec Latitude: 48 deg 45 min 13.5 sec Datum “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984”; Projection: “Geodetic” Output: Easting: 513629 m Northing: 5400099 m Datum “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984” Projection: “Universersal Transverse Mercator (UTM)” Zone: 32 ; Hemisphere: N (North)
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Values, which will calculated by program Preset of this values necessary
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2.1.38 Converting one single point (1b)
Example “Stuttgart” (Example 1) Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (WGS84) GEOTRANS (Geographic Translator) is an application program which allows you to convert geographic coordinates easily among a wide variety of coordinate systems, map projections, and datums. Source: http://164.214.2.59/GandG/geotrans/
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2.1.39 Converting one single point (2a) Example “Stuttgart” (Example 2) Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (ED50) (ED50 = EUR-A = European Datum 1950)
Exercise: Convert following example with the program “Geotrans”: Input: Longitude: 9 deg 11 min 7.5 sec Latitude: 48 deg 45 min 13.5 sec Datum “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984”; Projection: “Geodetic” Output: Easting: 513549 m Northing: 5403685 m Datum “EUR-A: EUROPEAN 1950, Western Europe” Projection: “Universersal Transverse Mercator (UTM)” Zone: 32 ; Hemisphere: N (North)
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Values, which will calculated by program Preset of this values necessary
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2.1.40 Converting one single point (2b)
Example “Stuttgart” (Example 2) Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (ED50) (ED50 = EUR-A = European Datum 1950)
Diff. X (Ex.2 - Ex.1): 69 m Diff. Y (Ex.2 - Ex.1): 200 m Difference because of different Geodetic Datums
Attention: For flat coordinates (e.g. UTM) as well as for geographic coordinates (Long/Lat) a reference called “Geodetic Datum” is necessary.
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2.1.41 Converting a list of points (3a)
Example “Stuttgart” (Example 3 ) Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (WGS84) Input: text-file with the values (list) of the longitude and latitude of different points (How to create the inputfile see on page 3c) Output: Datum: “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984” Preset of this Projection: “Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)” values necessary Zone: 32
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2.1.42 Converting a list of points (3b) Example “Stuttgart” (Example 3 ) Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (WGS84)
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2.1.43 Converting a list of points (3c)
Example “Stuttgart” (Example 3) Long/Lat (WGS84)=> UTM (WGS84) Geotrans V2.2.3
Geotrans V2.2.3
Latitude Longitude
deg min sec
deg min sec
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Optional: different error-infos, UTM Hem Eas N depending on the input-data -Zo isph ting ( orthing ne ere x) (y) default: “Unk”=“unknown”
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2.1.44 Provider for Geospatial data
Geodatasupplier BKS ComputaMaps Geoimage Infoterra Istar RMSI
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Internet www.bks.co.uk www.computamaps.com www.geoimage.fr www.infoterra-global.com www.istar.fr www.rmsi.com
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2.1.45 Links for more detailed infos Maps Projection Overview
http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/mapproj/mapproj.html http://www.ecu.edu/geog/ http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_projection
Coordinate Transformation (online) http://jeeep.com/details/coord/ http://www.cellspark.com/UTM.html
Map Collection
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/index.html
Finding out Latitude/Longitude of cities etc. http://www.maporama.com
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2 Coverage Planning
2.2 Antennas and Cables
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.1 The Antenna System Lightning rod
Antennas Power divider Cables (jumper) Feeder cables Connectors Clamps Lightning protection Wall glands Planning
Antennas
Rx
Rxdiv
Mechanical antenna structure
Mounting clamp Jumper cable
Jumper cable Earthing kit
Feeder installation clamps
Earthing kit
Plugs 7/16“
Wall gland
Sockets 7/16“
Feeder cable
Grounding Jumper cables
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Tx
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2.2.1.2 Antenna Theory 50Ω is the impedance of the cable 377Ω is the impedance of the air Antennas adapt the different impedances They convert guided waves, into free-space waves (Hertzian waves) and/or vice versa
Z =50Ω
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Z =377Ω
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It happens that the coulomb field and the induction field fall off much more rapidly than the radiation field with increasing distance from the antenna. At distances greater than a few wavelengths from the antenna, in what is called the antenna's far field, the electric field is essentially pure radiation. Closer to the antenna, we have the near field, which is a mixture of the radiation, induction and coulomb fields.
The coulomb field at an instant in time around a half-wave resonant dipole A half-cycle later, the polarity, and all the arrows, will be reversed. The spacing between the field lines indicates field strength.
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2.2.1.3 Antenna Data The antenna parameters which are of interest for the radio network engineering are the following: Antenna directivity, efficiency, gain Polarization, near field and far field Specification due to certain wave polarization (linear/elliptic, cross-polarization)
Half power beam width (HPBW) Related to polarization of electrical field Vertical and Horizontal HPBW
Antenna pattern, side lobes, null directions Yields the spatial radiation characteristics of the antenna
Front-to-back ratio Important for interference considerations
Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) Bandwidth
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In electrodynamics, polarization (also spelled polarisation) is the property of electromagnetic waves, such as light, that describes the direction of their transverse electric field. More generally, the polarization of a transverse wave describes the direction of oscillation in the plane perpendicular to the direction of travel. Longitudinal waves such as sound waves do not exhibit polarization, because for these waves the direction of oscillation is along the direction of travel.
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Elliptical
2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.4 Antenna Pattern and HPBW
vertical
0 dB
0 dB
-3 dB
-3 dB
-10 dB
-10 dB
HPBW
horizontal
sidelobe
main beam null direction
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The antenna radiation pattern also named antenna diagram, describes the relative strength of the radiated field in various directions from the antenna, at a constant distance. The radiation pattern is a reception pattern as well, since it also describes the receiving properties of the antenna. The radiation pattern is three-dimensional, but usually as shown in Figure 4, the measured radiation patterns are a two dimensional slice of the three-dimensional pattern, in the horizontal or vertical planes. This pattern depends on the antenna geometry and the current distribution in its elements. It is possible to compose, with a certain degree of freedom, arbitrary antenna diagrams by arranging antenna elements, e.g. dipoles, in groups, e.g. in a grid arrangement. As shown in Figure, each antenna pattern consists of a couple of beams or lobes. One distinguishes the main beam, pointing in the direction where the maximum power is radiated, and the side lobes, which are local maxima in the antenna diagram. The side lobes must sometimes be treated with special care, as they could radiate too much power towards unplanned directions of the cell. This may lead to unexpected interference with other cells! The antenna has directions where it isn't nearly radiating. These directions are called null directions. They may cause coverage problems. Based on the radiation pattern, the radio mobiles antennas are categorized in the following types: Omni-directional antennas that provides a 360 degree horizontal radiation pattern. Omni antennas are typically used when continuous coverage around the site is needed and the offered traffic is low. Directional antennas that provide a stronger radiation pattern in a specific direction by focusing the radiation energy. For instance the radiation pattern shown in Figure, belongs to a directive antenna. The sector or antennas are directional antennas and they are built based on the array antennas principle. Array antennas consist of a number of dipole antennas arranged in a geometrical manner to create a directional receiving or transmission pattern. The antennas are used on sectorized sites in order to focus the coverage on special area of interest.
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.5 EIRP
Isotropic radiated Power Pt
Effective isotropic radiated power: EIRP = Pt+Gain = 56 dBm
V1 Gain = 11dBi
V2 = V1
Pt = 45 dBm
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radiated power
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Known the antenna gain and the power fed into antenna, an important link budget parameter, the Effective Isotropic Radiated (EIRP) can be calculated. The EIRP represents the total power radiated by the antenna Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
EIRP = Pin + G
EIRP: Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (in main beam direction) in [dBm]; Pin: power fed into the antenna, [dBm]; G: antenna gain, [dBi];
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.6 Linear Antennas For the link between base station and mobile station, mostly linear antennas are used: Monopole antennas MS antennas, car roof antennas
Dipole antennas Used for array antennas at base stations for increasing the directivity of RX and TX antennas
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.7 Monopole Antenna Pattern Influence of antenna length on the antenna pattern
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.8 Antenna with Dipole Array Many dipoles are arranged in a grid layout Nearly arbitrary antenna patterns may be designed Feeding of the dipoles with weighted and phase-shifted signals Coupling of all dipole elements
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.9 Dipole Arrangement
Dipole arrangement Weighted and phase shifted signals
Typical flat antenna
Dipole element
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.10 Omni Antenna Antenna with vertical HPBW for omni sites Large area coverage
Advantages Continuous coverage around the site Simple antenna mounting Ideal for homogeneous terrain
Drawbacks No mechanical tilt possible Clearance of antenna required
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2 Coverage Planning
2.2.2 Antenna Parameters
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.1 X 65° T6 900MHz 2.5m Rural road coverage with mechanical uptilt Antenna RFS Dual Polarized Antenna 872-960 MHz APX906516-T6 Series
Electrical specification Gain in dBi: 17.1 Polarization: +/-45° HBW: 65° VBW: 6.5° Electrical downtilt: 6°
Mechanical specification Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 2475 x 306 x 120 Weight in kg: 16.6 Horizontal Pattern 1 · 1 · 124
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.2 X 65° T6 900MHz 1.9m Dense urban area Antenna RFS Dual Polarized Antenna 872-960 MHz APX906515-T6 Series
Electrical specification Gain in dBi: 16.5 Polarization: +/-45° HBW: 65° VBW: 9° Electrical downtilt: 6°
Mechanical specification Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1890 x 306 x 120 Weight in kg: 16.6
Vertical Pattern 1 · 1 · 125
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.3 X 90° T2 900MHz 2.5m Rural area with mechanical uptilt Antenna RFS Dual Polarized Antenna 872-960 MHz APX909014-T6 Series
Electrical specification Gain in dBi: 15.9 Polarization: +/-45° HPBW: 90° VBW: 7° Electrical downtilt: 6°
Mechanical specification Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 2475 x 306 x 120 Weight in kg: 15.5
Vertical Pattern 1 · 1 · 126
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.4 V 65° T0 900MHz 2.0m Highway Antenna RFS CELLite® Vertical Polarized Antenna 872-960 MHz AP906516-T0 Series
Electrical specification Gain in dBi: 17.5 Polarization: Vertical HBW: 65° VBW: 8.5° Electrical downtilt: 0°
Mechanical specification Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1977 x 265 x 130 Weight in kg: 10.9
Vertical Pattern 1 · 1 · 127
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.5 V 90° T0 900MHz 2.0m Rural Area Antenna RFS CELLite® Vertical Polarized Antenna 872-960 MHz AP909014-T0 Series
Electrical specification Gain in dBi: 16.0 Polarization: Vertical HBW: 65° VBW: 8.5° Electrical downtilt: 0°
Mechanical specification Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1977 x 265 x 130 Weight in kg: 9.5
Vertical Pattern 1 · 1 · 128
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.4 X 65° T6 1800MHz 1.3m Dense urban area Antenna RFS Dual Polarized Antenna 1710-1880 MHz APX186515-T6 Series
Electrical specification Gain in dBi: 17.5 Polarization: +/-45° HBW: 65° VBW: 7° Electrical downtilt: 6°
Mechanical specification Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1310 x 198 x 50 Weight in kg: 5.6
Vertical Pattern 1 · 1 · 129
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.5 X 65° T2 1800MHz 1.3m Dense urban area Antenna RFS Dual Polarized Antenna 1710-1880 MHz APX186515-T2 Series
Electrical specification Gain in dBi: 17.5 Polarization: +/-45° HBW: 65° VBW: 7° Electrical downtilt: 2°
Mechanical specification Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1310 x 198 x 50 Weight in kg: 5.6
Vertical Pattern 1 · 1 · 130
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.6 X 65° T2 1800MHz 1.9m Highway Antenna RFS Dual Polarized Antenna 1710-1880 MHz APX186516-T2 Series
Electrical specification Gain in dBi: 18.3 Polarization: +/-45° HBW: 65° VBW: 4.5° Electrical downtilt: 2°
Mechanical specification Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1855 x 198 x 50 Weight in kg: 8.6
Vertical Pattern 1 · 1 · 131
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.7 V 65° T2 1800MHz 1.3m Highway Antenna RFS CELLite® Vertical Polarized Antenna 1710-1880 MHz AP186516-T2 Series
Electrical specification Gain in dBi: 17.0 Polarization: Vertical HBW: 65° VBW: 7.5° Electrical downtilt: 2°
Mechanical specification Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1310 x 198 x 50 Weight in kg: 4.7
Horizontal Pattern 1 · 1 · 132
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.8 V 90° T2 1800MHz 1.9m Highway Antenna RFS CELLite® Vertical Polarized Antenna 1710-1880 MHz AP189016-T2 Series
Electrical specification Gain in dBi: 17.0 Polarization: Vertical HBW: 90° VBW: 5.5° Electrical downtilt: 2°
Mechanical specification Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1855 x 198 x 50 Weight in kg: 6.0
Vertical Pattern 1 · 1 · 133
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2 Coverage Planning
2.2.3 Cable Parameters
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2.2.3 Cable Parameters
2.2.3.1 7/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Coaxial Cable Feeder Cable
Mechanical specification
7/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss FoamDielectric Coaxial Cable LCF78-50J Standard LCF78-50JFN Flame Retardant Installation temperature >-25°C
Electrical specification 900MHz
Cable weight kg\m: 0.53 Minimum bending radius Single bend in mm: 120 Repeated bends in mm: 250
Bending moment in Nm: 13.0 Recommended clamp spacing: 0.8m
Attenuation: 3.87dB/100m Average power in kW: 2.45
Electrical specification 1800MHz Attenuation: 5.73dB/100m Average power in kW: 1.79
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2.2.3 Cable Parameters
2.2.3.2 1-1/4" CELLFLEX® Coaxial Cable Feeder Cable
Mechanical specification
1-1/4" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss FoamDielectric Coaxial Cable LCF114-50J Standard LCF114-50JFN Flame Retardant Installation temperature >-25°C
Electrical specification 900MHz
Cable weight kg\m: 0.86 Minimum bending radius Single bend in mm: 200 Repeated bends in mm: 380
Bending moment in Nm: 38.0 Recommended clamp spacing: 1.0m
Attenuation: 3.06dB/100m Average power in kW: 3.56
Electrical specification 1800MHz Attenuation: 4.61dB/100m Average power in kW: 2.36
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2.2.3 Cable Parameters
2.2.3.3 1-5/8" CELLFLEX® Coaxial Cable Feeder Cable
Mechanical specification
1-5/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss FoamDielectric Coaxial Cable LCF158-50J Standard LCF158-50JFN Flame Retardant Installation temperature >-25°C
Electrical specification 900MHz
Cable weight kg\m: 1.26 Minimum bending radius Single bend in mm: 200 Repeated bends in mm: 508
Bending moment in Nm: 46.0 Recommended clamp spacing: 1.2m
Attenuation: 2.34dB/100m Average power in kW: 4.97
Electrical specification 1800MHz Attenuation: 3.57dB/100m Average power in kW: 3.26
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2.2.3 Cable Parameters
2.2.3.4 1/2" CELLFLEX® Jumper Cable CELLFLEX® LCF12-50J Jumpers
Electrical specification 900MHz
Feeder Cable LCF12-50J CELLFLEX® Low-Loss FoamDielectric Coaxial Cable
Connectors
Attenuation: 0.068db/m Total losses with connectors are 0.108dB, 0.176dB and 0.244dB
Electrical specification 1800MHz
7/16” DIN male/female N male/female Right angle
Molded version available in 1m, 2m, 3m
Attenuation: 0.099dB/m Total losses with connectors are 0.139dB, 0.238dB and 0.337dB
Mechanical specification Minimum bending radius Repeated bends in mm: 125
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2 Coverage Planning
2.3 Radio Propagation
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2.3 Radio Propagation
2.3.1 Propagation effects Free space loss Fresnel ellipsoid Reflection, Refraction, Scattering in the atmosphere at a boundary to another material
Diffraction at small obstacles over round earth
Attenuation Rain attenuation Gas absorption
Fading
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2.3.1 Propagation effects
2.3.1.1 Reflection Pr = Rh/v ⋅ P0 Rh/v = f(ϕ, ε, σ, Δh)
Δh
Rh Rv ϕ ε σ Δ h
horizontal reflection factor vertical reflection factor angle of incidence permittivity conductivity surface roughness
ϕ P0
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Pr
2.3.1 Propagation effects
2.3.1.2 Refraction Considered via an effective earth radius factor k
k = 4/3 k =∞ k=1
radio path
k = 2/3
k = 2/3 k=1
k = 4/3
k=∞
true earth
Radio path plotted as a straight line by changing the earth's radius
Ray paths with different k over trueearth
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2.3.1 Propagation effects
2.3.1.3 Diffraction Occurs at objects which sizes are in the order of the wavelength λ Radio waves are ‘bent’ or ‘curved’ around objects Bending angle increases if object thickness is smaller compared to λ Influence of the object causes an attenuation: diffraction loss
radio obstacle
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diffracted radio
2.3.1 Propagation effects
2.3.1.4 Fading Caused by delay spread of original signal Multi path propagation Time-dependent variations in heterogeneity of environment Movement of receiver
Short-term fading, fast fading This fading is characterised by phase summation and cancellation of signal components, which travel on multiple paths. The variation is in the order of the considered wavelength. Their statistical behaviour is described by the Rayleigh distribution (for non-LOS signals) and the Rice distribution (for LOS signals), respectively. In GSM, it is already considered by the sensitivity values, which take the error correction capability into .
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2.3.1 Propagation effects
2.3.1.5 Fading types Mid-term fading, lognormal fading Mid-term field strength variations caused by objects in the size of 10...100m (cars, trees, buildings). These variations are lognormal distributed.
Long-term fading, slow fading Long-term variations caused by large objects like large buildings, forests, hills, earth curvature (> 100m). Like the mid-term field strength variations, these variations are lognormal distributed.
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2.3.1 Propagation effects
2.3.1.6 Signal Variation due to Fading
0 Lognormal fading Raleygh fading
-10
Received Power [dBm]
-20
-30
-40
-50
Fading hole -60
Distance [m]
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Raylaight/Rician Fading: Fast Fading. Rayleight : Statistical behaviour of Fast Fading signals for NON LOS-Signals. Lognormal Fading
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49.9
47.3
44.7
42.1
39.4
36.8
34.2
31.6
29.0
26.3
23.7
21.1
18.5
15.9
13.2
10.6
8.0
5.4
2.8
0.1
-70
2.3.1 Propagation effects
2.3.1.7 Lognormal Fading
Lognormal fading (typical 20 dB loss by entering a village)
Fading hole Lognormal fading (entering a tunnel)
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.1 Free Space Loss The simplest form of wave propagation is the free-space propagation The according path loss can be calculated with the following formula Path Loss in Free Space Propagation L free space loss d distance between transmitter and receiver antenna f operating frequency
L freespace
d f = 32.4 + 20 ⋅ log + 20 ⋅ log km MHz
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.2 Fresnel Ellipsoid The free space loss formula can only be applied if the direct line-of-sight (LOS) between transmitter and receiver is not obstructed This is the case, if a specific region around the LOS is cleared from any obstacles The region is called Fresnel ellipsoid
Transmitter LOS Receiver
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.3 Fresnel Ellipsoid
d1 ⋅ d2 ⋅ λ r= d1 + d2
The Fresnel ellipsoid is the set of all points around the LOS where the total length of the connecting lines to the transmitter and the receiver is longer than the LOS length by exactly half a wavelength It can be shown that this region is carrying the main power flow from transmitter to receiver
Fresnel zone Transmitter
Receiver LOS LOS + λ/2
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.4 Knife Edge Diffraction
path of diffracted wave
BTS
h0 line of sight
MS
1st Fresnel zone d1
d2
h0 = height of obstacle over line of sight d1, d2 = distance of obstacle from BTS and MS
replaced obstacle (knife edge)
h0 r
d1
d2
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Knife edge diffraction In case of an obstruction of the LOS path, the free-space formula with an additional correction term can be used if the obstacle is small compared to the distance from transmitter to receiver. Based on the assumption that this obstacle can be replaced by an ideal conducting half-plane which extends to infinity in the direction perpendicular to the propagation path and which is of infinitesimal thickness („knife-edge“), this situation refers to a field theory problem which can be solved in a deterministic way. In the case that this knife-edge obstacle type enters the Fresnel region, diffraction occurs (similar to the diffraction known from optics) and introduces some additional diffraction loss compared to the free-space propagation. The diffraction loss can be described by
Ldiff = F (v)
where v = −
h0 d + d2 2 = − h0 ⋅ 1 ⋅ r d1 ⋅ d 2 λ
with h0 the height of the obstacle above the LOS. v is a parameter which represents the number of „cleared“ Fresnel ellipsoids. The function F(v) is shown in . One can see that the diffraction loss is 6dB if the obstacle is just touching the LOS.
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.5 Knife Edge Diffraction Function
Knife-edge diffraction function 35
Additional diffraction loss F(v) v: clearance parameter, v=-h0/r Note: h0 = 0 ⇒ v =0 ⇒ L = 6 dB
30
F(v) [dB]
25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Clearance of Fresnel ellipsoid (v)
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h0
V=0:1=0
LOS
h0 LOS r
d1
d2
The function F(v) is shown on the top . One can see that the diffraction loss is 6dB if the obstacle is just touching the LOS. For v>1, some oscillation is noted, which appears due to the fact that the obstacle moves over several Fresnel regions where the phase of the transmitted signal is alternating between +180° and 180° phase shift. In reality, the conductivity of the obstacle´s material is not ideal, and the oscillations appears „smoothed“ to an average value.
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2.4.6 "Final Solution" for Wave Propagation Calculations?
Exact field solution requires too much computer resources! Too much details required for input Exact calculation too time-consuming Field strength prediction rather than calculation
Requirements for field strength prediction models Reasonable amount of input data Fast (it is very important to see the impact of changes in the network layout immediately) Accurate (results influence the hardware cost directly) Tradeoff required (accurate results within a suitable time) Parameter tuning according to real measurements should be possible
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.7 CCIR Recommendation
The CCIR Recommendations provide various propagation curves Based on Okumura (1968) Example (CCIR Report 567-3): Median field strength in urban area Frequency = 900 MHz hMS = 1.5 m Dashed line: free space
How to use this experience in field strength prediction models? Model which fits the curves in certain ranges → Hata's model was modified later by the European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST): COST 231 Hata/Okumura
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.8 Mobile Radio Propagation
d Free-space propagation (Fresnel zone not obstructed)
→ L ~ d2
Fresnel zone heavily obstructed near the mobile station → L ~ d3.7
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.9 Terrain Modeling Topography Effective antenna height Knife edge diffraction single obstacles multiple obstacles
Surface shape/Morpho-structure Correction factors for Hata-Okumura formula
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.10 Effect of Morphostructure on Propagation Loss
Fieldstrength
Open area
Urban area
Open area
open area urban area Distance
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.11 Okumura-Hata for GSM 900 Path loss (Lu) is calculated (in dB) as follows: Lu= A1 + A2 log(f) + A3 log(hBTS) + (B1 + B2log(hBTS)) log d The parameters A1, A2, A3, B1 and B2 can be -defined. Default values are proposed in the table below: Parameters
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Okumura-Hata f< 1500 MHz
Cost-Hata F>1500 MHz
A1
69.55
46.30
A2
26.16
33.90
A3
-13.82
-13.82
B1
44.90
44.90
B2
-6.55
-6.55
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Hata formula empirically describes the path loss as a function of frequency, receiver-transmitter distance and antenna heights for an urban environment. This formula is valid for flat, urban environments and 1.5 metre mobile antenna height.
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.12 CORRECTIONS TO THE HATA FORMULA
As described above, the Hata formula is valid for urban environment and a receiver antenna height of 1.5m. For other environments and mobile antenna heights, corrective formulas must be applied. Lmodel1=Lu-a(hMS) for large city and urban environments Lmodel1=Lu-a(hMS) -2log² (f/28) -5.4 for suburban area Lmodel1=Lu -a(hMS) - 4.78log² (f)+ 18.33 log(f) – 40.94 for rural area a(hMS) is a correction factor to take into a receiver antenna height different from 1.5m. Environments
A(hMS)
Rural/Small city
(1.1log(f) – 0.7)hMS – (1.56log(f) -0.8)
Large city
3.2log² (11.75hMS) – 4.97
Note: When receiver antenna height equals 1.5m, a(hMS) is close to 0 dB regardless of frequency. 1 · 1 · 160
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.13 Hata-Okumura for GSM 900 LossHata = 69.55 + 26.16 log (f) - 13.82 log (hBTS) - a(hMS) +(44.9 - 6.55 log (hBTS)) log (d) - Lmorpho a (hMS) = (1.1 log (f) - 0.7) hMS - (1.56 log (f) - 0.8)
Formula valid for frequency range: 150…1000 MHz
2.4 Path Loss Prediction 2.4 Path Loss Prediction
Lmorpho [dB] f [MHz] hBTS [m] hMS [m] d [km]
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Morpho/surface shape-Correction factor 0 dB: ‘Skyscrapers’->27 dB: ‘open area’ Frequency (150 - 1000 MHz) Height of BTS (30 - 200 m) Height of Mobile (1 - 10m) Distance between BTS and MS (1 - 20 km) Power law exponent shown colored All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.14 COST 231 Hata-Okumura GSM 1800 LossHata = 46.3 + 33.9 log (f) - 13.82 log (hBTS) - a(hMS) +(44.9 - 6.55 log (hBTS)) log (d) - Lmorpho a (hMS) = (1.1 log (f) - 0.7) hMS - (1.56 log (f) -0.8)
Formula is valid for frequency range: 1500...2000 MHz Hata’s model is extended for GSM 1800 Modification of original formula to the new frequency range
For cells with small ranges the COST 231 Walfish-Ikegami model is more precisely
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2.4.15 Alcatel Propagation Model (Standard Propagation Model)
Lmodel = K1 + K 2 log(d ) + K 3 log(HTxeff ) + K 4 × Diffraction loss + K 5 log(d ) × log(HTxeff ) + K 6 (HRxeff ) + K clutter f (clutter ) With: K1: constant offset (dB). K2: multiplying factor for log(d). d: distance between the receiver and the transmitter (m). K3: multiplying factor for log(HTxeff). HTxeff: effective height of the transmitter antenna (m). K4: multiplying factor for diffraction calculation. K4 has to be a positive number. Diffraction loss: loss due to diffraction over an obstructed path (dB). K5: multiplying factor for log(HTxeff)log(d). K6: multiplying factor for . : effective mobile antenna height (m). Kclutter: multiplying factor for f(clutter). f(clutter): average of weighted losses due to clutter.
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.16 Alcatel Propagation Model Using of effective antenna height in the Hata-Okumura formula:
hRx eff = f(α, d, hBTS, hMS) Τ
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.17 Exercise ‘Path Loss’ Scenario Height BTS = 40m Height MS = 1.5m D (BTS to MS) = 2000m
1. Calculate free space loss for A.) f=900MHz B.) f=1800MHz
2. Calculate the path loss for f = 900MHz A.) Morpho class ‘skyscraper’ B.) Morpho class ‘open area’
3. Calculate the path loss for f = 1800MHz A.) Morpho class ‘skyscraper’ B.) Morpho class ‘open area’
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Morpho correction factors: -Skyscraper: 0dB; -Open area: 27dB 1. Calculate free space loss for A.) f=900MHz: 97.6dB B.) f=1800MHz: 103.6dB 2. Calculate the path loss for f = 900MHz A.) Morpho class ‘skyscraper’: 135dB B.) Morpho class ‘open area’: 108dB 3. Calculate the path loss for f = 1800MHz A.) Morpho class ‘skyscraper’: 144.8dB B.) Morpho class ‘open area’: 117.8dB
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2 Coverage Planning
2.5 Link Budget Calculation
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2.5 Link Budget Calculation
2.5.1 Maximum Propagation Loss (Downlink)
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power EIRPBTS = 59.5 dBm BTS Antenna Gain GantBS = 16.5 dBi
Propagation Loss Lprop
Minimum Received Power PRX,min,MS = -102 dBm MS Antenna Gain GantMS = 2 dBi
Feeder Cable Loss Lcable = 3 dB Output Power at antenna connector 46.0 dBm
MS RX Sensitivity -102 dBm
Internal Losses Lint = 2 dB
ALCATEL EvoliumTM
Maximum allowed downlink propagation loss:
1 · 1 · 167
LMAPL = EIRPBTS - PRX,min,MS = 161.5 dB
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Exercice: Calculate the MAPL for this Example: MAPL=
Add. Losses: Anx = Anc = ANy =
1.8 dB 5.1 dB 3.5 dB ---------Give the result for different using : 1. With Combiner 2. Without combiner
Pathloss without ANy = 153.6 dB
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2.5 Link Budget Calculation
2.5.2 Maximum Propagation Loss (Uplink)
Minimum Received Power PRX,min,BTS = -124.5 dBm BTS Antenna Gain GantBS = 16.5 dBi
Propagation Loss Lprop
EIRPMS = 33 dBm MS Antenna Gain GantMS = 2 dBi
Feeder Cable Loss Lcable = 3 dB Receiving sensitivity at ant. conn. -111 dBm
MS TX Power 33 dBm
Internal Losses Lint = 2 dB
ALCATEL EvoliumTM
Max. allowed uplink propagation loss: With antenna diversity gain of 3dB: With TMA compensating cable loss:
1 · 1 · 168
Lprop,max = EIRPMS - PRX,min,BTS = 157.5 dB = 160.5 dB Lprop,max,AD = EIRPMS - PRX,min,BTS + GAD Lprop,max,AD,TMA = EIRPMS - PRX,min,BTS + GAD + GTMA = 163.5 dB All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010
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AD
= Antenna Diversity
~3dB Gain
TMA = Tower Mounted Amplifier ~3-4 dB Gain
Exercice: Calculate the MAPL for these Examples: MAPL(AD)= MAPL(AD+TMA) =
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2.5 Link Budget Calculation
2.5.3 GSM900/1800 Link Budget RX Sensitivity Antenna Diversity Gain
Downlink
PRX_BTS
PRX_MS
GAD
External Device Losses
LEXT
Feeder Loss RX Parameters
Uplink
LFEEDER
Jumpers and Connectors Losses
LJC
TMA Contribution
GTMA
Antenna Gain
GANT Isotropic Power
TX Output Power
PISO_UL = PRX_BTS - GAD + LEXT + LFEEDER+LJC - GTMA- GANT
PISO_DL = PRX_MS
PTX_MS
PTX_BTS
External Device Losses
LEXT
Feeder Loss TX Parameters
LFEEDER
Jumpers and Connectors Losses
LJC
TMA Insertion Loss
LTMA
Antenna Gain
GANT
Slant Polarization Loss
LSLANT EIRP
Margins
EIRPUL = PTX_MS
EIRPDL = PTX_BTS - LEXT - LFEEDER - LJC - LTMA + GANT - LSLANT
Slow Fading Margin
LSFM
LSFM
Interference Margin
LIF
LIF
LBODY
LBODY
Body Loss Penetration Margin (indoor/in-car) Total Margins Maximum Allowable Path Loss
1 · 1 · 169
LPEN
LPEN
M = LSFM + LIF + LBODY + LPEN
M = LSFM + LIF + LBODY + LPEN
MAPLUL = EIRPUL - PISO_UL – M
MAPLDL = EIRPDL - PISO_DL - M
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The GSM link budget components are described as follows: TX Output Power
UL/DL: measured in dBm, represent the BTS and the MS output power.
RX Sensitivity
UL/DL: measured in dBm, express the BTS and MS receiver sensitivity.
Antenna Gain
DL only: the BTS antenna gain, measured in dBi. The MS antenna gain is normally assumed to be 0dBi.
Antenna Diversity Gain
TMA Contribution TMA Insertion Loss External Device Loss
Feeder Loss Jumper and Connector Loss
UL only: the gain measured in dB that is caused by the diversity reception of the radio signal in uplink. Information concerning the antenna diversity gain used for link budget calculation is given in; UL only: the Tower Mounted Amplifier’s contribution in UL. It is expressed in dB. DL only: the loss caused in DL path due to internal TMA filters and duplexers. It is a TMA catalog parameter and it is expressed in dB. UL/DL: the loss due to the usage of external components such external diplexers, splitters, etc. It is measured in dB, and can be deduced from respective data sheets. UL/DL: the loss due to feeder cable, measured in dB. UL/DL: the loss due to the usage of jumpers and connectors, measured in dB.
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Slant Polarization Loss
DL only: the polarization mismatch loss and represents a signal loss due to different polarization at the transmitting and receiving end, e.g. the usage of BTS cross polarized antenna at ± 45°. It is not applicable for MS. As a rule of thumb, 0 dB is considered for slant polarization loss in case of cross-polar antenna usage within the urban and sub-urban areas. Contrary, 1.5 to 3 dB is recommended in case of rural and open areas. For deeper aspects please.
EIRP
UL/DL: the Effective Isotropic Radiated Power, measured in dBm.
Isotropic Power
UL/DL: the minimum power, measured in dB, required to maintain a certain level of service, at the receiver antenna. The calculation method inside the link budget is described in page 169
MAPL
UL/DL: Maximum allowable path loss. The weaker value is considered within the network design process. Explanation on computation is shown in page 169
Slow Fading Margin
UL/DL: called also log-normal margin, measured in dB, added to the path loss calculation in order to increase the coverage probability at the cell border to a certain value.
Interference Margin
UL/DL: a margin measured in dB, added to the link budget in order to compensate the signal degradation due to interference. A value of 3 dB is typical considered. More information on interference margin can be found All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010 in GSM rec. 03.30.
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Body Loss Margin
UL/DL: a margin measured in dB, included to reflect the loss especially experienced if handheld mobiles are used. It is occurring due to partial field absorption in the human body. Typical values are 3 dB and 4 dB. Further details are specified in GSM rec. 03.30.
Penetration Margin
UL/DL: the penetration margin is measured in dB and is given on the service class basis. Consequently, the penetration margin can be an in-car or an indoor margin: ►
In-car margin measured in dB, added due to MS usage in a car. Typically a loss of 6 to 8 dB is assumed.
►
Indoor margin measured in dB, added due to MS usage in indoor environment at ground floor level. Usually, indoor is referred to the first wall and no statement is given for deep indoor coverage. Its range varies from 10 to 18 dB.
►
Deep indoor margin measured in dB, included due to MS usage deep inside the buildings. Its range varies from 13 to 28 dB.
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2.5 Link Budget Calculation
2.5.3 GSM900/1800 Link Budget
GSM900 Link Budget (Example)
TX Internal Power Comb+Filter Loss, Tol. Output Power
MS to BS
BS to MS
Uplink
Downlink
33,0 0,0 33,0
dBm dB dBm
Cable,Connectors Loss
2,0
dB
Body/Indoor Loss
4,0
dB
2,0
Antenna Gain EIRP
29,0
RX
Uplink
Rec. Sensitivity
-104,0
3,0 38,0
dBm dB dBm
3,0
dB
dBi
11,0
dBi
dBm
46,0
dBm
Downlink dBm
Body/Indoor Loss Cables, Connectors Loss
41,0
-102,0
dBm
4,0
dB
3,0
dB
2,0
dB
Antenna Gain
11,0
dBi
2,0
dBi
Diversity Gain
3,0
dB
Interferer Margin
3,0
dB
3,0
dB
Lognormal Margin 50%→
8,0
dB
8,0
dB
Degradation (no FH)
0,0
dB
0,0
dB
Antenna Pre-Ampl.
0,0
dB
90,9%
Isotr. Rec. Power:
Max. Pathloss
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-104,0
133,0
dBm
-87,0
dBm
dB
133,0
dB
2.5 Link Budget Calculation
2.5.4 GSM1800 Link Budget
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TX Internal Power Comb+Filter Loss Output Power Cable+Conn Loss Body/Indoor Loss Antenna Gain EIRP
Uplink 33 dBm - 0 dBm 33 dBm - 2 dB - 4 dB + 2 dBi 29.0 dBm
RX Rec. Sensitivity Body/Indoor Loss Cables, Con. Loss Antenna Gain Diversity Gain Interferer Margin Lognormal Margin
Uplink - 109 dBm
Isotr. Rec. Power Max. Pathloss
- 109 dB 138 dB
+ + +
3 dB 11 dBi 3 dBi 3 dB 8 dB
Downlink 45.4 dBm - 5.3 dBm 40.1 dBm - 3 dBm + 11 dBi 48.1 dBm Downlink - 102 dBm + 4 dB + 2 dB - 2 dBi + 3 dB + 8 dB - 87 dBm 135.1 dB
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2.5 Link Budget Calculation
2.5.5 Additional Losses Overview
Loss type
Reason
Indoor loss
Electrical properties of wall material
20dB (3...30dB)
Incar loss
Brass influencing radio waves
7dB (4...10dB)
Body loss
Absorption of radio waves by the human body Both signal-to-noise ratio and C/I low
3dB (0...8dB)
Receiving the minimum field strength with a higher probability
According to probability
Interferer margin Lognormal margin
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Value
3 dB
2 Coverage Planning
2.6 Coverage Probability
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.1 Indoor propagation aspects Penetration Loss Multiple Refraction Multiple Reflection Exact modeling of indoor environment not possible Practical solution: empirical model!
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.2 Indoor propagation: empirical model
ϕ d
Additional Loss in [dB] relative to loss at vertical incidence
Power relative to power at d=0
Additional attenuation in dB
35 30 25 20 15 10 5
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90
84
78
Angle of incidence in degree
72
66
60
54
48
42
36
30
24
18
6
12
0
0
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d
2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.3 Indoor Penetration Depending on environment Line-of-sight to antenna? Interior unknown general assumptions
-0.3 dB / floor (11th ... 100th floor)
Incident wave
Lindoor = 3 ... 15 dB
-2.7 dB / floor (1st ... 10th floor)
Incident wave
Lindoor = 13 ... 25 dB
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Lindoor = 7 ... 18 dB (ground floor)
Lindoor = 17 ... 28 dB Lindoor = ∞ dB (deep basement)
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.4 Body Loss (1)
Measured attenuation versus time for a test person walking around in an anechoic chamber
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.5 Body Loss (2) Near field of MS antenna •without head •with head
Calculation model
Head modeled as sphere
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.6 Body Loss (3)
Test equipment for indirect field strength measurements
Indirect measured field strength penetrated into the head (horizontal cut)
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.7 Interference Margin In GSM, the defined minimum carrier-to-interferer ration (C/I) threshold of 9 dB is only valid if the received server signal is not too weak. In the case that e.g. the defined system threshold for the BTS of 111dBm is approached, a higher value of C/I is required in order to maintain the speech quality. According to GSM, this is done by taking into a correction of 3 dB.
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.8 Degradation (no FH) GSM uses a frame correction system, which works with checksum coding and convolutional codes. Under defined conditions, this frame correction works successfully and copes even with fast fading types as Rayleigh or Rician fading. For lower mobile speed or stationary use, the fading has a bigger influence on the bit error rate and hence the speech quality is reduced. In such a case, a degradation margin must be applied. The margin depends on the mobile speed and the usage of slow frequency hopping, which can improve the situation for slow mobiles again.
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.9 Diversity Gain This designates the optional usage of a second receiver antenna. The second antenna is placed in a way, which provides some decorrelation of the received signals. In a suitable combiner, the signals are processed in order to achieve a sum signal with a smaller fading variation range. Depending on the receiver type, the signal correlation, and the antenna orientation, a diversity gain from 2…6 dB is possible.
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.10 Lognormal margin Lognormal margin is also called fading margin Due to fading effects, the minimum isotropic power is only received with a certain probability Signal statistics, lognormal distribution with median power value Fmed and standard deviation σ (sigma)
Without any margin, the probability is 50%, which is not a sufficient value in order to provide a good call success rate. A typical design goal should be a coverage probability of 90...95%. The following normalised table can be applied to find fading margins for different values of σ. The fading margin is calculated by multiplying the value of k (in the table) with the standard deviation: Lognormal/Fading Margin = kσ.
k
-∞
-0.5
0
1
1.3
1.65
2
2.33
+∞
Coverage Probability
0%
30%
50%
84%
90%
95%
97.7 %
99%
100 %
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.11 Consideration of Signal Statistics (1)
10
0m
Field strength at location x lognormally distributed arround Fmedian
100 m
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x
BS
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.12 Consideration of Signal Statistics (2)
PDF 0,3 0,25 0,2
Area representing the coverage probability
σ
0,15 0,1 0,05 0
Fthreshold Fmedian
Local coverage probability: 1 · 1 · 186
received signal level F [dBm]
Pcov = P [ F > Fthreshold ]
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probability density function (pdf) Folie large Scale (slow) Fading: The lognormal distribution, described by a mean fieldstrength Fmed and a standard deviation s, is shown in the diagram. A coverage probability Pcov can be calculated, which defines the chance that a certain fieldstrength threshold Fthr is reached or exceeded by the calculated (or predicted) mean fieldstrength level Fmed. The variation of the probability in dependence on Fmed is shown in the diagram. The required difference between Fmed and Fthr in order to achieve a required probability is called the fading margin. Without any margin, the probability is 50% (Fmedian), which is not a sufficient value in order to provide a good call success rate. A typical design goal should be a coverage probability of 90...95%. This can be reached by applying a factor s (Fthreshold). (Additional System margin). -> Next Chapter
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2 Coverage Planning
2.7 Cell Range Calculation
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2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.1 Calculation of Coverage Radius R For what Radius R is the average coverage probability in the cell area 95% ? F rec
Frec,med (r) = EIRP - LossHata (r)
Frec,med (r)
Loss Hata = f(hBS, hMS, f, r) + Kmor
σ
Pcov(r)= P(Frec (r) > Frec,thr) R
2π ∫ Pcov (r) dr ! = 0.95
= 0 πR²
F rec, thr
0
R = f (hBS, hMS, f, Kmor, EIRP, Frec,thr)
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R
r
r = distance between BTS and MS Frec = received power σ = Standard deviation
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2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.2 Coverage Probability
Pcov 0,95
(r)
Pcov = P ( Frec > Frec, thr )
1
0,5
0
r
R 1 · 1 · 189
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2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.3 Coverage Ranges and Hata Correction Factors
Area Coverage Probability 100%
95%
Reference Pathloss [dB]
90% 155
Pcov
150 145
85%
140 135 130
Clutter type Skyscrapers Dense urban Medium urban Lower urban Residential Industrial zone Forest Agricultural Low tree density Water Open area
Cor [dB] σ [dB] 0 6 2 6 4 7 6 7 8 6 10 10 8 8 20 6 15 8 27 5 27 6
125
80%
120 115 110
75%
Calculation conditions: 70% 0,0
1,5
3,0
4,5
6,0
7,5
9,0
Correction = 3; Sigma = 7 hBS = 30 m; hMS = 1.7m; f = 900 Mhz
10,5
d [km]
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The lognormal distribution, described by a mean fieldstrength Fmed and a standard deviation s, is shown in in the left diagram. A coverage probability Pcov can be calculated, which defines the chance that a certain fieldstrength threshold Fthr is reached or exceeded by the calculated (or predicted) mean fieldstrength level Fmed. This probability is represented by the area enclosed by the graph of the probability density function and the vertical line at F=Fthr in the left diagram. The variation of the probability in dependence on Fmed is shown in the right diagram. The required difference between Fmed and Fthr in order to achieve a required probability is called the fading margin. Without any margin, the probability is 50%, which is not a sufficient value in order to provide a good call success rate. A typical design goal should be a coverage probability of 90...95%. The following normalized table can be applied to find fading margins for different values of s. The fading margin is calculated by multiplying the value of k (in the table) with the standard deviation (Fading Margin = k s).
k
-∞
-0.5
0
1
1.3
1.65
2
2.33
+∞
Coverage Probability
0%
30%
50%
84%
90%
95%
97.7%
99%
100%
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2.7 Cell Range Calculation
TX and RX
TX
2.7.4 Conventional BTS Configuration
1 BTS Omnidirectional antenna for both TX and RX Coverage Range R0 Coverage Area A0
ALCATEL EvoliumTM
R0
TX → 45.4 dBm RX → -109dBm
A0
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2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.5 Coverage Improvement by Antenna Diversity
one for both RX and TX one for RXDIV RXDIV
TX and TX RX
1 BTS Omnidirectional antennas Antenna diversity gain (2...6 dB) Example: 3 dB
Coverage range RDiv = 1.23 · R0 Coverage area ADiv = 1.5 · A0
R0
ALCATEL EvoliumTM
TX → 45.4 dBm RX → -109dBm
A0 ADiv 1 · 1 · 192
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RDiv
2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.6 Radiation Patterns and Range
sector omni
3 antennas at sector site, Gain: 18 dBi, HPBW: 65°
1 · 1 · 193
Resulting antenna footprint ("cloverleaf") compared to an 11 dBi omni antenna
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2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.7 Improvement by Antenna Diversity and Sectorization
TX
RXDIV
3 BTS Directional antennas (18 dBi) Antenna diversity (3 dB) Max. coverage range Rsec,div = 1.95 · R0 Coverage area Asec,div = 3 · A0
R0
ALCATEL EvoliumTM ALCATEL EvoliumTM
Rsec,div
ALCATEL EvoliumTM
Asec,div
1 · 1 · 194
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2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.8 Improvement by Antenna Preamplifier
RXDIV
3 BTS Directional antennas (18 dBi) Antenna diversity (3 dB) Antenna preamplifier (3dB) Max. coverage range Rsec,div,pre = 2.22 · R0 Coverage area Asec,div,pre = 3.9 · A0
TX
General: Asec = g · A0 g: Area gain factor
R0
ALCATEL EvoliumTM
Rsec,div,pre
ALCATEL EvoliumTM ALCATEL EvoliumTM
1 · 1 · 195
Asec,div,pre
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2 Coverage Planning
2.8 Antenna Engineering
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.1 Omni Antennas
Application Large area coverage Umbrella cell for micro cell layer
Advantages Continuous coverage around the site Simple antenna mounting Ideal for homogeneous terrain
Drawbacks No mechanical tilt possible Clearance of antenna required Densification of network difficult
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.2 Sector Antenna
Antenna with horizontal HPBW of e.g. 90° or 65° Advantages Coverage can be focussed on special areas Low coverage of areas of no interest (e.g. forest) Allows high traffic load Additional mechanical downtilt possible Wall mounting possible
Drawbacks More frequencies needed per site compared to omni sites More hardware needed Lower coverage area per sector
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.3 Typical Applications
Wide horizontal beam width (e.g. 90°) For areas with few reflecting and scattering objects (rural area) Area coverage for 3-sector sites Sufficient cell overlap to allow successful handovers
Small horizontal beam width (e.g. 65°) For areas with high scattering (city areas) Coverage between sectors by scattering and by adjacent sites (mostly site densification in urban areas)
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.4 Antenna Tilt
Downtilting of the Antenna main beam related to the horizontal line Goals: Reduction of overshoot Removal of insular coverage Lowering the interference Coverage improvement of the near area (indoor coverage) Adjustment of cell borders (handover zones)
Mechanical / Electrical or Combined downtilt
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.5 Mechanical Downtilt Advantages Later adjustment of vertical tilt possible Antenna diagram is not changed, i.e. nulls and side lobes remain in their position relative to the main beam Cost effective (single antenna type may be used) Fast adjustments possible
Drawbacks Side lobes are less tilted Accurate adjustment is difficult Problems for sites with difficult access
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.6 Electrical Downtilt
τ=0
Advantages Same tilt for both main and side lobes downtilt angle Antenna mounting is more simple adjustment errors
Drawbacks
τ=t → no
τ = delay time Introduction of additional antenna types necessary New antenna installation at the site if downtilting is introduced Long antenna optimization phase Adjustment of electrical tilt mostly not possible
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τ=2t τ=3t
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.7 Combined Downtilt Combination of both mechanical and electrical downtilt High electrical downtilt: Distinct range reduction in sidelobe direction (interference reduction) Less mechanical uptilt in main beam direction
Choose sector antennas with high electrical downtilt (6°...8°) and apply mechanical uptilt installation for optimum coverage range in main beam direction
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.8 Assessment of Required Tilts
Required tilt is estimated using Geometrical Optics Consideration of Vertical HPBW of the antenna Antenna height above ground Height difference antenna/location to be covered Morpho-structure in the vicinity of the antenna Topography between transmitter and receiver location
Tilt must be applied for both TX and RX antennas!
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.9 Inter Site Distance in Urban Area Using sectorized sites with antennas of 65° horizontal half power beam width The sidelobe is approximately reduced by 10dB. This is a reduction of cell range to 50%. X A
B
X
The inter site distance calculation factor depends on Type of antenna Type of morpho class Multi path propagation Scattering Sigma (fading variations)
R2
1 · 1 · 205
0.5* R2
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2.8.10 Downtilt in Urban Area
Site A
Tilt 2
Tilt 2
M ai n
e ob el d i S
be am
Cell range R2
0.5* R2
Inter Site Distance A-B = 1.5* R2
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Site B
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.11 Downtilt in Urban Area The upper limit of the vertical half power beam width is directed towards the ground at maximum cell range Upper –3dB point of the vertical antenna pattern
To be used in areas with Multi path propagation condition Good scattering of the beam
Aim Reduction of interference
Optimization Coverage Optimization in isolated cases using less downtilt Interference Reduction in isolated cases using more downtilt
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.12 Downtilt in Suburban and Rural Area Downtilt planning for Suburban Rural Highway Coverage
The main beam is directed towards the ground at maximum cell range
Tilt 1
Tilt 1
Site C
Ma in b
Site D eam in b Ma
eam
Cell range R1
Cell range R1
Inter Site Distance C-D = 2* R1
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.13 Antenna configurations Rx/Tx
Application of Duplexer Consists of a TX/RX Filter and a combiner one antenna can be saved
Tower Mounted Amplifier (TMA) Increase Uplink Sensitivity TMA needs to have TX by => in case of duplexer usage
Diversity
Duplex Filter
Space diversity Polarization diversity
Tx Rx To BTS 1 · 1 · 209
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.14 Antenna Configurations for Omni and Sector Sites Antenna Configurations for Omni and Sector Sites Sector antenna
Pole mounting for roof-top mounting
Bracons
Rxdiv
Tx
Rxdiv
Rx
Rx
Tx
Pole
Sector Antenna
Pole Tower mounting for omni antennas
1 · 1 · 210
Tower mounting for directional antennas
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Pole mounting for wall or parapet mounting
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.15 Three Sector Antenna Configuration with AD
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.16 Antenna Engineering Rules
Distortion of antenna pattern: No obstacles within Antenna near field range HPBW Rule plus security margin of 20° First fresnel ellipsoid range (additional losses!)
TX-RX Decoupling to avoid blocking and intermodulation Required minimum separation of TX - RX antennas dependent on antenna configuration (e.g. duplexer or not)
Diversity gain Required antenna separation for space diversity
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.17 Distortion of antenna pattern
Antenna Near Field Range: Rmin = 2D²/λ D = Aperture of antenna (e.g. 3m) => Rmin = 60 / 120m for GSM / DCS
HPBW Rule with securtiy margin of 20° and tilt α
ϕ
H
Roof Top = Obstacle D 1 · 1 · 213
ϕ = HPBW/2 + 20° + α D[m] 1 5 10 H[m] 0.5 2.5 5 HPBW = 8°, α = 2°
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.18 Tx-Rx Decoupling (1) Out of Band Blocking Requirement (GSM Rec. 11.21) GSM 900 GSM 1800
= +8 dBm = 0 dBm
Required Decoupling TX-TX TX-RX GSM TX-RX DCS
(n = number of transmitters)
= 20 dB = 30 + 10 log (n) dB = 40 + 10 log (n) dB
Receiver Pout Characteristic
P [dBm] fuse
-13
-101
TX
fint
RX
n*200kHz
fuse
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fint
P1dB
f[MHz]
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Pblock
Pin
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.19 TX-RX Decoupling (2) Horizontal separation (Approximation) Isolation for Horizontal Separation - omni 11dBi 45
dH
I =22+20log(d/λ)-(G +G ) [dB] H
H
T
Isolation [dB]
40
GSM1800
35 30
GSM900
25
R
20
Separation [m ]
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14 14 ,4 14 ,8 15 ,2
12 12 ,4 12 ,8 13 ,2 13 ,6
5, 7 6, 7 7, 7 8, 7 9, 7 10 ,4 10 ,8 11 ,2 11 ,6
1, 7 2, 7 3, 7 4, 7
15
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.20 TX-RX Decoupling (3)
Vertical separation (Approximation) Isolation for Vertical Separation 70 60
dv
dm
GSM1800
40 30
GSM900
20
I =28+40log(d /λ) [dB] V
50 Isolation [dB]
Mast
V
10 0 0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6 Separation [m]
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0,7
0,8
0,9
1
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.21 Space Diversity Required separation for max. diversity gain = F(λ)
RXA dV
dH RXA
RXB
For a sufficient low correlation coefficient ρ < 0.7: dH = 20λ => GSM 900: 6m / GSM1800: 3m dV = 15λ => GSM 900: 4.5m / GSM1800: 2.25m
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RXB
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.22 Power Divider Power dividers connect several antennas to one feeder cable
Quasi-Omni Configuration
For combination of individual antenna patterns for a requested configuration Quasi-omni configuration Bidirectional configuration (road coverage)
4-to-1 Power splitter (6 dB loss)
To BTS: Duplexer output (TX plus RX diversity) 1 · 1 · 218
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To BTS: Receiver input
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.23 Power Divider
Power divider Also called "power splitter" or "junction box" ive device (works in both (transmit and receive) direction) Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
Pin
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
3 dB
Pin
1 · 1 · 219
4.5 dB
Pin
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6 dB
Pin
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.24 Configurations (1) Radial Arrangement of 6 Antennas with horizontal beamwidth = 105 ° gain = 16.5 dBi, mast radius = 0.425 m, mounting radius = 0.575 m
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.25 Configurations (2) Example 2: Quasi Omni Arrangement of 3 antennas with horizontal beamwidth = 105 °, gain =13.5 dBi, mounting radius = 4 m
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.26 Configurations (3) Example 3: Skrew Arrangement
of 4 Antennas with horizontal beamwidth = 65 °, gain = 12.5 dBi, mast radius = 1 m, mounting radius = 1.615 m
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2.8 Antenna Engineering 2.8.27 Feeders
Technical summary Inner conductor: Copper wire Dielectric:
Low density foam PE Inner conductor Outer conductor
Outer conductor: Corrugated copper tube Jacket:
Polyethylene (PE) black Dielectric
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Jacket
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.28 Feeder Installation Set and Connectors
1 Cable Clamps 2 Antenna Cable 3 Double Bearing 4 Counterpart 5 Anchor tape
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7/16 Connector: Coaxial Connector Robust Good RF-Performance
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.29 Feeder Parameters
Type
Minimum bending radius
Jacket (outer diameter)
Weight (m)
Recommended clamp spacing
Single bending
Repeated bending
LCF 1/2’’
70 mm
210 mm
16 mm
0.35 kg
0.6 m
LCF 7/8’’
120 mm
360 mm
28 mm
0.62 kg
0.8 m
LCF 1 5/8’’
300 mm
900 mm
49.7 mm
1.5 kg
1.2 m
GSM 900 Type LCF 1/2“ LCF 7/8“ LCF 1_5/8“
Attenuation /100 m [dB] 6.6 4.0 2.6
GSM 1800
Recommended max length [m] 45 75 115
Attenuation /100 m [dB] 10.3 6.0 4.0
Recommended max length [m] 30 50 75
GSM 1900 Attenuation /100 m [dB] 10.6 6.3 4.2
These values are based on feeder types with an impedance of 50 ohms
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Recommended max length [m] 28 47 71
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.30 Feeder attenuation (1)
Main contribution is given by feeder loss Feeder Cable 4dB/100m => length 50m Loss =2.0dB Jumper Cable 0.066dB/1m => 5m Loss =0.33dB Insertion Loss of connector and power splitter < 0.1dB Total Loss 2.0dB+2x0.33dB+5x0.1dB+0.1dB =3.26dB
Cable type is trade off between Handling flexibility Cost Attenuation
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2.8 Antenna Engineering 2.8.31 Radiating Cables
Provide coverage in Tunnels, buildings, along side tracks or lines Principle: Radiate a weak but constant electromagnetic wave Suitable for coverage over longer distances (Repeater) Fieldstrength distribution more constant as with antennas
Repeater
F F
F Thr
1 · 1 · 227
F
Thr
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Terminating Load
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.32 Components of a radiating cable system
Components are shown with black lines N-connections Radiating cable
Tx
Termination load
BTS Rx
Jumper cabel
Mounting clips with 50 mm wall standoff
1-leg radiating cable system
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Earthing kit
2.8.33 Comparison of field strength: Radiating cable and standard antenna
-40 -50
[dBm]
-60
Cable attenuation between the antennas
-70 -80
Radiating cable field strength
-90 -100
Antenna field strength
-110 Distance
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.34 Example of a radiating cable in a tunnel
Example of a radiating cable in a tunnel
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.35 Microwave antennas, feeders and accessories
Microwave point to point systems use highly directional antennas Gain 4π A e G = 10 lg
with
λ2
G = gain over isotropic, in dBi A = area of antenna aperture e = antenna efficiency
Used antenna types parabolic antenna high performance antenna horn lens antenna horn antenna
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.36 Parabolic antenna Parabolic dish, illuminated by a feed horn at its focus Available sizes: 1’ (0.3 m) up to 16’ (4.8 m) Sizes over 4’ seldom used due to installation restrictions Single plane polarized feed vertical (V) or horizontal (H) Also: dual polarized feeder (DP), with separate V and H connections (lower gain) Front-to-back ratios of 45 dB not high enough for back-to-back configuration on the same frequency Antenna patterns are absolutely necessary for interference calculations
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Parabolic dish, illuminated by a feed horn at its focus. Available in a wide variety of sizes [1’ (0.3 m), 2’ (0.6 m), 4’ (1.2 m), 6’ (1.8 m), 8’ (2.4 m), 10’ (3.0 m) and sometimes up to 16’ (4.8 m) in most frequency bands. Sizes over 4’ are seldom used due to the installation restrictions on private buildings Mostly with single plane polarised feed, which can be either vertical (V) or horizontal (H) Dual polarized feeds (DP), with separate V and H connections possible DP`s usually have lower gain than single polarized antennas Front-to-back ratios of about 45 dB are not high enough to use these antennas back-to-back on the same frequency (interference calculations) Antenna patterns are absolutely necessary for interference calculations
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.37 High performance antenna Similar to common parabolic antenna, except for attached cylindrical shield Improvement of front-to-back ratio and wide angle radiation discrimination Available in same sizes as parabolic, single or dual polarized Substantially bigger, heavier, and more expensive than parabolic antennas Allow back-to-back transmission at the same frequency in both directions (refer to interference calculation)
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Similar to the common parabolic antenna, except for an attached cylindrical shield Improvement of the front-to-back ratio, and wide angle radiation discrimination Available in the same sizes as parabolic ones, either single or double polarised Substantially bigger, heavier, and more expensive than the ordinary parabolics Allow back-to-back transmision at the same frequency in both directions (refer to interference calculation)
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.38 Horn antennas Horn lens antenna For very high frequencies > 25 GHz Replacement for small parabolic antennas (1’) Same electrical data, but easier to install due to size and weight Horn reflector antenna Large parabola, energy from the feed horn is reflected at right angle (90°) Gain like 10’ parabolic antenna (60 dBi), but higher front-to-back ratios > 70 dB
Big and heavy, requires a complex installation procedure Only used on high capacity microwave backbones (e.g. MSC-MSC interconnections)
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Horn lens antenna Only available for very high frequencies (above 25 Ghz) Replacement for small parabolic antennas (1’) Electrical data nearly the same, but easier to install due to their size and weight Horn reflector antenna Consists of a very large parabola, mounted at such an angle that the energy from the feed horn is reflected at right angle (90°) Gain in the region of a 10’ parabolic antenna (60 dBi), but it has much higher front-to-back ratios ( 70 dB or more) Very big, heavy and requires a complex installation procedure Only used on high capacity microwave backbones (example: MSC-MSC interconnections).
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.39 Specific Microwave Antenna Parameters (1) Cross polarization discrimination (XPD) highest level of cross polarisation radiation relative to the main beam; should be > 30 dB for parabolic antennas
Inter-port isolation isolation between the two ports of dual polarised antennas; typical value: better than 35 dB
Return loss (VSWR) Quality value for the adaption of antenna impedance to the impedance of the connection cable Return loss is the ratio of the reflected power to the power fed at the antenna input (typical> 20 dB)
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.40 Specific Microwave Antenna Parameters (2)
Radiation pattern envelope (RPE) Tolerance specification for antenna pattern (specification of antenna pattern itself not suitable due to manufacturing problems) Usually available from manufacturer in vertical and horizontal polarisation (worst values of several measurements) Weight Wind load
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.41 Data sheet 15 GHz
Bandwidth Model number Nominal diameter
(GHz)
Half-power beamwidth Gain low band Gain mid band Gain high band Front-to-back ratio Cross polar discrimination Return loss
(deg) (dBi) (dBi) (dBi) (dB) (dB) (dB)
2.3 36.2 36.5 36.7 42 28 26
1.2 42.3 42.5 42.8 48 30 26
0.8 45.8 46.0 46.3 52 30 28
Weight Windload Elevation adjustment
(kg)
19
43
73
(deg)
+/- 5
+/- 5
+/- 5
(m) (ft)
14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35 PA 2 - 144 PA 4 - 144 PA 6 - 144 0.6 1.2 1.8 2 4 6
Parabolic antenna 15 GHz
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Bandwidth Model number Nominal diameter
(GHz)
Half-power beamwidth Gain low band Gain mid band Gain high band Front-to-back ratio Cross polar discrimination Return loss
(deg) (dBi) (dBi) (dBi) (dB) (dB) (dB)
2.3 36.2 36.5 36.7 65 28 26
1.2 42.3 42.5 42.8 68 30 26
0.8 45.8 46.0 46.3 68 30 26
Weight Windload Elevation adjustment
(kg)
28
55
130
(deg)
+/- 12
+/- 12
+/- 12
(m) (ft)
14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35 DA2 - 144 DA4 - 144 DA6 - 144 0.6 1.2 1.8 2 4 6
High performance antenna 15 GHz
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2.8.42 Radiation pattern envelope
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Depending on the frequency coaxial cables and waveguides are used for the transmission of RF energy 2.8radio Antenna Engineering between systems and antennas. The most important characteristic of feeders is their loss, but also 2.8.43 Feeders their impedance (return loss). (1)
Coaxial cables or waveguides (according to frequency) Most important characteristic: loss and return loss Coaxial cables Used between 10 MHz and 3 GHz Dielectric material: foam or air Parameters of common coaxial cables:
type
dielectric
diameter (mm)
loss (dB/100m)
power rating (kW)
bending radius (mm)
LCF 1/2’ CU2Y
foam
16.0
0.47
200
LCF 7/8’ CU2Y
foam
28.0
0.95
360
LCF 1 5/8’ CU2Y
foam
49.7
10,9 / 2 GHz 13.8 / 3 GHz 6.5 / 2 GHz 8.5 / 3 GHz 4.4 / 2 GHz 5.6 / 3 GHz
1.7
380
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.44 Feeders (2)
Waveguides Used for frequency bands above 2.5 GHz Three basic types available: circular, elliptical and rectangular
Rigid circular waveguide Very low loss s two orthogonal polarisations Capable to carry more than one frequency band Usually, short components of this type are used Disadvantages: cost, handling and moding problems
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2.8.45 Feeders (3) Elliptical semiflexible waveguides Acceptable loss, good VSWR performance Low cost and easy to install Various types optimised for many frequency bands up to 23 GHz Used for longer distances (easy and flexible installation) Can be installed as a "single run" (no intermediate flanges)
1 · 1 · 241
type
loss /100 m
Frequency
EW 34 EW 52 EW 77 EW 90 EW 220
2.0 4.0 5.8 10.0 28.0
4 GHz 6GHz 8GHz 11 GHz 23 GHz
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2.8.46 Feeders (4) Solid and flexible rectangular waveguides Solid rectangular waveguides Combination of low VSWR and low loss High cost and difficult to install Used for realising couplers, combiners, filters
1 · 1 · 242
type
loss /100 m
Frequency
WR 229 WR159 WR112 WR 90 WR 75
2.8 4.5 8.5 11.7 15.0
4 GHz 6GHz 8GHz 11 GHz 13 GHz
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.47 Feeders (5)
Flexible rectangular waveguides Worse VSWR and losses than for solid waveguides Often used in short lengths (<1 m), where position between connection points depends on actual installation place Common applications: connection of microwave system to antenna (close together on rooftops or towers) for frequencies >13 Ghz
1 · 1 · 243
type
loss / m
Frequency
PDR140 PDR180 PDR220
0.5 1 2
15GHz 18 GHz 23 GHz
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.48 Antenna feeder systems (1) Direct radiating system Most commonly used for frequencies up to 13 Ghz Depending on accepted feeder loss/length, higher frequencies may be possible Excessive attenuation and costs in long runs of wave guide Occurence of echo distortion due to mismatch in long runs of waveguide possible
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.49 Antenna feeder systems (2) Periscope antenna system Used for considerable antenna heights waveguide installation problems
Negligible wave guide cost and easy installation System gain is a function of antenna and reflector size, distance and frequency Used above 4 GHz , because reflector size is prohibitive for lower frequencies
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.50 Antenna feeder systems (3) Combined antenna with transceiver Antenna and transceiver are combined as a single unit to cut out wave guide loss (higher frequencies) Units are mounted on top of a mast and connected to multiplex equipment via cable
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2 Coverage Planning
2.9 Alcatel BSS
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.1 Architecture of BTS - Evolium Evolution A9100 Air interface
3 levels Antenna network stage
Antenna network stage
ANC or ANB (note)
ANC
Antenna coupling level Combiner stage (ANY)
TRX level
TRX
BCF level
TRX
TRX
TRX
TRX
TRX
TRX
TRX
Combiner stage (ANY)
TRX
TRX
TRX
TRX
Station unit module Abis interface
Abbreviations BCF
Base station Control Function
TRX
Transceiver
Note 1 : ANB module is limited to 2 TRX in No TX Div mode and to 1 TRX in TX Div mode. 1 · 1 · 248
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Antenna coupling level The general functions performed at this level are: - Duplexing transmit and receive paths onto common antennas; - Feeding the received signals from the antenna to the receiver front end, where the signals are amplified and distributed to the different receivers (Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) and power splitter functions); - Providing filtering for the transmit and the receive paths; - Combining, if necessary, output signals of different transmitters and connecting them to the antenna(s); - Supervising antennas VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio). -Powering and supervising TMA through the feeder. The Antenna Network Combiner (ANC) module - one duplexer allowing a single antenna to be used for the transmission and reception of both downlink and uplink channels- hence minimizing the number of antenna - a frequency selective VSWR meter to monitor antenna feeder and antenna - one LNA amplifying the receive RF signal, and giving good VSWR values, noise compression and good reliability - two splitter levels distributing the received signal to four separate outputs so that each output receives the signal from its dedicated antenna and from the second one (diversity) - one Wide Band Combiner (WBC), concentrating two transmitter outputs into one, only for configurations with more than two TRX - insertion of 12V DC current in the feeder in order to provide power to TMAs when TMAs are used; there is thus no need for separate Power Distribution Unit (PDU) nor Bias-Tee (Feeder Lightning protections, that come with the ANC in case of outdoor BTSs, are themselves of a new type, compatible with this DC power feeding) (This function is only available with the new Evolution version of this module; it can be disabled, even if TMAs are used, in case those TMAs have their own PDUs).
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.2 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (1) The Antenna network Combiner (ANc)- no-combining mode Antenna A TXA - RXA - RXdivB
Antenna B TXB- RXB - RXdivA
Duplexer
Duplexer
Filter Filter
Filter Filter
By- function
WBC
LNA
LNA
Splitter
Splitter
Splitter
Splitter
Splitter
Splitter
By- function
WBC
RXd RXn TX
TX RXn RXd
TRX 1
TRX 2
No-combining mode & No TX Div mode 1 · 1 · 249
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The No-combining mode for configuration up to 2 TRX if TX Diversity is not used, or up to one TRX if TX Diversity is used (two TRX ports must then be connected to the two Antenna Connector ports of a same Twin TRX module); in these cases, the Wide Band Combiner is not needed, and therefore byed
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.3 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (2) The Antenna network Combiner (ANc)- Combining mode & No TX Div mode Antenna A TXA - RXA - RXdivB
Antenna B TXB- RXB - RXdivA
Duplexer
Duplexer
Filter
W BC
Filter
Filter LNA
LNA
Splitter
Splitter
Splitter
Splitter
Splitter
TX RXn RXd
TX RXn RXd
RXdRXn TX
TRX 1
TRX 2
TRX 3
1 · 1 · 250
Splitter
Filter
W BC
RXd RXn TX TRX 4
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The Combining mode for configuration from 3 up to 4 TRX if TX Diversity is not used, or up to 2 TRX if TX Diversity is used (two TRX ports must then be connected to the two Antenna Connector ports of a same Twin TRX module); in these cases, the Wide Band combiner is not byed, as shown in the figure
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.4 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (3) The Twin Wide Band Combiner stage (ANY) combines up to four transmitters into two outputs, and distributes the two received signals up to four receivers. This module includes twice the same structure, each structure containing: ●one wide band combiner (WBC), concentrating two transmitter outputs into one ● two splitters, each one distributing the received signal to two separate outputs providing diversity and non-diversity path
ANy: Twin Wide Band Combiner Stage TXA
RXA
WBC
TX
RX
Splitter Splitter
RXdiv
TRX 1 1 · 1 · 251
RXAdiv
TX
RX
RXdiv
TRX 2
RXBdiv
RXB
TXB
Splitter Splitter
Rxdiv RX
TX
TRX 3
WBC
Rxdiv RX
TX
TRX 4
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.5 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features Standard Features according to GSM DR (Dual Rate), EFR (Enhanced Full Rate coder), AMR (Adaptive Multi Rate) requires that the BSS software release and the other network elements also these codecs HW s GSM 850, E-GSM, GSM 900, GSM 1800 and GSM 1900 bands Multi Band Capabilities (ing of 850/1800 TRX, 850/1900TRX, and, 900 /1800 can be located in the same cabinet) All known A5 algorithms to be ed; HW provisions done
Standard Features due to new Architecture and new SW Releases SUS (Station Unit Sharing) Only one central control unit (SUM) for all BTS per cabinet Multiband BTS (GSM 900/1800) in one cabinet Static (Release 4) and statistical (Release 6) submultiplexing on Abis Better use of Abis-interface capacity: More BTS/TRX to be ed in a multidrop loop
Introduction of GPRS and HSCSD without HW changes EDGE compatible TRX
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● The BTS range s A5/1 and A5/2 ciphering algorithms; ● A5/0 = ‘no ciphering’ is always ed. ● The TRX are hardware ready for A5/3.
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.6 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features [cont.] Features specific to Radio Performance TX Output Power (at TRX output) TX output power, GMSK
TX output power, 8-PSK (EDGE)
GSM 850
Frequency band
45 W = 46.5 dBm
15 W = 41.8 dBm
GSM 900 MP (*)
45 W = 46.5 dBm
30 W = 44.8 dBm
GSM 900 HP
60 W = 47.8 dBm
30 W = 44.8 dBm
GSM 1800 MP (*)
35 W = 45.4 dBm
30 W = 44.8 dBm
GSM 1800 HP
60 W = 47.8 dBm
30 W = 44.8 dBm
GSM 1900
45 W = 46.5 dBm
25 W = 44.0 dBm
RX Sensitivity:
-111 dBm certified (GSM|ETSI| request: -104 dBm) Synthesized Frequency Hopping as general solution Standard RF hopping mode Pseudo baseband RF hopping mode
Antenna Diversity in general Two or four antennas (RX) per sector TX Diversity feature is possible with Twin TRX module in coverage mode only.
Duplexer (TX and RX on one antenna) as general solution Multiband capabilities Thanks to the high flexibility of the EVOLIUM™ A9100 Base Station, GSM 850 and GSM 1800 TRXs or GSM 850 and GSM 1900 TRXs or GSM 900 and GSM 1800 TRXs or GSM 900 and GSM 1900 TRXs can be located in the same cabinet with a single Station Unit Module (SUM). 1 · 1 · 253
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(*) Note that for the Twin TRX, the TX output powers above are in capacity mode, i.e. each of the functional TRX achieves these output powers. In coverage mode, i.e. with Tx Diversity, a significant extra gain has to be considered (see "TX Diversity" chapter) thanks to on-air combining and diversity. ● The diagram below shows that 4RX Diversity requires two Antenna Network modules per sector, thereby
needing either 4 vertical-polarized or 2 cross-polarized antennas. TX1 RX1
TX2 RX3
RX2 0
A n te n n a N e tw o rk
RX4
A n te n n a N e tw o rk
TW IN TRX
Figure : Twin TRX module in TX Div & 4 RX div
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.6 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features [cont.] Capacity Mode Principle 1 TWIN module = 2 functional TRX 1 Housing = 2 functional TRX = 16 radio timeslots Same Radio Performances as EDGE + TRX Medium Power
Tx Tx:: Rx Rx::
T R X
TRX TRX
TRX 1
TRX 2
GSM GSM 900 900 ::45 45W WGMSK GMSK//30 30W W8PSK 8PSK GSM 1800 : 35 W GMSK / 30 W 8PSK GSM 1800 : 35 W GMSK / 30 W 8PSK Sensitivity Sensitivity< <-114 -114dBm dBm
(-114 (-114toto-117 -117dBm dBmwith with22Rx Rxdiversity diversity––environment environmentdependent) dependent)
Reduced Power Consumption
Saving Savingper perTRX TRX(vs. (vs.TRX TRXEDGE+): EDGE+): --17 % in GSM 900 17 % in GSM 900 --35 35%%ininGSM GSM1800 1800 1 · 1 · 254
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2 TRXs can belong to different sectors
2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.6 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features [cont.] Coverage Mode Principle Higher Output Power 1 TWIN module = 1 functional TRX = 8 radio TS 2 RX & 4 RX diversity possible TX diversity used ( very high coverage) Gain in sites (less sites needed) This mode is also called TX div mode Up to 12 TRX in MBI5/MBO2 cabinets
Higher Sensitivity
Tx Tx::
GSM GSM900 900::113 113to to175 175W W(*) (*)GMSK GMSK GSM 1800 : 88 to 136 W (*) GMSK GSM 1800 : 88 to 136 W (*) GMSK
Rx Rx::
Equ. Equ.sensitivity sensitivity= =-117.4 -117.4to to--121 121dBm dBm(*) (*)(4RX (4RXdiv) div) dependent) (*)(*) environment environment dependent)
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.6 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features [cont.] 2 RX Diversity The TRX module s enhanced diversity combining in all frequency bands, which is based on several algorithms: A beam-forming algorithm to improve the received signal by steering a beam in the direction of the mobile. This is one way of doing smart antennas, An algorithm to reduce interference: this mitigates the influence of interferers by steering a null beam in the direction of the main interferer (the phase difference between the two antennas for the strongest interfering signal is estimated and then this interfering signal is strongly attenuated by summing the signals with an inversed phase). strong interferer
Environment
Total 2RX diversity gain
Equivalent RX sensitivity (without TMA)
Dense Urban (TU3)
6 dB
-117dBm
Sub Urban (TU50)
5 dB
-116dBm
Rural (RA100)
3.5 dB
-114.5dBm
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2.9.6 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features [cont.] 4 RX Diversity 4 RX diversity is ed by the Twin TRX module in coverage mode only. It uses exactly the same algorithms as for 2Rx diversity, i.e. beam-forming techniques are implemented. The table below provides the typical gains achieved thanks to 4RX enhanced Diversity and the equivalent Rx sensitivity that can be considered for link budget calculations.
Environment
Total 4RX diversity gain
Equivalent RX sensitivity (without TMA)
Dense Urban (TU3)
10 dB
-121dBm
Sub Urban (TU50)
8.6 dB
-119.6dBm
Rural (RA100) 6.4 dB 4 RX diversity also provides significant benefits for-117.4dBm GPRS/EDGE since it allows achieving higher throughputs for given radio conditions.
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2.9.7 Generic Configurations for A9100 G4/5 BTS The configurations for indoor (MBI) and outdoor (MBO) cabinet are presented in the next slides larger configurations with more than one cabinet can be derived from the tables configurations are valid for EDGE capable TRX (Evolution step 2) availability of multiband configurations other than GSM 900 / GSM 1800 must be checked with product management (authorization required) Notation: BBU - Battery Backup Unit BATS - Small Battery Backup LBBU - Large Battery Backup Unit
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TWIN TWIN TWIN TWIN
TRX
TRX
TRX
TRX
TWIN TWIN
S U M
A N C
TWIN TWIN A N Y
A N Y
A N C TRX
Indoor MBI5 3x8
TRX
TWIN TWIN A N Y
A N Y
A N C TRX
Available space for either: • Mounting Frame for 19" equipment (6U) • Battery
A N Y
A N Y TRX
TWIN TWIN
TRX
TWIN TWIN
TRX
A//DC conversion
TRX
TWIN TWIN A N Y TRX
A N C
TWIN TWIN
TRX
A N C
TRX
A N Y
TRX
A N Y TRX
A N C
TRX
A N Y
Available space for either: • Mounting Frame for 19" equipment (6U) • Battery
A N Y
S U M
TRX
TWIN TWIN A N Y TRX
TRX
Mounting Frame for 19" equipment (3U)
TWIN TWIN TWIN TWIN
TRX
TRX
TRX
TRX
Outdoor MBO2 3x8
Stand
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.8 Non multi-band configurations Sectors
Min TRX
Max TRX per sector
per sect.
MBI3
AC
AC
BU5
other
Notes
MBI5 (Note 4)
DC
AC
AC
AC
BU90
BU5
Other
CBO
DC
AC
DC
MBO1 Evolut ion
MBO2 Evolut ion
Frequency bands
Standard(3) no TX div
1
1
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
4
6
8
8
900/1800
(2)
Standard(3) no TX div
2
1
4
4
6
8
8
8
8
2
3
6
8
900/1800
(2)
Standard(3) no TX div
3
1
2
2
4
4
4
6
8
1*
2
4
8
* No BU5
900/1800
(2)
Standard(3) no TX div
4
1
2
2
4
4
4
6
2**
6
* No BU5 ** MBO1 Evo. only
900/1800
(2)
Low-loss no TX div
1
3
8
10
12
16
16
16
16
12
16
900/1800
(2)
Low-loss no TX div
2
3
3
4
6
8
10
10
12
6
12
900/1800
(2)
Low-loss no TX div
3
3
4
6
6
8
8
900/1800
(2)
Standard TX div & 2 RX div
1
1
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
2
2
4
4
900/1800
(2)
Standard TX div & 2 RX div
2
1
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
1
1
2
4
900/1800
(2)
Standard TX div & 2 RX div
3
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
900/1800
(2)
2
2
2
900/1800
(2)
2
2
900/1800
(2)
2
900/1800
(2)
Low loss TX div & 4 RX div
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Low loss TX div & 4 RX div
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Low loss TX div & 4 RX div
3
1
2
2
2
2
4
2
6
Note 1: "AC other" is referring to the Indoor AC configurations without integrated battery, i.e. either with no battery, or with batteries in an external cabinet. Note 2: Frequency bands: new modules are available initially in GSM 900 and GSM 1800 frequency band; they will be available in a second step in GSM 850 and GSM 1900, on market request. Note 3: As described in chapter "Standard configurations" above, "Standard" is referring to configurations with 1 Antenna Network per sector, and are thus limited to 8 TRXs per sector. Configurations with more than 8 TRXs per sector need two Antenna Networks per sector; such configurations are called "Low-loss" and described in a separate section of the table. Note 4: With MBI5, more than 18 TRX per cabinet is only possible with DC cabinets (and using TWIN modules) and more precisely with functional variant 3BK 25965 ABxx of these cabinets, that has become since end 2006 the standard delivery; MBI5 with functional variant 3BK 25965 AAxx, are limited to 18 TRX (using TWIN modules); functional variant of a cabinet can be checked either on site (on printed Barcode label, or available through Line Maintenance Terminal), or from the OMC-R where it is part of the Remote Inventory data.
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.9 Multi-band configurations Sectors
Min TRX
(3)
per sect. band1/ band2
Standard no TX div
1
1/1
Standard no TX div
2
Standard no TX div
3
Max TRX per sector (band 1/ band 2)
MBI3
MBI5 (Note 4)
AC
AC
BU5
othe r
DC
2/2
2/2 6/6
AC BU90
AC
AC
Notes MBO1 Evolution MBO2 Evolution
CBO
DC
AC
DC
2/2
4/2
Frequency
bands
BU5 Other
8/8
8/8
8/8
12/12
1/1
4/4
4/4
4/4
6/6
1/1
2/2
2/2
2/2
4/4
6/6
12/12
900/1800
(2)
2/2
6/6
900/1800
(2)
4/4
900/1800
(2)
Note 1: "AC other" is referring to the Indoor AC configurations without integrated battery, i.e. either with no battery, or with batteries in an external cabinet. Note 2: Frequency bands: new modules are available initially in GSM 900 and GSM 1800 frequency band; they will be available in a second step in GSM 850 and GSM 1900, on market request. Note 3: Count of sectors is made with hypothese of multiband cell, i.e. that each sector contains one cell in band1 and one cell in band2, these two cells being paired as a single "multiband cell", counted as one sector. In multiband "without multiband cell", a same configurations would be counted as having twice the number of sectors. The table above thus describes at the same time - possible configurations for multiband "with multiband cell" - those configurations for multiband "without multiband cell" that have the same number of sectors in each band Note 4: With MBI5, more than 18 TRX per cabinet is only possible with DC cabinets (and using Twin TRX modules) and more precisely with functional variant 3BK 25965 ABxx of these cabinets, that has become since end 2006 the standard delivery; MBI5 with functional variant 3BK 25965 AAxx, are limited to 18 TRX (using Twin TRX modules); functional variant of a cabinet can be checked either on site (on printed Barcode label, or available through Line Maintenance Terminal), or from the OMC-R where it is part of the Remote Inventory data.
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.10 Extended cell configurations
Min. Number
of TRX
Max. number
of TRX
Inner
Outer
Inner
Outer
Type of cabinet
Frequency band
1
1
8
8
MBI5; MBO2 evolution
900
1
1
4
4
MBI3; MBO1 Evolution
900
Extended Cell configurations
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.11 Standard configurations The interface with the antenna system is through one single Antenna network combining (ANC) module in each sector (and then through 2 feeders and two antennas or one dual-polarized antenna). Antenna Antenna
Antenna Antenna
Antenna Antenna
Antenna Antenna
No-combining ANC or ANB
Combining ANC
Combining ANC
Combining ANC
TRX 1 TRX 2
TRX 1
TRX 4
TRX 1 TRX 2 Combiner (ANY) TRX 3
1 up to2TRX/ sector
3 up to 4TRX/ sector
Combiner (ANY)
TRX 6
5 up to 6TRX/ sector
TRX 1
TRX 4
Combiner (ANY) TRX 5
TRX 8
5 up to 8RX/sector
Standard configurations with Twin TRX in No TX Div
The number of sectors and TRXs depends on the cabinet type, with a maximum of 6 sectors and 24 TRXs in a Indoor MBI5 ("AB" functional variant) or an Outdoor MBO2 evolution cabinet. 1 · 1 · 262
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.12 TRX Types Example of TRE boards with their frequency band and power characteristics NAME
BAND
POWER
GMSK
8PSK
W
dBm
W
dBm
TRAL
850
MP
45W
46,5
15W
41,8
TRAG
900
MP
45W
46,5
15W
41,8
TRAGE
900
MP
45W
46,5
30W
44,8
TAGH
900
HP
60W
47,7
25W
44,0
TAGHE
900
HP
60W
47,8
30W
41,8
TRAD
1800
MP
35W
45,4
12W
40,8
TRADE
1800
MP
35W
45,4
30W
44,8
TRAP
1900
MP
45W
46,5
25W
40,0
TRDH
1800
HP
60W
47,7
TADH
1800
HP
60W
47,7
25W
44,0
TADHE
1800
HP
60W
46,8
30W
44,8
TGT09
900
45W
46,5
30W
44,8
TGT18
1800
35W
45,4
30W
44,8
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GMSK – Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying 8PSK – 8 phase shift keying TGT – Twin GSM Tranceiver Different Transceivers are used depending on the band : 900, 1800, 1900 (in America) and 850MHz (this new band has been introduced in the Release 1999 of the 3GPP Standard). The list above is not exhaustive. A new Tx Rx hardware module gives the possibility to have per Hardware module transmission receiption function. In this case the module is called Twin TRX For example In the MBI5 rack, the number of hardware module is 12 maximum, but if all are Twin TRX the maximum number of Transmitter functions will be 24. (TRE G5) The new Twin TRX (TGT) gives also the possibility to provide TX diversity
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.12 TRX Types The losses between TRE connector and the Antenna connector
Configuration
Transmission loss (dB)
1 ANC without bridges
1.8
1 ANC
5.1
1 ANC + 1 ANY
8.6
1 ANX
1.8
1 ANX / 1 ANY
5.3
1 ANX + 2 ANY
8.8
delta ANY
3.5
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Losses due to the Antenna Network (AN)
Module
Transmission loss (dB)
ANC
4.4
ANC no bridge
1
ANX
1
ANY
3.3
Radio cables TRE-AN
0.3
AN-AN
0.2
AN-Antenna
0.5
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.13 BTS Output Power What is monitored during validation is the BTS output power at antenna connector The individual losses for duplexer, combiner and internal cabling are not systematically measured for detailed info consult the BTS product description
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.14 Feature Power Balancing From G4 (now G5) BTS it is allowed to use TRXs of different power within the same sector, or to use of different combining path for TRX belonging to the same sector. Reason: the G4 BTS is able to detect unbalanced losses/powers within a sector and automatically compensate it for GMSK modulation. Consequence: All TRX connected to one ANc are automatically adjusted to the GMSK output power of the weakest TRX (required for BCCH recovery)
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.15 Cell Split Feature Principle Cell Split allows to provide one logical cell with one common BCCH over several BTS cabinets. The cabinets must be synchronized
Benefits Same number of TRX in fewer racks No need to touch/modify the configuration of existing BTS (cabling) Take full benefit of 24 TRX per cabinet
Drawback: more complex antenna system Applications Multi-band cells Configuration extension of sites by adding TRX Large configurations
Condition: BTS must be synchronized
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Configuration built with several cabinets and the “cell split over two BTSs” feature It is possible to optimize the number of cabinets needed for a site configuration (indoor or outdoor, single band or multi-band) built with more than one cabinet, thanks to a feature called “cell split over two BTSs”. In that case, the TRXs of one sector can be split over two A9100 BTS cabinets. Various configurations are possible, the only constraint being that following conditions are fulfilled: Maximal number of TRX per cell is 16. Maximal number of cabinets between which a given cell is shared is 2. Cabinets between which a cell is shared are clock synchronised in a master / slave configuration Note : when used in mono band configurations, cell split feature may allow to reduce the number of cabinets with regards to the solution with one cabinet per sector; but at the expense of a more complex antenna system (two ANC, hence 4 feeders per sector instead of 2 feeders, as for "low-loss" configurations); this has to be considered before selecting such a solution.
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.19 Cell Split Example: High Power Configuration The following figure gives an example of standard multi-band with multi-band cell 3x8/3x8 in 2 MBI5 cabinets :
ANC
Cabinet1 (Standard 8,8,8TRX)
ANY TRX 1
ANC ANY
TRX 4
TRX 5
ANY TRX 8
TRX 1
ANY
Cabinet2 (Standard 8,8,8TRX)
TRX 1
TRX 4
TRX 5
ANY TRX 8
TRX 1
ANY TRX 5
ANY TRX 8
TRX 1
TRX 4
ANY
TRX 4
ANC
Sector1: 1x16 TRX
1 · 1 · 268
ANY
TRX 4
ANC
ANC
TRX 5
TRX 8
ANC ANY TRX 5
ANY TRX 8
Sector2: 1x16 TRX
TRX 1
TRX 4
ANY TRX 5
Sector3: 1x16 TRX
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For a MBI5, in a 3 sector configuration, max. 3 HP TRX /sector are allowed (thermal reasons). The only way´to have 3x6 in MBI5 is with the cell split feature.
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TRX 8
2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.22 Indoor BTS Rack Layout
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IND mini: 4carrier, 1 Duplexer (Anx), 1 Combiner (Any), SUM (U, Link to BSC) IND Medi: 12carrier, 3 Duplexer (Anx), 3 Combiner (Any), SUM (U, Link to BSC)
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
MBO1 Evolution
MBO2 Evolution
Depth (floor level)
74 cm
74 cm
Depth (roof level)
80 cm
80 cm
Height without plintht
146 cm
146 cm
Height with plinth
161 cm
161 cm
Width
94 cm
156 cm
Available space for either: • Mounting Frame for 19" equipment (6U) • Battery
External Dimensions
Available space for either: • Mounting Frame for 19" equipment (6U) • Battery
2.9.23 Outdoor MBO1 Evolution and MBO2 Evolution cabinets
Radio subrack
Radio subrack
Radio subrack
Radio subrack
Radio subrack
Radio subrack
A//DC conversion
Mounting Frame for 19" equipment (3U)
The Multi-standard Outdoor BaseStation cabinets MBO1 Evolution and MBO2 Evolution offer operators important flexibility with: An easy extension on-site from the Outdoor MBO1 Evolution BTS (up to 12 TRXs capacity) to the Outdoor MBO2 Evolution BTS (up to 24 TRXs capacity)
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.24 Micro BTS types M5M EVOLIUM A9110 Micro-BTS (M5M) Introduced in Q3 2003 up to 12 TRX-es site configurations can mix older A910 with newer A9110-E for GPRS and EDGE (release dependent)
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.25 Technical Data
A910 A9110 (2 TRX) (2 TRX) GSM 850, E-GSM, GSM 850, E-GSM, GSM900, GSM 1800, GSM GSM900, GSM 1800, GSM 1900 1900 Up to 4.5 W 7W
Frequency band Tx output power (at antenna connector) Rx sensitivity
-107 dBm
-110 dBm
Yes
yes
Temperature range (max.)
55 °C
55 °C
Max. power consumption
130 W
145 W
Size (volume)
54 litres
54 litres
39.6 kg (incl. connection box)
32.5
Radio FH
Weight
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.26 BSC capacities in of boards Three BSC capacities are defined depending on the number of TRXs BSC Capacity Equipment
200 TRX 400 TRX 600 TRX
ATCA shelf
1
C
1
2
Spare C
1
TPGSM
2
OM
2
SSW
2
LIU shelf
1
MUX
2
LIU
1 · 1 · 273
8
3
16
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The quantity of TPGSM, OM, SSW and MUX boards have to be considered as 1 activ + 1 stand-by for redundancy function in the shelf. LIU Line Interface Unit – 16x 2Mbit/Board
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.27 Capacity and dimensioning for E1 links The BSC Evolution is able to process up to 2600 erlangs BSC Capacity Equipment
200 TRX 400 TRX 600 TRX
Max number of BTS
150
255
255
Max number of cells
200
264
264
Total number of E1
112
128
224
Number of Abis
96
96
176
Number of Atermux CS
10
20
30
Number of Atermux PS
6
12
18
900 Traffic Ater PS (Mb/s) Max12
1800
2600
24
36
Number of Erlangs
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.28 Abis and atermux allocation on LIU boards
LIU 8 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128
One ater LIU board for 200 TRX
400
LIU 7 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
400
LIU 6 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
600 TRX 400 TRX 200 TRX LIU 9 LIU 10 LIU 11 LIU 12 LIU 13 LIU 14 LIU 15 LIU 16 129 145 161 41 31 21 2 1 130 145 162 42 32 22 4 3 131 147 163 43 33 23 6 5 132 148 164 44 34 24 8 7 133 149 165 45 35 25 10 9 134 150 166 46 36 26 12 11 135 151 167 47 37 27 14 13 136 152 168 48 38 28 16 15 137 153 169 x 39 29 18 17 138 154 170 x 40 30 20 19 139 155 171 x 24 18 12 11 140 156 172 x 23 17 10 9 141 157 173 28 22 16 8 7 142 158 174 27 21 15 6 5 143 159 175 26 20 14 4 3 144 160 176 25 19 13 2 1
200
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
600 TRX 400 TRX 200 TRX LIU 1 LIU 2 LIU 3 LIU 4 LIU 5 1 17 33 49 65 2 18 34 50 66 3 19 35 51 67 4 20 36 52 68 5 21 37 53 69 6 22 38 54 70 7 23 39 55 71 8 24 40 56 72 9 25 41 57 73 10 26 42 58 74 11 27 43 59 75 12 28 44 60 76 13 29 45 61 77 14 30 46 62 78 15 31 47 63 79 16 32 48 64 80
200
Abis and atermux allocation on LIU boards versus BSC capacity
Maximum flexibility on abis LIU board
Ater Ports
Abis ports
Abis ports (max 176) Atermux CS (max 48) Ater mux PS (max 28)
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LIU boards are fitted in the LIU shelf depending on the BSC configuration (Capacity + connectivity), but only 2 HW configurations for the LIU shelf are considered: one with 8 LIU boards, one with 16 LIU boards, Assignment to each LIU boards either to Abis or Ater, On the Ater LIU, 10 TP are “generic” (can be assigned either to PS, full CS or a mixed of the 2), and the 6 others are dedicated to PS. In case of 200 TRX configuration, Alcatel decided to split the traffic up to 2 LIU boards (even if one LIU board should be efficient) in order to not impact all the traffic in case of one LIU board failure. The maximum of available LIU boards are used for Abis, to offer maximum flexibility to the clients. The port numbered 9, 10, 11 and 12 on the LIU 12 are not used.
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2 Coverage Planning
2.10 Coveradge Improvement
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2.10 Coveradge Improvement
2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.1 Diversity Purpose
Demands
Improvement in fading probability statistics leads to a better total signal level or better total S/N ratio
Principle Combining signals with same information from different signal branches
1 · 1 · 278
correlation between different signal branches should be low
Combining methods Selection Diversity Maximum Ratio Combining Equal Gain Combining
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Purpose The purpose of using diversity is to reduce short-term fading effects, such that an acceptable level of performance (receiver sensitivity) can be achieved, without having to increase the transmitted power or the bandwidth. Principle The principle relies on the combination of two or more signals, containing the same information, which are at least partially de-correlated. If two signals of the same level are completely de-correlated, the probability that both signals experience the same depth of fade is very low. Therefore the signal reliability is increased.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.2 Selection Diversity (1)
Fieldstrength [dBm]
Principle selection of the highest baseband signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) or of the strongest signal (S+N) -80
Correlation of signal levels a lower correlation between signal levels of different branches improves the total signal level
-90
Correlation of signal levels should be low
-100 Antenna 1 Antenna 2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Time [sec]
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The algorithm for the selective diversity combining technique is based on the principle of selecting the best signal among all of the signals received from different branches, at the receiving end.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.3 Selection Diversity (2) Difference in signal level
Fieldstrength [dBm]
a high difference in signal levels of two branches doesn’t improve the total signal level
Difference in signal levels should be low
-80
-90
-100 Antenna 2
Antenna 1
0.1
0.2
Time [sec]
1 · 1 · 280
0.3
0.4
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.4 Selection Diversity (3) Theoretical diversity gain 10dB for two-branch diversity at the 99% reliability level 16dB for four branches at the 99% reliability level
The theoretical diversity gain doesn’t improve linear with the number of branches
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.5 Equal Gain Combining (1) Principle cophase signal branches sum up signals
Coherent addition of signals and incoherent addition of noises Theoretical diversity gain 11dB for two-branch diversity at the 99% reliability level
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In comparison with MRC, in this technique the branch weights are all set to unity but the signal from each branch are co-phased to provide equal gain combining diversity. The possibility of producing an acceptable signal from a number of unacceptable inputs is still retained, and performance is only marginally inferior to maximal ratio combining an superior to selection diversity.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.6 Equal Gain Combining (2) Correlation of signal levels
Difference in signal level
a lower correlation between signal levels of different branches improves the total S/N ratio
Correlation of signal levels should be low
1 · 1 · 283
Assuming equal noise in the branches, the higher the difference in signal levels is, the higher is the loss of S/N ratio of the better signal branch after summation
Difference in signal levels should be low
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.7 Maximum Ratio Combining (1) Principle weight signals proportionally to their S/N ratios cophase signal branches sum up the weighted signals
Coherent addition of signals and incoherent addition of noises Improved S/N
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In this method the signals from all the branches are weighted according to their individual S/N and then summed. Here the individual signals must be co-phased before being summed ( unlike selection diversity ) which generally requires an individual receiver and phasing circuit for each antenna . Maximal ratio combining produces an output SNR equal to the sum of the individual SNRs. Thus, it has the advantage of producing an output with an acceptable SNR even when none of the individual signals are themselves acceptable. This technique gives the best statistical reduction of fading of any known diversity combiner. Modern DSPs and digital receivers are now making this optimal form of diversity practical.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.8 Maximum Ratio Combining (2) Correlation of signal levels
Difference in signal level
a lower correlation between signal levels of different branches improves the total S/N ratio
Assuming equal noise in the branches, the higher the difference in signal levels is, the higher is the loss of S/N ratio of the better signal branch after summation comparing to equal ratio combining, this combining reduces influence of worse signal branches
Correlation of signal levels should be low
low
1 · 1 · 285
Difference in signal levels should be
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.9 Comparison of combining methods Improvement of average SNR from a diversity combiner compared to one branch (a) Maximum Ratio Combining (b) Equal Gain Combining (c) Selection Diversity
The maximum ratio combining, which is used in the ALCATEL BTS, gives the best statistical reduction of any known linear diversity combiner.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.10 Enhanced Diversity Combining (1) Principle: 2 algorithms Beam forming algorithm (available also for MRC) Interference reduction algorithm (new)
best efficiency when the useful signal and the interfering signals come from different directions.
Requirements to benefit from this feature: Hardware: G4 (onwards) TRE (Edge capable TRX) installed in Evolium Evolution BTS step1 resp. step 2 (internal name: G3 resp. G4) Software release: from B6.2 onwards For a maximum gain: antenna engineering rules respected Correct antenna choice for the considered environment Correct antenna spacings and orientations (in case of space diversity)
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The TRX module s enhanced diversity combining in all frequency bands, which is based on several algorithms: ●
A beam-forming algorithm to improve the received signal by steering a beam in the direction of the mobile. This is one way of doing smart antennas,
●
An algorithm to reduce interference: this mitigates the influence of interferers by steering a null beam in the direction of the main interferer (the phase difference between the two antennas for the strongest interfering signal is estimated and then this interfering signal is strongly attenuated by summing the signals with an inversed phase).
Maximum efficiency of enhanced diversity combining is achieved when the useful/desired signal and the interfering signals emanate from different directions. In interference-limited environments, beam-forming algorithms will provide a much greater diversity gain compared to traditional maximum ratio combining. ●
The above mentioned algorithms are working together in a way to combat spatial interferer signals while keeping optimal sensitivity perfomance for undisturbed but week reception.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.11 Enhanced Diversity Combining (2)
Diversity gain coming from the fact that the signals received on both antennas are decorrelated (this requires using Xpol antennas or largely spaced antennas) Array-Gain or Beamforming gain : coming from the fact, that co-phased signals are added (stronger combined signal power) for this direction Null Steering / Interference Reduction (with a spatial interferer) coming from a algorithm which reduces the interference (the figures below assume a standard interference margin is considered for the link budget)
Environment
Total 2RX diversity gain
Equivalent RX sensitivity (without TMA)
Dense Urban (TU3)
6 dB
-117dBm
Sub Urban (TU50)
5 dB
-116dBm
Rural (RA100)
3.5 dB
-114.5dBm
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.12 Tx Diversity Basic Idea: Transmit twice the same signal from two antennas No combining losses (on air combining) 3dB gain Possible Issue: Coherence between signal can lead to destructive effects This effect depends on the environment a short delay is introduced between two antennas (2 symbols) Environment
Total TX diversity gain
Equivalent TX output power (GMSK)
Dense Urban (TU3)
5.9 dB
GSM900: 52.4dBm (175W) GSM1800: 51.3dBm (136W)
Sub Urban (TU50)
4.6 dB
GSM900: 51.1dBm (129W) GSM1800: 50dBm (100W)
Rural (RA100)
4 dB
GSM900: 50.5dBm (113W) GSM1800: 49.4dBm (88W)
BTS
MS
0011000101001
0011000101001 short delay
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TX Diversity works with all types of Mobile stations since it is fully transparent to the receiver; this feature takes advantage of the MS equalizer which can already handle multiple paths with different times of arrival. Consequently, the equivalent TX output power is very high, up to 6dB above the nominal TX output power, which improves the coverage and reduces the number of sites needed to cover a given area, provided the link budget remains balanced or downlink-limited The table provides the typical gains achieved thanks to TX Diversity and the equivalent TX output power that can be considered for link budget calculations. Note that such gains are environment-dependent since they are highly related to the level of de-correlation between paths. In 8-PSK, the TX diversity gain is highly dependent on the coding scheme, the environment and the level of Carrier to Interference+Noise Ratio. No significant gains are expected.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.12 Tx Diversity
Diversity Gain: On top of the output power increase TxDiv artificially increases the number of multi-paths The higher the de-correlation between paths, the higher the gain Other features: a) high power TRX or b) Transmit Coherent Combining do not benefit from this effect Time
Example:
First channel
Fading hole
2 paths (blue and red) They show independent amplitude (fast) fading Probability to fall in a hole is reduced Fading holes of a channel are often compensated by the other channel
Second channel
Attenuation
Additional gain 1 · 1 · 290
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.12 Tx Diversity
Delay Trade-Off Higher delay between antennas implies Less destructive effect, more de-correlated paths and so higher diversity gain: Higher Gains Higher channel delay spread: More Self-interference
Alcatel found the optimal trade-off • For all environments • Based on extensive simulations and lab measurements
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0011000101001
0011000101001 short delay
2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.12 Tx Diversity
Summary of the Transmit Diversity effects 3dB increase of the signal strength Additional up to 2.9dB diversity gain for un-correlated fast fading: Diversity gains are maximum in dense urban because there are a lot of scatterers Diversity gains are reduced in rural because we have Line of Sight propagation
Self-interference due to the artificial increase of the delay spread Environment
Fading Profile
Power increase
Diversity gain
Total TxDiv gain
Dense Urban
TU3
3dB
2.9dB
5.9dB
Sub-Urban
TU50
3dB
1.6dB
4.6dB
Rural
RA100
3dB
1dB
4dB
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.12 Diversity systems in Mobile Radio Networks Two diversity systems are used in Mobile Radio Networks : Space Diversity
TXB
horizontal vertical
dH
dH
RXA
RXB
TXA
TXB dv TXA
Polarization Diversity
+45°
-45°
+45°
RXA RXB 1 · 1 · 293
-45°
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.13 Space Diversity Systems
Diversity gain depends on spatial separation of antennas Horizontal separation (e.g. Roof Top)
Vertical separation (e.g. Mast) RXA dV
dH RXA
RXB
RXB
For Optimum Diversity Gain dH = 20λ 15λ GSM900 = 6m GSM1800 = 3m 1 · 1 · 294
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= = 4.5m = 2.25m
2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.14 Space Diversity - General Rules The larger the separation the higher the diversity gain Prefer horizontal separation (more effective) d The higher the antenna the higher the required separation, rule: d > h/10 h Highest diversity gain from the "broadside” Select orientation of diversity setup according to orientation of cell / traffic
Optimum diversity Gain
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.15 Achievable Diversity Gain Depends on fading conditions Varies in between 2.5 - 6dB Higher diversity gain in areas with multipath propagation (urban and suburban areas)
General rule: consider diversity gain with 3dB in the link budget
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.16 Polarization Diversity Diversity gain in using orthogonal orientated antennas
Horizontal / vertical polarization: Hor/Ver Antenna
V
H
RXA RXB
Polarization of +/- 45°: cross polarized antenna or Slant antenna
+45° 45° RXA RXB
Big Advantage: Only one antenna is required to profit from diversity gain using this configuration 1 · 1 · 297
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.17 Principle of Polarization Diversity
multipathpropagation reflection, diffraction
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reception with a hor / ver polarised antenna
EV
Diversity Gain
EH
G = f( ρ,Δ )
EX1 Ex2 or Eh
reception with a X-polarised antenna
EX2
Ex1 or Ev
Time [sec]
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ρ correlation coeficient (0.7) Δ difference in signal level ---> diversity gain with dual polarized antennas depends on : ρ, Δ and the orientation of the sending and receiving antenna To achieve low correlation and low differences in signal level, reflection and diffraction under multipath condition is necessary. ----> In rural areas neglectible diversity gain can be expected from polarization diversity.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.18 Air Combining Features only one TX per antenna combining signals "on air" and not in a combiner 3dB combiner loss can be saved to increase coverage
Can be realized with two vertical polarized antennas one cross polarized antenna
TX1 TX2
TX1
TX2
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The idea of air combining is to combine transmitted signals in the air and not with an internal combiner, in order to save combining losses. Thus the maximum achievable coverage range will be increased. Air combining can be realized with • two sector or omni antennas • one cross polar antenna transmitting different carriers on +/-45°.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.19 Air Combining with Polarization Diversity One antenna system
1 TRX
2 TRX
cross polarized antennas recommended for urban/suburban area (less space req.)
or
V DUPL TX RXA
H BF RXB
No Air combining Bandfilter if Decoupling too low
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DUPL
DUPL
TX1 RX1 TX2 RX2 RX2D RX1D Air combining Recommended for Evolium BTS
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.20 Air Combining with Space Diversity Two antenna system Vertical or horizontal spacing (recommended for rural area)
or
or RXA RXB
RXA RXB TX TX
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.21 Decoupling of Signal Branches
One antenna system: TX / RX decoupling cannot be achieved by spatial separation Decoupling between both polarization branches needs to be sufficiently high to avoid blocking problems intermodulation problems
Required decoupling values G2 BTS: Evolium A9100 BTS:
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30 dB 25dB (Integrated duplexer Anx)
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.22 Cross Polarized or Hor/Ver Antenna? (1) Receiving Application same diversity gain for cross polarized and hor/ver antennas in urban and suburban area polarization diversity gain equal to space diversity gain (2.5 - 6dB) negligible polarization diversity gain in rural areas (not recommended) accordingly consider polarization diversity gain with 3dB in the link budget
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.23 Cross Polarized or Hor/Ver Antenna? (2) Transmission Application: Air combining
3dB
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2dB
3dB loss when transmitting horizontal/vertical polarized (use of combiner) 1-2dB losses when transmitting at 45° (optimum antenna is straighten vertically) Air combining only recommended with cross polarized antenna
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.24 Conclusion on Antenna Diversity Rural Areas installation space not limited apply Space Diversity (higher gain)
Urban and Suburban Area apply space or polarization diversity use cross polarized antennas for air combining
Diversity Gain consider diversity gain in link budget with 3dB
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2.10. Coveradge Improvement
2.10.2 Repeater Systems
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.1 Repeater Application
repeater
area covered by repeater
1 · 1 · 307
BTS (donor cell)
original service area
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.2 Repeater Block Diagram
Required Isolation > 70…90 dB
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A repeater is a bi-directional amplifier. It receives the downlink signal from the BTS, amplifies it and transmits the signal to the mobile. In the uplink direction, the signal of the mobile is received, amplified and transmitted to the BTS.
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.3 Repeater Applications (2) Coverage Improvement of Cells (‘Cell Enhancer’) removal of coverage holes caused by topography (hills, ravines, ...) man made obstacles
Provision of tunnel coverage street, railway tunnels underground stations
Provision of indoor coverage at places of low additional traffic
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.4 Repeater Types Channel selective repeaters
Broad band repeaters
high selectivity of certain channels high traffic areas, small cell sizes
Band selective repeaters adjustment to operator’s frequency band no (accidental) usage by competitors
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low cost solution for low traffic areas (rural environment) medium to high repeater gain
Personal repeaters low gain broad band indoor coverage improvement for certain rooms
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.5 Repeater for Tunnel Coverage Choice of repeater type due to tunnel dimensions wall materials
Antenna to donor cell
feeding by directional antennas leaky feeder cables
long tunnels Radiating cable Repeater
chains of several repeaters fiber optic backbone for repeater feeding
Tunnel
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.4 Repeater for Indoor coverage For smaller buildings Compensation for wall losses, window losses (heat insulated windows) Low cost personal repeaters installed in certain rooms
Personal repeater
For larger buildings (shopping malls, convention centers, sport centers) multispot transmission using co-axial distribution network fiber-optic distribution network
Antenna to donor cell Master unit
Remote units
Fiber optic distribution Radiating cable
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.5 Planning Aspects Repeater does not provide additional traffic capacity risk of blocking if additional coverage area catches more traffic possible carrier upgrading required
Repeater causes additional signal delay delay: 4..8μs ⌫ max. cell range of 35 km reduced by 1 to 2km special care needed for total delay of repeater chain! delayed signal and original signal could cause outage in urban environment if total delay exceeds 16 ... 22μs
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.6 Repeater Gain Limitation (1) Intermodulation products should be low when amplifier reaches saturation point, intermodulation products go up
Signal to noise ratio should be high when amplifier reaches saturation point, signal to noise ratio is getting worse
Antenna isolation between transmission and receiving antenna should be high if signal from transmission antenna to receiving antenna is too high, amplifier goes into saturation
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.7 Repeater Gain Limitation (2)
Repeater gain limited by antenna isolation: GRepeater < IDonor, Repeater - M Pin
Pback = Pin - 12 dB
M (Margin) ~ 12 dB gain 78 dB
isolation 90 dB
Measure isolation after installation
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I = G Amplifier + δ M arg in
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Pout
2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.8 Intermodulation Products
A Non-linear system produces higher-order intermodulation products as soon as output power reaches the saturation point
Parameter 1 dB compression point 3rd order intercept point (I3) Intermodulation reduction (IMR) Amplifier back-off
GSM900/GSM1800 requirements IM products ≤ -36 dBm or IM distance > 70 dBc whichever is higher
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Each amplifier has a limited linear operation range. In the linear range the input power is amplified by the amplification factor v. But this is only valid until a certain maximum input power. As soon as you feed the amplifier with too high input power the input signal will less and less amplified. The point were the degradation from the specified amplification is 1dB is called the one dB compression point. Lower amplification is one effect when you operate an amplifier in the non linear region, another effect which can cause even worse problems is the intermodulation. Especially the 3rd order intermodulation product (2f1+-f2) is very significant. The amplifier produces interfering signals based on available frequencies (f1 and f2). dbc = is the power of one signal referenced to a carrier signal
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.9 Repeater Link Budget !
!
Uplink Loss = Downlink Loss ⇒ Uplink Gain = Downlink Gain Downlink Path Received power at repeater Link antenna gain Cable loss Repeater input power Repeater gain Repeater output power Cable loss Repeater antenna gain EIRP
Unit dBm dBi dB dBm dB dBm dB dBi dBm
Value -65 +19 -2 -48 +78 30 -2 +18 46
Different gains may be needed in Up- and Downlink if the sensitivity of the repeater is worse than the sensitivity of the BTS
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.10 High Power TRXs High Power TRXs: solution for coverage improvement HP must be used together with TMA: due to unbalanced Link Budget A9100 BTS s High Power TRX Medium Power TRX type is chosen by: environment conditions required data throughput (GPRS/EDGE)
TX power of EVOLIUM™ Evolution step 2 TRX : Frequency band
TX output power, GMSK
TX output power, 8-PSK (EDGE)
GSM 900 HP
60 W = 47.8 dBm
25 W = 44.0 dBm
GSM 1800 HP
60 W = 47.8 dBm
25 W = 44.0 dBm
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.13 3x6 TRXs High Power Configuration Configuration made with EVOLIUM™ A9100 Base Station Obs: All TRX are HP The configuration is using cell split feature
ANc Combining
Cabinet1 (High power 3x3TRX)
No-combining
HPTRX1 HPTRX 2 MPTRX 3
Cabinet2 (High power 3x3TRX)
ANc Combining
HPTRX1 HPTRX 2 MPTRX 3
ANc Combining
No-combining
HPTRX1 HPTRX 2 MPTRX 3
Sector1: 1x6 TRX
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No-combining
ANc Combining
HPTRX1 HPTRX 2 MPTRX 3
ANc Combining
No-combining
HPTRX1 HPTRX 2 MPTRX 3
Sector2: 1x6 TRX
No-combining
ANc Combining
No-combining
HPTRX1 HPTRX 2 MPTRX 3
Sector3: 1x6 TRX
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.14 Mixed TRX Configuration
BTS EVOLIUM™ s a mix of: EVOLIUM™ TRX (TRE) - s GSM/GPRS and EDGE EVOLIUM™ Evolution step 2 TRX (TRA) with Medium Power EVOLIUM™ Evolution step 2 TRX (TRA) with High Power Hardware configuration
T R A
T R A
HP
MP
T R E
T R E
Logical cell
Allocation Packet Voice
TRX1 (BCCH) TRX2 (1 SDCCH) TRX3 TRX4
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3 Traffic & Frequency Planning
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.1 Traffic Caspacity
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.1 Telephone System blocked call attempts
subscriber sub 1
1 2
line to PSTN
3 4
sub 2 sub 3 sub 4
automatic switch
observation period, e.g. main busy hour (MBH)
Parameters: λ: μ: 1/μ:
arrival rate [1/h] release rate [1/h] mean holding time [sec]
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time
"offered" traffic = # of calls arriving in MBH × mean holding time ρ = λ × 1/μ [Erlang]
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.2 Offered Traffic and Traffic Capacity
Offered Traffic (ρ)
Loss System (n slots)
Handled Traffic (T) T=ρ-R
Rejected Traffic (R)
Handled Traffic, Traffic Capacity: T Blocking Probability, Grade of Service (GoS): pblock = R / ρ System load: τ = T / n, i.e. T < n
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.3 Definition of Erlang
ERLANG : Unit used to quantify traffic
T=
(resource usage duration)/ (total observation duration)
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[ERLANG]
3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.4 Call Mix and Erlang Calculation
CALL MIX EXAMPLE 350 call/hour 3 LU/call TCH duration : 85 sec SDCCH duration : 4,5 sec
ERLANG COMPUTATION TCH = (350 * 85)/3600 = 8,26 ERLANG SDCCH = [ (350 + 350*3) * 4,5 ] / 3600 = 1.75 ERLANG
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.5 ERLANG B LAW
ERLANG B LAW Relationship between Offered traffic Number of resources Blocking rate
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.5 ERLANG B LAW (2)
call request arrival rate (and leaving) is not stable number of resources = average number of requests mean duration is sometime not sufficent => probability of blocking
=> Erlang B law Pblock : blocking probability N : number of resources E : offered traffic [Erlang] Calculated with Excel - Makro or Table
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.6 Erlang´s Formula How to calculate the traffic capacity T? Basics: Markov Chain (queue statistics) λ
λ
p0
p1 μ
p2 2μ
no call establishe d
pi
pn nμ
3μ
i channels occupied
all channels occupied
Calculation of the blocking probability using Erlang´s formula (Erlang B statistics):
n ρi ρn p block = ∑ n ! i = 0 i! Varation of ρ until pblock reached: ρ → T
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.7 Blocking Probability (Erlang B)
Nr. of channels 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 30 35 40 45 50
Blocking Probability Erlang B 0.1% 0.2% 0.5% 0.001 0.046 0.194 0.439 0.762 1.146 1.579 2.051 2.557 3.092 3.651 4.231 4.831 5.446 6.077 6.721 7.378 8.046 8.724 9.411 10.108 10.812 11.524 12.243 12.969 16.684 20.517 24.444 28.447 32.512
0.002 0.065 0.249 0.535 0.900 1.325 1.798 2.311 2.855 3.427 4.022 4.637 5.270 5.919 6.582 7.258 7.946 8.644 9.351 10.068 10.793 11.525 12.265 13.011 13.763 17.606 21.559 25.599 29.708 33.876
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0.005 0.105 0.349 0.701 1.132 1.622 2.157 2.730 3.333 3.961 4.610 5.279 5.964 6.663 7.376 8.099 8.834 9.578 10.331 11.092 11.860 12.635 13.416 14.204 14.997 19.034 23.169 27.382 31.656 35.982
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
10%
15%
20%
50%
0.010 0.153 0.455 0.869 1.361 1.909 2.501 3.128 3.783 4.461 5.160 5.876 6.607 7.352 8.108 8.875 9.652 10.437 11.230 12.031 12.838 13.651 14.470 15.295 16.125 20.337 24.638 29.007 33.432 37.901
0.020 0.223 0.602 1.092 1.657 2.276 2.935 3.627 4.345 5.084 5.842 6.615 7.402 8.200 9.010 9.828 10.656 11.491 12.333 13.182 14.036 14.896 15.761 16.631 17.505 21.932 26.435 30.997 35.607 40.255
0.031 0.282 0.715 1.259 1.875 2.543 3.250 3.987 4.748 5.529 6.328 7.141 7.967 8.803 9.650 10.505 11.368 12.238 13.115 13.997 14.885 15.778 16.675 17.577 18.483 23.062 27.711 32.412 37.155 41.933
0.042 0.333 0.812 1.399 2.057 2.765 3.509 4.283 5.080 5.895 6.727 7.573 8.430 9.298 10.174 11.059 11.952 12.850 13.755 14.665 15.581 16.500 17.425 18.353 19.284 23.990 28.758 33.575 38.430 43.316
0.053 0.381 0.899 1.525 2.218 2.960 3.738 4.543 5.370 6.216 7.076 7.950 8.835 9.730 10.633 11.544 12.461 13.385 14.315 15.249 16.189 17.132 18.080 19.031 19.985 24.802 29.677 34.596 39.550 44.533
0.111 0.595 1.271 2.045 2.881 3.758 4.666 5.597 6.546 7.511 8.487 9.474 10.470 11.473 12.484 13.500 14.522 15.548 16.579 17.613 18.651 19.692 20.737 21.784 22.833 28.113 33.434 38.787 44.165 49.562
0.176 0.796 1.602 2.501 3.454 4.445 5.461 6.498 7.551 8.616 9.691 10.776 11.867 12.965 14.068 15.176 16.289 17.405 18.525 19.647 20.773 21.901 23.031 24.164 25.298 30.995 36.723 42.475 48.245 54.029
0.250 1.000 1.930 2.945 4.010 5.109 6.230 7.369 8.522 9.685 10.857 12.036 13.222 14.413 15.608 16.807 18.010 19.216 20.424 21.635 22.848 24.064 25.281 26.499 27.720 33.840 39.985 46.147 52.322 58.508
1.000 2.732 4.591 6.501 8.437 10.389 12.351 14.320 16.294 18.273 20.254 22.238 24.224 26.212 28.201 30.191 32.182 34.173 36.166 38.159 40.153 42.147 44.142 46.137 48.132 58.113 68.099 78.088 88.079 98.072
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.8 BTS Traffic Capacity (Full Rate)
Number of TRX SDCCH 1 4 2 8 3 8 4 16 5 16 6 24 7 24 8 32
TCH 7 14 22 29 37 44 52 59
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Speech Traffic (Erlang 1% 2% 2.501 2.935 7.352 8.2 13.651 14.896 19.487 21.039 26.379 28.254 32.543 34.682 39.7 42.124 46.039 48.7
B) 5% 3.738 9.73 17.132 23.833 31.64 38.557 46.533 53.559
Signalling Traffic (Erlang B) 0.1% 0.2% 0.5% 0.439 0.535 0.701 2.051 2.311 2.73 2.051 2.311 2.73 6.721 7.258 8.099 6.721 7.258 8.099 12.243 13.011 14.204 12.243 13.011 14.204 18.205 19.176 20.678
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.2 Network Evolution
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3.2 Network Evolution
3.2.1 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (1) The roll out of a network is dedicated to provide coverage Network design changes rapidly Planning method must be flexible and fast (group method) Manual frequency planning possible
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3.2 Network Evolution
3.2.2 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (2) With the growing amount of subscribers, the need for more installed capacity is rising Possible Solutions: Installing more TRXs on the existing BTS Implementing additional sites
Discussion!
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Also new services like GPRS are demanding more capacity
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3.2 Network Evolution
3.2.3 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (3) Installing more TRXs - Advantages No site search/acquisition process No additional sites to rent (saves cost) Trunking efficiency Higher capacity per cell
Installing more TRXs - Disadvantages More antennas on roof top (Air combining) Additional losses if WBC has to be used Less (indoor) coverage
More frequencies per site needed Tighter reuse necessary decreasing quality
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Trunking efficiency 1TRX
2.7 Erl.
+2.7 Erl
2TRX
8.2 Erl
+5.3 Erl (+1 Signalling TS)
3TRX
14.9 Erl
+6.7 Erl
4TRX
21.0 Erl
+6.1 Erl (+1 Signalling TS)
5TRX
28.3 Erl
+7.3 Erl
6TRX
34.7 Erl
+6.4 Erl (+1 Signalling TS)
7TRX
42.1 Erl
+7.4 Erl
….
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3.2 Network Evolution
3.2.4 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (4) Implementing additional sites - Advantages Reuse can remain the same (smaller cell sizes) Needs less frequency spectrum higher spectrum efficiency
Implementing additional sites - Disadvantages Additional site cost (rent) Re-design of old cells necessary (often not done)
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.3 Cell Structures
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3.3 Cell Structures
3.3.1 Cell Structures and Quality Frequency re-use in cellular radio networks allow efficient usage of the frequency spectrum but causes interference
Interdependence of Cell size Cluster size Re-use distance Interference level Network Quality
interferer region
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3.3 Cell Structures
3.3.2 Cell Re-use Cluster (Omni Sites) (1)
2 7
1 6
R
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D
3 2
4 5
7
3 1
6
4 5
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3.3 Cell Structures
3.3.2 Cell Re-use Cluster (Omni Sites)(2)
1 4
2 5
D
6 8
7 10
3
11
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9 12
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3.3 Cell Structures
3.3.4 Cell Re-use Cluster (Sector Site) (1)
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3.3 Cell Structures
3.3.5 4x3 Cell Re-use Cluster (Sector Site) (2)
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3.3 Cell Structures
3.3.6 Irregular (Real) Cell Shapes
5
1
2
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4
5
6
Network Border
3
Coverage Hole
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7
Island
3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.4 Frequency Reuse
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.1 GSM Frequency Spectrum GSM 900 DL: 935-960 MHz UL: 890-915 MHz 200 kHz channel spacing 124 channels ARFCN 1 - 124
E-GSM DL: 925-935 MHz UL: 880-890 MHz 200 kHz channel spacing Additional 50 channels ARFCN 0, 975 - 1023 200 kHz channel spacing 124 channels
GSM 850 DL: 869-894 MHz ARFCN: 128 - 251
UL: 824-849 MHz
GSM 1800 DL: 1805-1880 MHz UL: 1710-1785 MHz 200 kHz channel spacing 374 channels ARFCN 512 - 885
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.2 Impact of limited Frequency Spectrum Bandwidth is an expensive resource Best usage necessary Efficient planning necessary to contain good QoS when the traffic in the network is increasing smaller reuse Multiple reuse pattern (MRP) usage implementation of concentric cells / microcells/dual band implementation of Frequency Hopping Baseband Synthezised
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.3 What is frequency reuse? As the GSM spectrum is limited, frequencies have to be reused to provide enough capacity The more often a frequency is reused within a certain amount of cells, the smaller the frequency reuse Aim: Minimizing the frequency reuse for providing more capacity REUSE CLUSTER: Area including cells which do not reuse the same frequency (or frequency group)
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.4 RCS and ARCS (1) Reuse Cluster Size - RCS If all cells within the reuse cluster have the same amount of TRXs, the reuse per TRX layer can be calculated:
RCS =
B # TRX / cell
Average Reuse Cluster Size - ARCS If the cells are different equiped, the average number of TRXs has to be used for calculating the average reuse cluster size:
ARCS =
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B # TRX / cell
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.5 RCS and ARCS (2) The ARCS is giving the average reuse of the network when using the whole bandwidth and all TRXs per cell E.g: if we want to have the reuse of all non hopping TCH TRXs, we have to use the dedicated bandwidth and the average number of non hopping TCH TRXs per cell to get the ARCS of this layer type. Each cell has only one BCCH. Therefore the BCCH reuse is an RCS and not an ARCS!
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.6 Reuse Cluster Size (1) Sectorized sites 4 sites per reuse cluster 3 cells per site REUSE Cluster Size: 4X3 =12
1
2
4
3 1
2
4
3 8
8 9
6 7
10
9
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6 7
5
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12
5
11
10 12
11
3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.7 Reuse Cluster Size (2) Sectorized sites 3 sites per reuse cluster 3 cells per site REUSE Cluster Size 3X3 = 9 1
2
4
3
5 6
7
8 9
1
2
4
3
6 7
8 9
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5
3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.8 Reuse Distance
cell A
reus ed ist an ce
D = f ⋅ R ⋅ 3 ⋅ RCS ⎧⎪ 1 f = ⎨2 ⎪⎩ 3
omnidirectional cells three - sectorized cells interferer region
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cell B
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In theory reuse distance and reuse shouldn’t be dependent. In reality, when the cells are not well designed: bigger cell overlapp =>higher frequency reuse, smaller reuse distance
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.9 Frequency Reuse Distance D = distance between cell sites with the same frequencies R = service radius of a cell B = number of frequencies in total bandwidth RCS = reuse cluster size, i.e. one cell uses B/RCS frequencies In hexagonal cell geometry: D/R = f · omni cells:
3 RCS
Examples (omni): RCS = 7: D/R = 4.6 RCS = 9: D/R = 5.2 RCS =12: D/R = 6.0
f=1; sector cells: f=2/3
Received Power Frec, A
Frec
Frec, B
C/I
site A 0
1 · 1 · 353
σ
R
distance
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site B D
3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.10 Frequency Reuse: Example
BCCH RCS
No sectorization 7 cells per cluster BCCH RCS = 7
TCH Reuse: Depending on BW and Number of installed TRXs per cell Example: B= 26 4TRXs per cell
TCH RCS =
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interferer region
TCH RCS
26 − 7BCCH −1Guard =6 3 All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010
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BCCH reuse is always RCS, because we don’t need to use an average (always one BCCH per cell). Omni cells To calculate the TCH reuse in the example, the BCCH RCS is subtracted from the bandwidth B and the average number of TCH TRX per cell is 4 minus 1 BCCH = 3
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3.5 Cell Planning
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3.5 Cell Planning
3.5.1 Cell Planning - Frequency Planning (1) Can frequency planning be seen independently from cell planning?
Discussion
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3.5 Cell Planning
3.5.2 Cell Planning - Frequency Planning (2) Bad cell planning Island coverage Big overlap areas
disturbing the reuse pattern bigger reuse necessary
Good cell planning Sharp cell borders Small overlap areas
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good containment of frequency tighter reuse possible
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3.5 Cell Planning
3.5.3 Influencing Factors on Frequency Reuse Distance Topography Hilly terrain Usage of natural obstacles to define sharp cell borders tighter frequency reuse possible Flat terrain design
Achieveable reuse much more dependent on the accurate cell
Morphology Water
low attenuation
City
high attenuation
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high reuse distance low reuse distance
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3.5 Cell Planning
3.5.4 Conclusion In cellular mobile networks, the frequency reuse pattern has a direct influence on the interference and hence the network quality Regular hexagonal patterns allow the deduction of engineering formulas In real networks, cell sizes and shapes are irregular due to Variation in traffic density Topography Land usage
Engineering formulas allow the assessment of the network quality and worstcase considerations, but the real situation must be proved!
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3.5 Cell Planning
3.5.5 Examples for different frequency reuses Big city in the south of Africa: BCCH reuse 26 Irregular cell design Mixed morphology Lots of water Flat terrain plus some high sites
Big city in eastern Europe BCCH reuse 12 Regular cell design Flat area Only urban environment
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.6 Interference Probability
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3.6 Interference Probability
3.6.1 Interference Theory (1) C/I restrictions 9dB for co-channel interference -9 dB for adjacent channel interference
P rec
Received Power Prec, A
Prec, B
C/ I
0
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σ
dista nce
R
D
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C/I is the difference between the two received power lines when shifting the two transmitters towards each other, the area where the C/I is > 9dB shrinks At a certain distance of the two transmitters, the C/I can never fulfil the GSM criteria -> minimum site distance. It has to be kept in mind, that of course other cells will be inbetween two cells transmitting at the same frequency!
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3.6 Interference Probability
3.6.2 Interference Theory (2)
ARCS 6.5..9.0 7.0..9.5 8.5..11.0 12.0..16.0
Interference probability C/Imed is the calculated carrier to interference ratio at a certain location (pixel)
Pint[%] 10 7.5 5.0 2.5
Interferer probability [%]
Probability density function [%]
100% 3.6 Interference Probability
5,0% 4,0%
80%
3,0%
60%
2,0%
40% Margin
1,0%
20%
0,0% C/Ithr
C/Imed
C/I [dB] →
0% -20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
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The marked area left of C/Ithr is the area of interference. Although the received level is above the threshold, there is a certain probability to get interference because of the standard deviation of the received signal.
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3.6 Interference Probability
3.6.3 DF - Cumulative Probability Density Function
Pint = P ( C/I < C/I thr) P int 1 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0
DF - Cumulative Probability Density Function
D
R
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Distance from serving cell
3.6 Interference Probability
3.6.4 Interference Probability dependent on Average Reuse
ARCS = Pint [%]
# of frequencies in used bandwidth average # of carriers per cell Examples: Pint[%] ARCS 10 6.5...9 7.5 7...9.5 5 8.5...11 2.5 12...16
12 9 6 3 0
5
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10
15
20
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25
ARCS
3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
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3.7 Carrier Types
3.7.1 Carrier Types - BCCH carrier BCCH frequency is on air all the time If there is no traffic/signaling on TS 1 to 7 dummy bursts are transmitted PC (Power Control) and DTX (Discontinuous Transmission) are not allowed Important for measurements of the mobile
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The BCCH frequency must be transmitted with full power all the time! Otherwise the measurements of the neighborcell levels would be useless.
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3.7 Carrier Types
3.7.2 Carrier Types - TCH carrier PC allowed and recommended for UL and DL Reduction of transmit power according to the actual path loss Careful parameter tuning for DL necessary
DTX allowed and recommended for UL and DL Discontinuous Transmission If there is no speech, nothing is transmitted Generation of comfort noise at receiving mobile
TCH not in use
no signal is transmitted
Special case: Concentric cells Different re-uses for inner and outer zone are possible
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PC and DTX are reducing the overall interference in the network. As a TCH is not transmitting anything when not in use, the interference level is strongly related to the traffic on the interfereing cells.
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3.8 Multiple Reuse Pattern MRP
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3.8 Multiple reuse pattern
3.8.1 Meaning of multiple reuse pattern (1) For different types of carriers, different interference potential is expected As the BCCH carrier has the highest interferer potential because of being on air all the time and the BCCH channel itself is accepting only low interference, the REUSE on the BCCH layer is higher then on other layers TCH layers can be planned with a smaller REUSE Inner zones of concentric cells are able to deal with the smallest reuse in non hopping networks
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3.8 Multiple reuse pattern
3.8.2 Meaning of multiple reuse pattern (2)
REUSE clusters for INNER ZONE layer TCH layer
BCCH layer
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When applying different reuses in the different cell layers, of course separated bands are necessary!
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3.8 Multiple reuse pattern
3.8.3 GSM restrictions Intra site minimum channel spacing 2 Intra cell minimum channel spacing 2 (ETSI recommends 3, but with Alcatel EVOLIUM capabilities this value can be set to 2) constrains:
fC
, ,1 f C2
,...
f C3
fA1,fA2,fA3,...
Uplink power control enabled Intra cell interference handover enabled
fB
Frequencies fAx,fBx,fCx,… must have at least 2 channels spacing Frequencies fx1,fx2,fx3,… must have at least 3 channels spacing
1 ,f B2 ,
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fB
3 ,.
.. All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2010
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The Intra cell minimum channel spacing of 3 is given by the combiner in the BTS, to avaoid IM problems Important remark: the whole training is compliant to the co-cell constraint of 3 channels ; this is more restrictive than the BTS capability of filtering the channels on frequency n*200 kHz Acc to A.Krause: for Evolium BTS standard equipped with WBC the co-cell constraint can be only 2 channels. (A channel spacing of 2 was tested @Vodacom in 1999 but the result was not better than with channel spacing of 3.)
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3.9 Intermodulation
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3.9 Intermodulation
3.9.1 Intermodulation problems (1) IM Products GSM900 In a GSM 900 system intermodulation products of 3rd and 5th order can cause interference 2 * f1,t – f2,t = f2,r / 2 * f2,t – f1,t = f1,r 3 * f1,t – 2 * f2,t = f2,r / 3 * f2,t – 2 * f1,t = f1,r
Frequency planning must avoid fulfilling these equations Both frequencies must be on the same duplexer To avoid intra band IM inside GSM900 the following frequency separations shall be avoided: 75/112/113 channels
IM5
IM3
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Info from techn. dept: If a WBC has to be used because of the number of TRXs, the output power is not high enough to cause problems. -> No intermodulation problems .
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3.9 Intermodulation
3.9.2 Intermodulation problems (2) IM Products GSM1800 In a GSM 1800 system, only intermodulation products of 3rd order can cause measurable interference 2 * f1,t – f2,t = f2,r / 2 * f2,t – f1,t = f1,r Frequency separations to be avoided 237/238 channels
IM Products Dual Band (GSM900/GSM1800) f1800,t – f900,t = f900,r Decoupling between the GSM 1800 TX path and the GSM 900 RX path is less than 30 dB (e.g. same antenna used!)
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3.9 Intermodulation
3.9.3 Intermodulation problems (3) - Summary INSIDE Problem: IM3 / IM5 carrier/antenna G3 900 1 G3 900 2 ore more G3 1800 1 G3 1800 2 or more carrier/antenna G2 900 w/o dupl 1 2 or more G2 900 with dupl 1 2 or more G2 1800 w/o dupl 1 2 or more G2 1800 with dupl 1 2 2
OUTSIDE Problem: Dual Band Colocated BTSs G3 900 G2/G3 1800 G2 900 w/o dupl
G2/G3 1800
G2 900 with dupl
G2/G3 1800
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Problem can be solved by hopping over more than 10 frequencies
restriction no 112/113 (IM3) and 75 (IM5) no 237/238 (IM3) no IM5 quality degradation measurable no no no 112/113 (IM3) and 75 (IM5) no no no dud2(high Power) -> no dupd -> 237/238
Problem only for non hopping and BCCH carriers f(1800,t) - f(900,t) = f(900,r) no f(1800,t) - f(900,t) = f(900,r)
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Caution: SFH doesn’t bring additional benefits when hopping over more than 4 frequencies
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3.9 Intermodulation
3.9.4 Treating “neighbor” cells Cells, which are not declared as neighbor cells but are located in the neighborhood may use adjacent frequencies if it is not avoidable, but no co channel frequencies Cells which are declared as neighbors, thus have HO relationships, must not use co or adjacent frequencies If an adjacent frequency is used, the HO will be risky and at least audible by the
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3.9 Intermodulation
3.9.5 Where can I find neighbor cells? At the OMC-R for each cell a list of neighbor cells is defined Maximum number of neighbors: 32 The list of neighbors and their frequencies is transmitted to the mobile to be able to perform measurements on these frequencies In case of a HO cause, the HO will be performed towards the best neighbor
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.10 Manual frequency planning
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3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
3.10.1 Frequency planning (1) No fixed method Free frequency assignment possible, but very time consuming for larger networks For easy and fast frequency planning: use group assignment Example: 18 channels, 2TRX per cell
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ARCS 9
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3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
3.10.2 Frequency planning (2)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 A1 B1 A2 B2 A3 B3 A4 B4 A5
GSM restrictions are automatically fulfilled, if on one site only groups A* or only B* are used
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3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
3.10.3 Exercise: Manual frequency planning (1)
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A1 A2
A2 A3
B4
B1 A4 B2
B1 B3
B2
A1 A2
A5
A3 A4
B2
A5
B4
A1 A2
A2
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A3
B1
3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
3.10.4 Exercise: Manual frequency planning (2)
A1 A2
A2 A3
B2
B1 B1
B3
B2
B2
A5 A1
A4
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A5
B4
A3 A2
A4
B4
A1 A2
A3
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A2
B1
3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
3.10.5 Discussion: Subdivide frequency band?
Any subdivision of the frequency band is reducing the spectrum efficiency! Separations should be avoided if possible! As the BCCH has to be very clean, it is nevertheless recommended to use a separated band and select a bigger reuse
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The focus in the discussion is not the fx band splitting by fx management authorities.
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3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
3.10.6 Hint for creating a future proofed frequency plan If a frequency plan is implemented, using all available frequencies in the most efficient way, it is very difficult to implement new sites in the future! New sites would make a complete re-planning of the surrounding area or the whole frequency plan necessary To avoid replanning every time when introducing new sites, it is recommended to keep some Joker frequencies free These Joker frequencies can be used for new sites (especially BCCH TRXs) unless it is impossible to implement new sites without changing a big part of the frequency plan New frequency plan necessary!
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3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
3.10.7 Implementing a frequency plan
If only a few frequencies have to be changed, the changes can be done at the OMC-R Disadvantage: Every cell has to be modified separately Downtime of the cell approx. 5 minutes
If lots of changes have to be done, it is of advantage to use external tools Since B6.2 the complete frequency plan can be ed from the OMC the ed file can be modified by the tool (A9155 PRC Generator) the the new plan is ed into the network and activated at once
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.11 BSCI planning
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3.11 BSIC Planning
3.11.1 BSCI allocation Together with the frequencies the Base Transceiver Station Identity Code (BSIC) has to be planned The BSIC is to distinguish between cells using the same BCCH frequency BSIC = NCC (3bits) + BCC (3bits) NCC Network (PLMN) Colour Code
BCC - Base Transceiver Station (BTS) Colour Code
BSIC planning is ed by the A9155 (Alcatel Radio Network Planning Tool)
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3.11 BSIC Planning
3.11.2 BSIC planning rules The same combination BCCH/BSIC must not be used on cell influencing on each other (having a mutual interference <>0) BSIC allocation rules: Avoid using same BCCH/BSIC combination of: neighbor cells second order neighbor cells (the neighbors of neighbor cell (OMC limitation))
C
B
neighbor Cell BCCH:24 neighbor Cell
A
BSIC: must NOT be 36
BCCH:24 BSIC:36
Serving Cell BCCH:10 BSIC: any
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3.11 BSIC Planning
3.11.3 Spurious RACH Bad BSIC planning can cause SDCCH congestion cause by the spurious RACH problem, also known as “Ghost RACH” This problem occurs, when a mobile sends an HO access burst to a TRX of cell A using the same frequency as a nearby cell B uses on the BCCH Both cells using the same BSIC and Training Sequence Code TSQC, the HO access burst is understood by the cell B as a RACH for call setup Therefore on cell B SDCCHs are allocated everytime a HO access burst is sent from the mobile to the cell A
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If in cell B the BCCH and TRX 2 exchange their frequencies (BCCH gets the fx of TRX2 and TRX2 gets the fx of BCCH): no problem with spurious RACH
Cell B F1 F2 BSIC=1
Cell C
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Cell A F5 F1 BSIC=1
3.11 BSIC Planning
3.11.4 Summary For optimal usage of your frequency spectrum a good cell design is essential Use larger reuse for BCCH frequencies Use spectrum splitting only when necessary
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques
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3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques
3.12.1 Capacity enhancement by planning Interference reduction of cells Check of antenna type, direction and down tilt This is a check of cell size, border and orientation
Check of proper cabling Is TX and RX path on the same sector antenna?
Check of the frequency plan Introduction of a better frequency plan
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3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques
3.12.2 Capacity enhancement by adding feature Frequency hopping Base band hopping Synthesized frequency hopping
Concentric cells Half rate
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3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques
3.12.3 Capacity enhancement by adding TRX Adding TRX to existing cells Multi band cells Concentric cells
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3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques
3.12.4 Capacity enhancement by adding cells Adding of cells at existing site locations Adding new cell = adding new BCCH Dual band Adding cells using another frequency band
Cell splitting Reduction of cell size Change of one omni cell into several cells/sector cells
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3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques
3.12.5 Capacity enhancement by adding sites Dual band/multi band network Adding of new sites in new frequency band
Multi layer network Adding of new sites in another layer E.g. adding micro cells for outdoor coverage
Indoor coverage Adding micro cells indoor coverage Adding macro cells indoor coverage
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4 Radio Interface 4.1 GSM Air Interface
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4.1 GSM Air Interface
4.1.1 Radio Resources
Radio Spectrum Allocation
Frequency (FDMA)
Time (TDMA)
Carrier Frequencies (ARFCN) Cell Allocation (CA)
Timeslot 0
<7
Mobile Allocation (MA)
1 · 1 · 400
FDMA TDMA ARFCN TN FN
TDMA Frames 0
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4.1 GSM Air Interface
4.1.2 GSM Transmission Principles (1) FDMA and TDMA with 8 time slots per carrier RF frequency band (880) 890 ... 915 MHz Uplink (MS → BS) (925) 935 ... 960 MHz Downlink (BS → MS) 1710 ... 1785 MHz Uplink 1805 ... 1880 MHz Downlink
(E)GSM: GSM1800:
200 kHz bandwidth Number of carriers: GSM: Flower E-GSM: Flower Flower DCS : Flower
(n) (n) (n) (n)
124 (GSM); 374 (DCS); 49 (E-GSM)
= 890 + 0.2 · n = 890 + 0.2 · n = 890 + 0.2 · (n -1024) = 1710.2 + 0.2 · (n - 512)
MHz MHz MHz MHz
with with with with
(E)GSM: Fupper (n) = Flower (n) + 45 MHz DCS: Fupper (n) = Flower (n) + 95 MHz
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1 ≤ n ≤ 124 0 ≤ n ≤ 124 975 ≤ n ≤ 1023 512 ≤ n ≤ 885
4.1 GSM Air Interface
4.1.3 GSM Transmission Principles (2) Channel types Traffic Channels (TCH) Full rate Half rate
Control Channels (CCH) Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) Common Control Channel (CCCH) Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)
TDMA frame cycles 26 cycle for traffic channels 51 cycle for control channels
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4.1 GSM Air Interface
4.1.4 Advantages of Signal Processing
Bad propagation conditions
Spectrum limitations Operator
P t Good spectrum efficiency
1 · 1 · 403
Good transmission quality
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4.1 GSM Air Interface
4.1.5 Signal Processing Chain
stealing bit and FACCH speech input speech coding
error protection
interleaving
encryption
Loss Noise Interference Fading speech output speech decoding
error correction
de-interleaving
decryption
stealing bit and FACCH
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modulation
radio channel
demodulation
4 Radio Interface
4.2 Channel Coding
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.1 Speech Coding
Coding algorithm: RPE-LTP
20 ms of coded speech
Pre-computation RPE = Regular Pulse Excitation Model of human voice generation
260 bits speech block
LTP = Long Term Prediction Reduction of bit rate
Bit rate: 13 kBit/s 182 class 1 bits
78 class 2 bits
sensitive to bit errors must be protected
robust to bit errors
Coding at fixed network: PCM A-law Bit rate: 64 kBit/s
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.2 Error Protection Speech (full rate)
Messages (signalling data)
260 bits Class 1a
184 bits
Fire Code 184
Class 1b
50 bits
Cyclic code
Parity check
4 0
Convolutional Code r = 1/2, K = 5
4
Tail bits
5 0
78 bits
Tail bits
3
132
4
Convolutional Code r = 1/2, K = 5
456 = 24 x 19
37 8 456 bits in 20 ms = 22.6 kbit/s
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Class 2
132 bits
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78
= 456 = 8 x 57
4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.3 Interleaving and TDMA Frame Mapping
57 bits Block n (456 bits) Block n-1 (456 bits) 0123 4 5 6 7 0123 4 5 6 7
Block n+1 (456 bits) 0123 4 5 6 7 Interleaving
2 x 57 bits
.... 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits .
.... . Addition of stealing flags
.... 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits .
.... . Mapping onto bursts
.... .
burst n-3
burst n-2 burst n-1
burst n
burst n+1 burst n+2 burst n+3 burst n+4
1 time slot
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.... .
4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.4 Encryption
Network Algorithm A3
AuC IMSI Ki
Ki
Random number generator
Mobile station
Authenticatio n yes/no +
Algorithm A3
SRES (32 bit)
RAND (128 bit)
Ki RAND
RAND
Algorithm A8
Algorithm A8 Kc
Kc (64 bit)
Algorithm A5 original data
+
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Algorithm A5 encrypte d data
encrypte d data
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+
original data
SIM Card
4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.5 Burst Structure A burst contains one data "portion" of one timeslot TDMA frame: time between two bursts with same timeslot number The burst also consists of:
Normal Burst
Guard period (GP): allows for transition and settling times Tail bits: allow for small shifts in time delay (synchronisation) Stealing flags: to indicate FACCH (control channel) data Training sequence: for equalization purposes
TDMA frame = 4.615 ms
0
1
2
Data GP 3
57 bits
tail bits
3
4
5
Training Sequence 1
26 bits
6
1
stealing flags
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0
Data
156.25 bit periods = 0.577 ms
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7
57 bits
3 GP tail bits
4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.4 Synchronisation
1
transmitted from BTS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 (downlink)
0 1 2 3 1 2
4
0 1 2
2
TT
TT
1 2
3 RACH
non-synchronized
3 TS delay
received at BTS (uplink) received at MS (downlink) transmitted from MS (uplink)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 TT
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 TT
synchronized
MS delay line setting
Transmitted bursts need a travelling time (TT) to the receiver For network access, the MS sends a (non-synchronized) shortened RACH burst The BSS measures the TT and generates a timing advance value TA which is transmitted to the MS
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.5 Modulation Gaussian minimum shift keying Based on phase shift keying Reduction of required bandwidth Maximum phase change during one bit duration Baseband filtering to achieve continuous phase changes
cos Data
∫
ϕ
x
≈
+ 90°
sin
1 · 1 · 412
x
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to RF modulator
4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.6 Propagation Environment Radio propagation is characterised by dispersive multipath caused by reflection and scattering Moving MS causes Doppler spectrum → Definition of propagation models in the time domain to allow channel simulations TUxx (Typical Urban) RAxx (Rural Area) HTxx (Hilly Terrain) xx = speed in km/h
see also GSM 05.05, 11.20, 11.21 1 · 1 · 413
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.7 Equalizing Purpose: equalize distortions in transmission spectrum Adaptive filtering required 0.1
Filter parameters determined out of the training sequence Filter parameters change from burst to burst
BER
Equalizer takes advantage from multipath propagation (path diversity) 0.01
Equalizer none Alcatel MLSE 0.001 0
1
2
3
4
5
Delay of second path [chips]
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6
7
8
4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.8 Definition of Bit Error Rates FER = Frame Erasure Rate Ratio of corrupted frames, indicated by a wrong CRC (cyclic redundancy checksum) and BFI (bad frame indicator)
RBER = Residual Bit Error Rate considering corrupted frames not recognized as bad frames
BER = total bit error rate Consideration of class 1 or 2 bits → e.g. RBER1b, RBER2
see also GSM 05.05, 11.20, 11.21 1 · 1 · 415
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.9 Speech Quality
BER >0.01 <0.005 <0.0025 <0.0003 <0.0001
Thresholds:
Quality no communication “bad” “marginal” “good” “excellent”
1 · 1 · 416
C/I: Ec/No: BTS (GSM900): HH (GSM900): BTS (GSM1800): HH (GSM1800):
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HH - handheld
RXQUAL_0
BER <0,2%
RXQUAL_1
0,2%
<0,4%
RXQUAL_2
0,4%
<0,8%
RXQUAL_3
0,8%
<1,6%
RXQUAL_4
1,6%
<3,2%
RXQUAL_5
3,2%
<6,4%
RXQUAL_6
6,4%
<12,8%
RXQUAL_7
12,8%
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9 dB 8 dB -104 dBm -102 dBm -104 dBm -100 dBm
4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.10 Dependence of BER on Noise and Interference
BER1 for marginal speech quality: 0.25% required C/I ≈ 9 dB for TU50 environment but: signal must not be close to noise floor!
BER1 →
Variation of BER1 over C/I Parameter: Ec/N0 How to find a quality figure?
TU50
C/I [dB] →
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.13 Frequency Hopping (1) 0 Lognormal fading Raleygh fading
-10
-20
Received Power [dBm]
Problem: specific fading pattern for each used frequency Fast MS cope with the situation (due to signal processing) Slow MS suffer from fading holes Solution: change the fading pattern by frequency hopping
-30
-40
-50
-60
Fading holes
1 · 1 · 418
Distance [m]
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49.9
47.3
44.7
42.1
39.4
36.8
34.2
31.6
29.0
26.3
23.7
21.1
18.5
15.9
13.2
10.6
8.0
5.4
2.8
0.1
-70
4.2 Channel Coding
Variation of BER1 over Ec/N0 TU environment, flat fading, v = 0 km/h (worst case) Parameter: number of hopping frequencies
BER →
4.2.14 Frequency Hopping (2)
Compensation with 4 hopping frequencies possible
Ec/N0 [dB] →
1 · 1 · 419
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.15 The OSI Reference Model
Application layer 7 Presentation layer 6 Session layer
5
Transport layer 4 Network layer 3
04.07/08 08.58/4.0 8 04.05/06 08.56
Data link layer 2 Physical layer 1
04.04 08.54
End system
Transportation system
End system
Definition in GSM recommendations: layers 1 to 3 Notion of "Physical" channels and "Logical" channels
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.16 GSM Burst Types (1) Normal Burst
For regular transmission
Frequency Correction Burst
Contains 142 zeros (0) → pure sine wave Allows synchronisation of the mobile's local oscillator
Synchronisation Burst
Consists of an enlarged unique training sequence code (TSC) Contains the actual FN → time synchronisation
Access Burst
Shortened burst (unique TSC and enlarged guard period) Timeslot overlapping avoided at BTS when MS accesses network
Dummy Burst
"Filler" for unused BCCH timeslots → BCCH permanently on air Similar to normal burst (defined mixed bits for data, no stealing flag)
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.17 GSM Burst Types (2) Normal burst TB 3
57 data bits
1
26 bit training 1 sequence
57 data bits
TB GP 3 8.25
Frequency correction burst TB 3
TB GP 3 8.25
142 fixed bits (pure sine wave)
Synchronisation burst TB 3
64 bit training sequence
39 data bits
39 data bits
Access burst TB 41 bit synchronisation 8 sequence
1 · 1 · 422
36 data bits
TB 3
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enlarged GP 68.25 bit
TB GP 3 8.25
4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.18 Logical Channels
Traffic channel
Control channel
Speech
Data
Broadcast channel
CCCH
TCH/FS
TCH/F9.6
FCCH
RACH
FACCH
SDCCH
TCH/HS
TCH/F4.8
SCH
PCH
SACCH
CBCH
TCH/F2.4
BCCH
AGCH
TCH/H4.8 TCH/H2.4
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Associated Dedicated channel channel
4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.19 Possible Channel Combinations
1
TCH/F+FACCH/F+SACCH/TF
2
TCH/H(0.1)+FACCH/H(0.1)+SACCH/TH(0.1)
3
TCH/H(0.0)+FACCH/H(0.1)+SACCH/TH(0.1)+TCH/H(1.1)
4
FCCH+SCH+BCCH+CCCH
5
FCCH+SCH+BCCH+CCCH+SDCCH/4(0..3)+SACCH/C4(0..3)
6
BCCH+CCCH
7
SDCCH/8(0..7)+SACCH/C8(0..7)
CCCH = PCH+RACH+AGCH Combination 4 and 5 is only possible on TS0 of the first (BCCH) carrier Combination 6 is possible on TS2, TS4, or TS6 of the BCCH carrier
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.20 Channel Mapping (1)
.......
0 12 3 4 5 6 70 12 3 4 5 6 7 0 12 3 4 5 6 7 0 12 3 4
....... time
.......
one TDMA frame = 4.616 ms
Presentation of consecutive TDMA frames on the vertical axis
1 · 1 · 425
Information packages are always related to the same timeslot number! Bursts are transmitted and received every TDMA frame duration (4.616 ms)
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.21 Channel Mapping (2) not combined BCCH 0
combined BCCH
downlink
uplink
FCCH
RACH
FCCH
downlink FCCH
SCH
RACH
SCH
SCH
BCCH
BCCH
TCH
uplink
SDCCH3
SDCCH3
RACH
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH
RACH
TCH
SACCH0
SACCH2
RACH
FCCH
FCCH
RACH
SCH
SCH
TCH SACCH3
RACH
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH
CCCH
CCCH
RACH
RACH
RACH
TCH
FCCH
RACH
FCCH
FCCH
RACH
RACH
TCH
SCH
RACH
RACH
SCH
SCH
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
25
RACH
RACH
RACH
0
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH
SDCCH0
SDCCH1 RACH
TCH
RACH
RACH
TCH
FCCH
FCCH
RACH
RACH
TCH
SCH
RACH
SCH
SCH
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH SDCCH2
SDCCH2
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
SDCCH0
SDCCH0
RACH SDCCH3
RACH
FCCH
FCCH
TCH
SCH
RACH
SCH
SCH
TCH
RACH
SDCCH3
SDCCH0
SDCCH0
SDCCH4
SDCCH4
SDCCH1
SDCCH1
SDCCH5
SDCCH5
SDCCH2
SDCCH2
SDCCH6
SDCCH6
30
SDCCH3
SDCCH3
SDCCH7
SDCCH7
SDCCH4
SDCCH4
SACCH0
SACCH4
SDCCH5
SDCCH5
SACCH1
SACCH5
SDCCH6
SDCCH6
SACCH2
SACCH6
SDCCH7
SDCCH7
SACCH3
SACCH7
SACCH0
SACCH4
40
TCH SDCCH1
SDCCH1
RACH
TCH SACCH0
SACCH2
RACH
TCH
RACH
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH
RACH
RACH
TCH
RACH
TCH SACCH1
SACCH3
RACH
TCH SDCCH2
SDCCH2
RACH
TCH
RACH
TCH
25
1 · 1 · 426
SDCCH3
TCH
FCCH
CCCH
SACCH3
TCH
RACH
50
SACCH7
20
TCH 12 SACCH
SDCCH3
RACH
CCCH
SDCCH2
TCH
SDCCH1 RACH
40
SDCCH2
TCH
RACH
RACH
CCCH
SACCH2
TCH
FCCH
CCCH
SACCH6
SDCCH0
RACH CCCH
10
CCCH
RACH
30
SDCCH1
TCH CCCH
CCCH
SDCCH1
TCH 12 SACCH
SACCH1 RACH
20
SACCH1
TCH
RACH
SCH
CCCH
SACCH5
TCH
RACH
Traffic channels Follows a 26-cycle Duration: 120 msec
CCCH
FCCH
CCCH
SDCCH0
TCH CCCH
RACH
10
SDCCH0
TCH
RACH
Follows a 51-cycle Duration: 235.4 msec Consists mostly of four consecutive blocks Synchronisation with FCCH and SCH
uplink
TCH
RACH
CCCH
downlink 0
TCH
RACH
Control channels
TCH TCH
RACH BCCH
SDCCH
up/ downlink 0
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50
4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.22 TDMA Frame Structure for TCHs
Hyperframe
2048 superframes of 6.12 s duration
Superframe
51 multiframes of 120 ms duration
Multiframe Frame Time slot
3 h 28 m 53 s 6.12 s
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
0
TB 3
1 · 1 · 427
1
2
57 data bits
3
1
4
26 bit training 1 sequence
5
57 data bits
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6
7
TB 3
GP 8.2 5
120 ms 4.615 ms 0.577 ms
Abbreviations and Acronyms
AMR AMSS AN ARCS ARFCN AS AS ASMA ASMB AuC BC BCU BCLA BCR BCU BCCH BCF BG
Advanced Multi Rate (TC) Aeronautical Mobile Satellite Services Antenna Network (BTS) Average Reuse Cluster Size Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Access Switch (BSC) Alarm Surveillance (O&M) A-ter Submultiplexer A A-ter Submultiplexer B Authentication Center Broadcast Broadcast Unit BSC Clock A Broadcast Broadcast Unit Broadcast Common Control Channel (GSM TS) Base station Control Function (BTS) Border Gate (GPRS)
1 · 1 · 428
BIE BIEC BIUA BPA BSC BSIC BSS BSSGP BTS CAE CAL CBC CBCH CBE CCCH CCU
Base Station Interface Equipment Base Station Interface Equipment (BSC) Base Station Interface Unit A Back Assembly Base Station Controller Base Transceiver Station Identity Code Base Station (sub)System Base Station System GPRS Protocol (GPRS) Base Transceiver Station Customer Application Engineering Current Alarm List (O&M) Cell Broadcast Center Cell Broadcast Channel (GSM TS) Cell Broadcast Entity Common Control Channel (GSM TS) Channel Coding Unit
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Abbreviations and Acronyms [cont.]
CDMA CE CEK C/I CLK CLSI CMA CMDA CMFA R CRC CS CS CU DCE DCN DL
Code Division Multiple Access Control Element (BSC) Control Element Kernel Carrier to Interferer ratio Clock Custom Large Scale Integrated circuit Configuration Management Application (O&M) Common Memory Disk A Common Memory Flash A Common Processor (Type: RA, RC) Cyclic Redundancy Check Circuit Switching (Telecom) Coding Scheme (GPRS): CS-1, CS-2, CS-3, CS-4 Carrier Unit (BTS) Data Circuit Terminating Equipment Data Communication Network DownLink
1 · 1 · 429
DLS DMA DRFU DRX DSE DSN DTX DTC DTE EDGE EDA EI EML EPROM ETSI FPE FR
Data Load Segment Direct Memory Access Dual Rate Frame Unit Discontinuous Reception (GSM TS) Digital Switching Element Digital Switching Network Discontinuous Transmission (GSM TS) Digital Trunk Controller (Type: DTCA, DTCC) Data Terminal Equipment Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution Extended Dynamic Allocation Extension interface Element Management Level Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory European Telecom Standard Institute Functional and Protective Earth Full Rate (GSM TS)
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Abbreviations and Acronyms [cont.]
FR FRDN FU FW GCR GGSN GMLC GMM GMSC GPRS GPU GS-1 GS-2 GSL GSM GSM TS HAL HDSL HDLC
Frame Relay (Telecom) Frame Relay Data Network (Telecom) Frame Unit (BTS) Firmware Group Call Gateway GPRS Node (GPRS) Gateway Mobile Location Center GPRS Mobility Management (GPRS) Gateway Mobile Switching Center General Packet Radio Service GPRS Packet Unit Group Switch of stage 1 (BSC) Group Switch of stage 2 (BSC) GPRS Signalling Link Global System for Mobile Communications GSM Technical Specification Historical Alarm List (O&M) High rate Digital Subscriber Line High Level Datalink Control
1 · 1 · 430
HLR HMI HO HR HW IDR ILCS IMT IND IP ISDN IT LA LAC LAN LED LEO LCS
Home Location Human Machine Interface HandOver Half Rate Hardware Internal Directed Retry ISDN Link Controller Installation and Maintenance Terminal (MFS) Indoor (BTS) Internet Protocol Integrated Services Data Network Intelligent Terminal Location Area (GSM TS) Location Area Code (GSM TS) Local Area Network Light Emitting Diode Low Earth Orbit (Satellite) Location Services
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Abbreviations and Acronyms [cont.]
PCH PCM PCU PDCH PDN PDU PLL PLMN PMA PMC PPCH PRACH Prec PRC PSDN
Paging CHannel (GSM TS) Pulse Coded Modulation Packet Control Unit (GPRS) Packet Data CHannel Packet Data Network (Telecom) Protocol Data Unit (generic terminology) Phase Locked Loop Public Land Mobile Network Prompt Maintenance Alarm (O&M) Permanent Measurement Campaign (O&M) Packet Paging CHannel (GPRS) Packet Random Access CHannel (GPRS) Received Power Provisioning Radio Configuration (O&M) Packet Switching Data Network (Telecom)
1 · 1 · 431
PSTN PTP-CNLS QoS RA RACH RAM R RLC RLP RML RNO RNP RSL
Public Switching Telephone Network (Telecom) Point To Point CoNnectionLeSs data transfer (GPRS) Quality of Service Radio Access Random Access CHannel (GSM TS) Random Access Memory Radio Control Point Radio Link Control (GPRS) Radio Link Protocol (GSM TS) Radio Management Level Radio Network Optimisation Radio Network Planning Radio Signalling Link
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Abbreviations and Acronyms [cont.]
RTS RxLev RxQual SACCH SAU SC SCC S SC SCSI SDCCH SDU SGSN SIEA
Radio Time Slot Received Level Received Quality Slow Associated Control Channel (GSM TS) Subrack assembly unit (BSC) Supervised Configuration (O&M) Serial Communication Controller Service Control Point Signalling Connection Control Part Small Computer Systems Interface Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (GSM TS) Service Data Unit (generic terminology) Serving GPRS Node (GPRS) SCSI Interface Extension A
1 · 1 · 432
SM SMLC SMP SMS SMS-CB SM-GMSC SRAM SRS SS7 SSD SSP SW SWEL TBF TAF
Submultiplexer Serving Mobile Location Center Service Management Point Short Message Service Short Message Service - Cell Broadcast Short Message Gateway Mobile Switching Center Static RAM SubRate Switch Signalling System ITU-T N°7 (ex CCITT) Solid State Disk Service Switching Point Software Switch Element Temporary Block Flow (GPRS) Terminal Adaptor Function
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Abbreviations and Acronyms [cont.]
TC TC TCC TCH TCIL TCSM TCU TDMA TFO TFTS TLD TMN TRAC TRAU TRCU TRE TRS TRU
Transcoder Terminating Call Trunk Controller Chip Traffic CHannel (GSM TS) TransCoder Internal Link TransCoder / SubMultiplexer equipment TRX Control Unit (Type: TCUA, TCUC) Time Division Multiple Access Tandem Free Operation (TC) Terrestrial Flight Telecom Systems Top Level Design Telecommunication Management Network Trunk Access Circuit Transcoder and Rate Adapter Unit Transcoder Unit Transceiver Equipment Technical Requirement Specification Top Rack Unit
1 · 1 · 433
TRX TS TS TSS TSCA TSU TU UL UMTS USSD VBS VGCS VLR VPLMN VSWR WAN WAP WBC
Transceiver Time Slot Technical Specification (GSM TS) Time Space Switch Transmission Sub-System Controller A (BSC) Terminal Sub Unit (BSC) Terminal Unit (BSC) UpLink Universal Mobile Transmission System Unstructured Supplementary Services Data Voice Broadcast Service Voice Group Code Service Visitor Location Visited PLMN Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (BTS) Wide Area Network Wireless Application Protocol Wide Band Combiner
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End of Module Basics
1 · 1 · 434
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