Basic Features Of Hinduism w3t2n

Basic Features of Hinduism:Concept of God Main article: God in Hinduism Hinduism

is

a

diverse

system

of

spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, [81]

thought

with

andatheism among

beliefs others;

[78][79][80]

and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and

philosophy followed. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.[82] The Rig Veda, the oldest scripture and the mainstay of Hindu philosophy does not take a restrictive view on the fundamental question of God and the creation of universe. It rather lets the individual seek and discover answers in the quest of life. Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) of the Rig Veda thus says[83][84]: Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul — the true "self" of every person, called the ātman — is eternal.[85] According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as AdvaitaVedanta school), this Atman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Hence, these schools are called nondualist.[86] The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realize that one's ātman is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.[87] The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self realizes an identity with Brahman and thereby reaches moksha (liberation or freedom).[85][88] In Bhaagawada Gita, for example, God is the sole repository of Gunas (attributes) also, as[94] His hands and feet are everywhere, He looks everywhere and all around, His eyes, ears and face point to all directions, and all the three worlds are surrounded by these. The schools of Vedanta and Nyaya states that karma itself proves the existence of God .[89][90] Nyaya being the school of logic.

Karma and samsara Main article: Karma in Hinduism Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed,[104] and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect".[105] According to the Upanishads an individual, known as the jiva-atma, develops sanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The linga sharira, a body more subtle than the physical one but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.[106] Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral, and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to reincarnation as well as to one's personality, characteristics, and family. Karma binds together the notions of free will and destiny. This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states:

“

As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes, similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)[107]

”

Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth so as to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.[108][109] It is thought that after several reincarnations, an atman eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).

Goal of Life/Moksha However, there is dual concept regarding Moksha:- The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is understood in several different ways: as the realization of one's union with God; as the realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; as the attainment of perfect mental peace; and as detachment from worldly desires. Such realization liberates one from samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth. [110][111]

Due to belief in the indestructibility of the soul,[112] death is deemed insignificant with respect to the

cosmic self.[113] Thence, a person who has no desire or ambition left and no responsibilities remaining in life or one affected by a terminal disease may embrace death by Prayopavesa.[114] The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but as identical with Brahman in all respects. The followers ofDvaita (dualistic) schools identify themselves as part of Brahman, and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka(heaven),[115] in the company of their chosen form of Ishvara. Thus, it is said that the followers of dvaita wish to "taste sugar", while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar".[116]

Objectives of human life

Main article: Purusharthas See also: Initiation, Dharma, Artha, Kāma, and Mokṣa Classical Hindu thought accepts the following objectives of human life, that which is sought as human purpose, aim, or end, is known as thepuruṣārthas:[117][118]

Dharma (righteousness, ethikos) The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad views dharma as the universal principle of law, order, harmony, all in all truth, that sprang first from Brahman. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is sat (truth), a major tenet of Hinduism. This hearkens back to the conception of the Rig Vedathat "Ekam Sat," (Truth Is One), of the idea that Brahman is "Sacchidananda" (Truth-Consciousness-Bliss). Dharma is not just law, or harmony, it is pure Reality. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad's own words: Verily, that which is Dharma is truth, Therefore they say of a man who speaks truth, "He speaks the Dharma,"or of a man who speaks the Dharma, "He speaks the Truth.", Verily, both these things are the same.—(Brh. Upanishad, 1.4.14) (2) In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word Sanātana means 'eternal', 'perennial', or 'forever'; thus, 'Sanātana Dharma' signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.[119]

Artha (livelihood, wealth) Artha is objective & virtuous pursuit of wealth for livelihood, obligations and economic prosperity. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy and material well-being. The doctrine of Artha is called Arthashastra, amongst the most famous of which is Kautilya Arthashastra.[120][121][122]

Kāma (sensual pleasure) Kāma (Sanskrit, Pali; Devanagari: काम) means desire, wish, ion, longing, pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love.[123][124]

Mokṣ a (liberation, freedom from samsara) Moksha (Sanskrit: मोक mokṣa) or mukti (Sanskrit: मुिक), literally "release" (both from a root muc "to let loose, let go"), is the last goal of life. It is liberation from samsara and the concomitant suffering involved in being subject to the cycle of repeated death and reincarnation.[125]

Basic Features of Christianity:Commandments The Ten Commandments, are a set of biblical principles relating to ethics and worship, which play a fundamental role in Judaism and most forms of Christianity. They include instructions to worship only God and to keep the Sabbath, and prohibitions against idolatry,blasphemy, murder, theft, and adultery. Different groups follow slightly different traditions for interpreting and numbering them. According to the synoptic gospels, Christ generalised the law into two underlying principles; The first is Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one; and you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind, and with all your strength.While the second is You shall love your neighbor as yourself.[Matthew 22:34-40][Mark 12:28-33] These are in fact quotes fromDeuteronomy 6:4 and Leviticus 19:18. Barnes' Notes on the New Testament comments on these verses saying: "These comprehend the substance of what Moses in the law, and what the prophets have spoken. What they have said has been to endeavour (sic) to win men to the love of God and each other. Love to God and man comprehends the whole [of] religion; and to produce this has been the design of Moses, the prophets, the Saviour, and the apostles."[44]

The Ten Commandments

Phi Tal Aug

— 1

Pre 1

—

—

Exodus 20:1-17

Deuteronomy 5:4-21

1 And God spake all these words,

4–5 The LORD talked with you face to face in the

saying,

mount out of the midst of the fire ... saying,

2 I am the LORD thy God, which have

6 I am the LORD thy God, which brought thee out of

brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out the land of Egypt, from the house of bondage. of the house of bondage.

1

2

1

3 Thou shalt have no other gods before 7 Thou shalt have none other gods before me. me.

2

2

1

4 Thou shalt not make unto thee any

8 Thou shalt not make thee any graven

graven image, or any likeness of any

image, or any likeness of any thing thatis in heaven

thing that is in heaven above, or that is in above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water the waters beneath the earth: under the earth:

2

2

1

5 Thou shalt not bow down thyself to

9 Thou shalt not bow down thyself unto them, nor

them, nor serve them: for I the LORD thy serve them: for I the LORDthy God am a jealous God am a jealous God, visiting the

God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the

iniquity of the fathers upon the children

children unto the third and fourth generation of them

unto the third and fourth generation of

that hate me,

them that hate me;

2

2

1

6 And shewing mercy unto thousands of 10 And shewing mercy unto thousands of them that them that love me, and keep my

love me and keep my commandments.

commandments.

3

3

2

7 Thou shalt not take the name of the

11 Thou shalt not take the name of the LORD thy

LORD thy God in vain; for the LORD will

God in vain: for the LORD will not hold him guiltless

not hold him guiltless that taketh his

that taketh his name in vain.

name in vain.

4

4

4

4

3

3

8 the sabbath day, to keep it 12 Keep the sabbath day to sanctify it, as the holy.

LORD thy God hath commanded thee.

9 Six days shalt thou labour, and do all

13 Six days thou shalt labour, and do all thy work:

thy work:

4

4

3

10 But the seventh day is the sabbath of 14 But the seventh day is the sabbath of the the LORD thy God: in it thou shalt not do LORD thy God: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy

nor thy son, nor thy daughter, nor thy manservant,

daughter, thy manservant, nor thy

nor thy maidservant, nor thine ox, nor thine ass, nor

maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy

any of thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy

stranger that is within thy gates:

gates; that thy manservant and thy maidservant may rest as well as thou.

4

4

3

11 For in six days the LORD made

15 And that thou wast a servant in the

heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in land of Egypt, and that the LORD thy God brought them is, and rested the seventh day:

thee out thence through a mighty hand and by a

wherefore the LORD blessed the sabbath stretched out arm: therefore the LORD thy God day, and hallowed it.

5

5

4

commanded thee to keep the sabbath day.

12 Honour thy father and thy mother: that 16 Honour thy father and thy mother, as the thy days may be long upon the land

LORD thy God hath commanded thee; that thy days

which the LORD thy God giveth thee.

may be prolonged, and that it may go well with thee,

in the land which the LORD thy God giveth thee.

6

6

5

13 Thou shalt not kill.

17 Thou shalt not kill.

7

7

6

14 Thou shalt not commit adultery.

18 Neither shalt thou commit adultery.

8

8

7

15 Thou shalt not steal.

19 Neither shalt thou steal.

9

9

8

16 Thou shalt not bear false witness

20 Neither shalt thou bear false witness against thy

against thy neighbour.

neighbour.

10 10 9

17 Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's 21 Neither shalt thou desire thy neighbour's wife, house,

10 10 10

thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's wife, neither shalt thou covet thy neighbour's house, his nor his manservant, nor his maidservant, field, or his manservant, or his maidservant, his ox, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any thing

or his ass, or any thing that is thy neighbour's.

that is thy neighbour's. * All scripture quotes above are from the King James Version. Click on verses at top of columns for other versions.

Salvation Main article: Salvation Paul of Tarsus, like Jews and Roman pagans of his time, believed that sacrifice can bring about new kinship ties, purity, and eternal life.[58] For Paul the necessary sacrifice was the death of Jesus: Gentiles who are "Christ's" are, like Israel, descendants of Abraham and "heirs according to the promise".[Gal. 3:29] [59] The God who raised Jesus from the dead would also give new life to the "mortal bodies" of Gentile Christians, who had become with Israel the "children of God" and were therefore no longer "in the flesh".[Rom. 8:9,11,16][58] Modern Christian churches tend to be much more concerned with how humanity can be saved from a universal condition of sin and death than the question of how both Jews and Gentiles can be in God's family. According to both Catholic and Protestant doctrine, salvation comes by Jesus' substitutionary death and resurrection. The Catholic Church teaches that salvation does not occur without faithfulness on the part of Christians; converts must live in accordance with principles of love and ordinarily must be baptized.[60] [61]

Martin Luther taught that baptism was necessary for salvation, but modern Lutherans and other

Protestants tend to teach that salvation is a gift that comes to an individual by God's grace, sometimes defined as "unmerited favor", even apart from baptism. Christians differ in their views on the extent to which individuals' salvation is pre-ordained by God. Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are completely incapable of self-redemption, but that sanctifying grace is irresistible.[62]In contrast Catholics, Orthodox Christians and Arminian Protestants believe that the exercise of free will is necessary to have faith in Jesus. [63]

Eschaton

Main article: Christian eschatology The end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world, broadly speaking is Christian eschatology; the study of the destiny of humans as it is revealed in the Bible. The major issues in Christian eschatology are the Tribulation, death and the afterlife, the Rapture, the Second Coming of Jesus, Resurrection of the Dead, Heaven and Hell, Millennialism, the Last Judgment, the end of the world, and the New Heavens and New Earth. Christians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the end of time after a period of severe persecution (the Great Tribulation). All who have died will be resurrected bodily from the dead for the Last Judgment. Jesus will fully establish the Kingdom of God in fulfillment of scriptural prophecies.[99][100]

Death and Afterlife Most Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the general judgement at theResurrection of the dead as well as the belief (held by Roman Catholics,[101][102] Orthodox[103][104] and most Protestants) in a judgment particular to the individual soul upon physical death. In Roman Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace, i.e., without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of purgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God's presence.[105] Those who have attained this goal are called saints(Latin sanctus, "holy").[106] Some Christian groups, including Anglicans, Lutherans and Seventh-day Adventists hold to mortalism, the belief that the human soul is not naturally immortal, and is unconscious during the intermediate state between bodily death and resurrection. These Christians also hold to Annihilationism, the belief that subsequent to the final judgement, the wicked will cease to exist rather than suffer everlasting torment. Jehovah's Witnesses hold to a similar view.[107]

Baptism Baptism is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which a person is itted to hip of the Church. Beliefs on baptism vary among denominations. Differences occur firstly, on whether the act has any spiritual significance, some churches hold to the doctrine ofBaptismal Regeneration, which affirms that baptism creates or strengthens a person’s faith, and is intimately linked to salvation, this view is held by Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches as well as Lutherans and Anglicans, while others simply acknowledge it as a purely symbolic act, an external public declaration of the inward change which has taken place in the person. Secondly, there are differences of opinion on the methodology of the act. These methods being: Baptism by Immersion; if immersion is total, Baptism by Submersion; and Baptism by Affusion (pouring) and Baptism by Aspersion (sprinkling). Those who hold the first view may also adhere to the tradition of Infant Baptism.[117]

Criticism of Christianity Main article: Criticism of Christianity Criticism of Christianity and Christians goes back to the Apostolic age, with the New Testament recording friction between the followers of Jesus and the Pharisees and scribes(e.g. Mark 7:1-23 and Matthew 15:120).[273] In the second century Christianity was criticized by the Jews on a various grounds, e.g. that the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible could not have been fulfilled by Jesus, given that he did not have a successful life.[274] By the third century criticism of Christianity had mounted, partly as a defense against it, and the 15 volume Adversus Christianos by Porphyry was written as a comprehensive attack on Christianity, in part building on the pre-Christian concepts of Plotinus.[275][276]

By the 12th century, the Mishneh Torah was criticizing Christianity on the grounds of idol worship, in that Christians attributed divinity to Jesus who had a physical body.[277] In the 19th century, Nietzsche began to write a series of attacks on the "unnatural" teachings of Christianity (e.g. avoidance of temptations), and continued anti-Christian attacks to the end of his life.[278] In the 20th century, the philosopher Bertrand Russell expressed his criticism of Christianity in Why I Am Not a Christian, formulating his rejection of Christianity in the setting of logical arguments.[279] Criticism of Christianity continues to date, e.g. Muslim theologians criticize the doctrine of the Trinity held by most Christians, stating that this doctrine in effect assumes that there are three Gods, running against the basic tenet of monotheism.[280]

Bible and Church and Feminine

45. “9. Neither was the man created for the woman; but the woman for the man.” I Corinthians, 11/9 Many feminists have accused notions such as a male God, male prophets, and the man-centred stories in the Bible of contributing to a patriarchy.[70] Though many women disciples and servants are recorded in the Pauline epistles, there have been occasions in which women have been denigrated and forced into a second-class status.[71][72] For example, women were told to keep silent in the churches for "it is a shame for a woman to speak in the church."[1 Cor. 14:34-35] Suffragist Elizabeth Cady Stanton said in The Woman's Bible that "the Bible in its teachings degrades Women from Genesis to Revelation".[73]

Incarnation Main article: Incarnation (Christianity) The earliest objections to incarnation come from Celsus and Porphyry.[citation needed] Celsus found it hard to reconcile Christian human God who was born and matured with his Jewish God who was supposed to be one and unchanging. He asked "if God wanted to reform humanity, why did he choose to descend and live on earth? How his brief presence in Jerusalem could benefit all the millions of people who lived elsewhere in the world or who had lived and died before his incarnation?"[115] One classical response is Lewis's trilemma, a syllogism popularised by C. S. Lewis that intended to demonstrate the logical inconsistency of both holding Jesus of Nazareth to be a "great moral teacher" while also denying his divinity. The logical soundness of this trilemma has been widely questioned.[116]

Second Coming Main article: Second Coming Several verses in the New Testament appear to contain Jesus' predictions that the Second Coming would take place within a century following his death.[142] Jesus appears to promise for his followers the second coming to happen before the generation he is preaching to vanishes. This is seen as an essential failure in the teachings of Christ by many critics such as Bertrand Russell.[143] However, Preterists argue that Jesus did not mean his second coming[Matt. 16:28] but speaks about demonstrations of his might, formulating this as 'coming in his kingdom', especially the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple 70 AD, which he foretold, and which definitely showed that God's nation are the Christians and not anymore the Jews whom God did not protect anymore. At that time really only some of his disciples still lived.[144] According to this view Matthew 10:23 should be understood in the same way.[145]

Hell and damnation

Christianity has been criticized as seeking to persuade people into accepting its authority through simple fear of punishment or, conversely, through hope of reward after death, rather than through rational argumentation or empirical evidence.[117] Traditional Christian doctrine dictates that, without faith in Jesus Christ or in the Christian faith in general, one is subject to eternal punishment in Hell.[118] Critics regard the eternal punishment of those who fail to adopt Christian faith as morally objectionable, and consider it an abhorrent picture of the nature of the world. On a similar theme objections are made against the perceived injustice of punishing a person for all eternity for a temporal crime. Some Christians agree (see Annihilationism and Trinitarian Universalism). These beliefs have been considered especially repugnant[119] when the claimed omnipotent God makes, or allows a person to come into existence, with a nature that desires that which God finds objectionable.[120]

ISLAM Articles of faith Main articles: Aqidah and Iman The core beliefs of Islam are that there is only one God – unitary and beyond comprehension – and that Muhammad is the prophet of God, the last in a series of prophets beginning with Adam. The Qur’an is upheld as the eternal, literal word of God, and revelations to earlier prophets, as seen in the Jewish Torah and Christian Gospels, are believed to have become distorted by human intervention. Muslims believe that the Qur’an was revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel, and belief in angels as God’s servants is part of the Islamic tradition. Belief in the Day of Judgment, when all people will undergo bodily resurrection and be judged by God, is another core tenet. While Sunni and Shi’a Muslims adhere to these basic beliefs, Shi’a also believe in the Imamate, the line of infallible spiritual and political leaders who succeeded Muhammad, beginning with his cousin and son-in-law,Ali.[22]

God Main article: God in Islam Islam's most fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawhīd (Arabic: ‫توحيد‬ ‫) د‬. God is described in chapter 112 of the Qur'an as:[23]"Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him." (112:1-4) Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism, but accept Jesus as a prophet. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God. God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahmān, meaning "The Comionate" and Al-Rahīm, meaning "The Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).[24] Muslims believe that creation of everything in the universe is brought into being by God’s sheer command “‘Be’ and so it is.”[25][26] and that thepurpose of existence is to love and serve God.[2][27] He is viewed as a personal God who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls Him.[25][28] There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to God who states “We are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein”[29] Allāh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews meaning the one God, while ʾ ilāh (Arabic:‫إله‬ ‫ ) ه‬is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[30] Other nonArab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanrı" in Turkish or "Khodā" in Persian.

Angels Main article: Islamic view of angels

Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (Arabic: ‫ملك‬ ‫ ك‬malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek(angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, and worship God in total obedience.[31] Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases..."[32]

Revelations Main articles: Islamic holy books and Qur'an See also: History of the Qur'an The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.[4] TheQur'an (literally, “Reading” or “Recitation”) is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal Word of God and is widely regarded as the finestpiece of literature work in the Arabic language.[33][34][35] Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl) on many occasions between 610 CE until his death on June 8, 632 CE.[36] While Muhammad was alive, all of these revelations were written down by his companions (sahabah), although the prime method of transmission was orally through memorization.[37] After the death of Muhammad, it was compiled in the time of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized under the istration of Uthman, the third caliph.

Prophets Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Arabic: ‫نبي‬ ‫ ي‬nabī ) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Qur'an[42]the descendants of Abraham and Imran were chosen by God to bring the "Will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the Will of God.

Resurrection and judgment Main article: Qiyama Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: ‫ )يوم القيامةة‬is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[44] On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds. The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief(Arabic: ‫كفر‬ ‫ ر‬Kufr), and dishonesty; however, the Qur'an makes it clear God will forgive the sins of those who repent if He so wills. [45]

Good deeds, such as charity and prayer, will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as

a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[46] Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Qur'an as Yawm ad-Dīn (Arabic: ‫ن‬ ‫)يوم الدين‬, "Day of Religion";[47] assā ʿah (Arabic: ‫الساعة‬ ‫ة‬ ), "the Last Hour";[48] and al-Qāriʿah (Arabic: ‫القارعة‬ ‫ة‬ ), "The Clatterer."[49]

Predestination Main article: Predestination in Islam

In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa'l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'..."[50] For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the "Preserved Tablet".[51]

Five pillars Main article: Five Pillars of Islam The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion") are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting during Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime. The Shia and Sunni sects both agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.[52]

Testimony Main article: Shahadah The Shahadah,[53] which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh", or "I testify there are no deities other than God alone and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[54]

Fasting Main article: Sawm Further information: Sawm of Ramadan Fasting, (Arabic: ‫صوم‬ ‫م‬ ṣawm), from food and drink (among other things) must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly. [60]

Etiquette and diet Main articles: Adab (behavior) and Islamic dietary laws Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "assalamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in agrave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[69]

JAINISMComion for all life, human and non-human, is central to Jainism. Main principles Jainism encourages spiritual development through cultivation of one's own personal wisdom and reliance on self control through vows (Sanskrit:वत, vrata).[16] The triple gems of Jainism - right vision or view (Samyak Darshana), right knowledge (Samyak Gyana) and right conduct (Samyak Charitra) - provide the path for attaining liberation from the cycles of birth and death. When the soul sheds its karmic bonds completely, it attains divine consciousness. Those who have attained moksha are called siddhas, while those attached to the world through their karma are called samsarin. Every soul has to follow the path, as explained by the Jinas and revived by the tirthankaras, to attain complete liberation or nirvana. Jains do not believe in a creator deity that could be responsible for the manifestation, creation, or maintenance of this universe. The universe is self regulated by the laws of nature. Jains believe that life exists in various forms in different parts of the universe including earth. Jainism has extensive classification of various living organisms including micro-organisms that live in mud, air and water. All living organisms have soul and therefore need to be interacted with, without causing much harm. Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation from all karmic bonding, one must practice the following ethical principles not only in thought, but also in words (speech) and action . Such a practise through lifelong work towards oneself is called as observing the Mahavrata ("Great Vows"). These vows are: Ahimsa (Non-violence) – to cause "no harm" to living beings (on the lines of "live" and "let live").

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The vow involves "minimizing" intentional as well as unintentional harm to another living creature. There should even be no room for any thought conjuring injury to others, let alone talking about it or performing of such an act.[17] Besides, it also includes respecting the views of others (non-absolutism and acceptance of multiple views). Satya (Truthfulness) – to always speak of truth such that no harm is caused to others. A person



who speaks truth becomes trustworthy like a mother, venerable like a preceptor and dear to everyone like a kinsman. Given that non-violence has priority, all other principles yield to it whenever there is a conflict. For example, in a situation where speaking truth would lead to violence, it would be perfectly moral to remain silent (for you are neither being untrue, nor causing violence by way of truth) Asteya (Non-stealing) – not to take into possession, anything that is not willingly offered. It is the



strict adherence to one's own possessions without desiring for the ones that belong to others. One should remain satisfied by whatever is earned through honest labour. Any attempt to squeeze material wealth from others and/or exploit the weak is considered theft. Some of the guidelines for this principle follow as under: 

Always give people fair value for their labor or product.

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Not to take into possession materials that are not earned or offered by others.

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Not to take materials into personal possession that have been dropped off or forgotten by others.

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Not to purchase materials as a result of being cheaper in value, if the resultant price reduction is a result of improper method of preparation. For instance, products made out of raw materials obtained by way of pyramid schemes, illegal businesses, stolen goods, etc., should be strictly prohibited



Brahmacharya (Celibacy) – to exercise control over senses (including mind) from indulgence. The basic intent of this vow is to conquer ion, thus preventing wastage of energy in the direcition of pleasurable desires. During observance of this vow, the householder must not have a sensual

relationship with anybody other than one's own spouse. Jain monks and nuns practice complete abstinence from any sexual activity.[18] 

Aparigraha (Non-possession, Non-materialism) – to observe detachment from people, places and material things. Ownership of an object itself is not possessiveness; however, attachment to the owned object is possessiveness. For householders, non-possession is owning without attachment, because the notion of possession is illusory. The basic principle behind observance of this vow lies in the fact that life changes. What you own today may not be rightfully yours tomorrow. Hence the householder is encouraged to discharge his or her duties to related people and objects as a trustee, without excessive attachment or aversion. For monks and nuns, non-possession involves complete renunciation of property and human relations.[19]

Jains hold that the universe and its natural laws are eternal, and have always existed in time. However, the world constantly undergoes cyclical changes as per governing universal laws. The universe is occupied by both living beings (jīva) and non-living objects (Ajīva). The samsarin soul incarnates in various life forms during its journey over time. Human, sub-human (category catering to inclusion of animals, birds, insects and other forms of living creatures), super-human (heavenly beings) and hellish-beings are the four forms of samsarinsoul incarnations. A living being's thoughts, expressions and actions, executed with intent of attachment and aversion, give rise to the accumulation of karma. These influxes of karma in turn contribute to determination of circumstances that would hold up in our future in the form of rewards or punishment. Jain scholars have explained in-depth methods and techniques that are said to result in clearance of past accumulated karmas as well as stopping the inflow of fresh karmas. This is the path to salvation in Jainism. A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviours.[20] One's unconquered mind tainted with anger, pride (ego), deceit, and greed ed with uncontrolled sense organs are powerful enemies of humans. Anger comes in the way of good human relations, pride destroys humility, deceit destroys peace, and greed destroys good judgement. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride (ego) by humility, deceit by straight-forwardness, and greed by contentment.[21] The principle of non-violence seeks to minimize karmas that limit the capabilities of one's own soul. Jainism views every soul as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become siddha (paramatma "highest soul"). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders. The Great Vows are prescribed for Jain monastics while limited vows (anuvrata) are prescribed for householders. Householders are encouraged to practice five cardinal principles of non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy, and nonpossessiveness with their current practical limitations, while monks and nuns have to observe them very strictly. With consistent practice, it is possible to overcome the limitations gradually, accelerating spiritual progress. [22] [edit]Core

beliefs

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Every living being has a soul.[23]

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Every soul is potentially divine, with innate qualities of infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss (masked by its karmas).

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Therefore regard every living being as you do yourself, harming no one and being kind to all living beings.

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Every soul is born as a heavenly being, human, sub-human or hellish being according to its own karma.

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Every soul is the architect of its own life, here or hereafter.[24]

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When a soul is freed from karmas, it becomes free and attains divine consciousness, experiencing infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss (Moksha).[25]

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The triple gems of Jainism ("Right View, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct") provide the way to this realisation.[26] There is no supreme divine creator, owner, preserver, or destroyer. The universe is self-regulated, and every soul has the potential to achieve divine consciousness (siddha) through its own efforts.



Non-violence (to be in soul consciousness rather than body consciousness) is the foundation of right view, the condition of right knowledge and the kernel of right conduct. It leads to a state of being unattached to worldly things and being non-judgmental and non-violent; this includes comion and forgiveness in thoughts, words and actions toward all living beings and respecting views of others (nonabsolutism).



Jainism stresses the importance of controlling the senses including the mind, as they can drag one far away from true nature of the soul.

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Limit possessions and lead a life that is useful to yourself and others. Owning an object by itself is not possessiveness; however, attachment to an object is possessiveness.[27]Non-possessiveness is the balancing of needs and desires while staying detached from our possessions.

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Enjoy the company of the holy and better-qualified, be merciful to afflicted souls, and tolerate the perversely inclined.[28]

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Four things are difficult for a soul to attain: 1. human birth, 2. knowledge of the laws governing the souls, 3. absolute conviction in the philosophy of non-violence, and 4. practicing this knowledge with conviction in everyday life activities.

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It is, therefore, important not to waste human life in evil ways. Rather, strive to rise on the ladder of spiritual evolution.

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The goal of Jainism is liberation of the soul from the negative effects of unenlightened thoughts, speech, and action. This goal is achieved through clearance of karmic obstructions by following the triple gems of Jainism.

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Namokar Mantra is the fundamental prayer in Jainism and can be recited at any time of the day. Praying by reciting this mantra, the devotee bows in respect to liberated souls still in human form (arihants), fully liberated souls forever free from rebirth (siddhas), spiritual leaders (Acharyas), teachers, and all the monks and nuns.[29] By saluting them saying "namo namaha", Jains receive inspiration from them to follow their path to achieve true bliss and total freedom from the karmas binding their souls. In this main prayer, Jains do not ask for any favours or material benefits. This mantra serves as a simple gesture of deep respect toward beings that are more spiritually advanced. The mantra also reminds followers of the ultimate goal of reaching nirvana or moksha.[30]

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Jains worship the icons of jinas, arihants and Tirthankaras, who have conquered their inner ions and attained divine consciousness, and study the Scriptures of these liberated beings.

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Jainism acknowledges the existence of powerful heavenly souls that look after the well-being of Tirthankaras. Usually they are found in pairs around the icons as male (yaksha) and female (yakshini) guardian deities. Even though they have supernatural powers, these deities are also souls wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like most other souls. Over time, people began worshiping these deities as well.[31]

Concept of karma Main article: Karma in Jainism Karma in Jainism conveys a totally different meaning than commonly understood in the Hindu philosophy and western civilization.[33] It is not the so called inaccessible force that controls the fate of living beings in

inexplicable ways. It does not simply mean "deed", "work", nor mystical force (adrsta), but a complex of very fine matter, imperceptible to the senses, which interacts with the soul in intensity and quantity proportional to the thoughts, speech and physical actions carried out with attachments and aversions, causing further bondages. Karma in Jainism is something material (karmapaudgalam), which produces certain conditions, like a medical pill has many effects.[34] The effects of karma in Jainism is therefore a system of natural laws rather than moral laws. When one holds an apple in one's hand and then lets go of the apple, the apple will fall due to gravitational force. In this example, there is no moral judgment involved, since this is a mechanical consequence of a physical action.[35] The concept of Karma in Jainism is basically a reaction due to the attachment or aversion with which an activity (both positive and negative) is executed in thought, verbal and physical sense. Extending on the example outlined, the same apple dropped within a zero gravity environment such as a spacecraft circling around earth, will float in its place. Similarly, when one acts without attachment and aversion there will be no further karmic bonding to the soul. Karmas are grouped as Destructive Karmas, that obstruct the true nature of the soul and Non-Destructive Karmas that only affect the body in which the soul resides. As long as there are Destructive Karmas, the soul is caged in a body and will have to experience pain and suffering in many different forms. Jainism has extensive sub-classifications and detailed explanations of each of these major categories. Jain liturgy and scriptures explains ways to stop the influx as well as get rid of the accumulated karmas. [edit]Shedding

of past karmas (Nirjara)

Main article: Nirjara Jainism prescribes mainly two methods for shedding karmas (Nirjara), accumulated by the soul. 

ive Method – By allowing past karmas to ripen in due course of time and experiencing the results, both good and bad with equanimity. If the fruits of the past karmas are received with attachment or with agitation then the soul earns fresh karmic bondages. It is also not possible for the soul to know before-hand when and which karma will start to produce results. Therefore, a person should practice equanimity under all circumstances.



Active Method – By practicing internal and external austerities (penances or tapas) so as to accelerate the ripening process as well as reducing the effects produced. This is the recommended approach as it prepares and conditions the soul and reminds one to be vigilant.

The internal austerities are 1.

Atonement of sinful acts

2.

Practice politeness and humility - in spite of having comparatively more wealth, wisdom,

social status, power, etc. 3.

Service to others, especially monks, nuns, elders and the weaker souls without any

expectations in return 4.

Scriptural study, questioning and expanding the spiritual knowledge

5.

Abandonment of ions – especially anger, ego, deceit and greed

6.

Meditation

The external austerities are meant to discipline the sensual cravings. They are 1.

Fasting

2.

Eating less than one's normal diet

3.

Abstention from tasty and stimulating food

4.

Practising humility and thankfulness – by seeking help and offering assistance without

egoistic tendencies

5.

Practising solitude and introspection

6.

Mastering demands of the body

7.Vegetarianism 8.See also: Jain vegetarianism 9.Jains practice strict vegetarianism. The practice of vegetarianism is instrumental for the practice of non-violence and peaceful co-operative co-existence. Basic non-violence principles can be performed depending on one's capability and specific situation in of meeting one's life's demands and expectations. Jainism acknowledges that it is impossible to discharge one's duties without some degree of himsa/violence, but encourages to minimise as much as possible. Jains are strictly forbidden to use any leather or silk products since they are derived by killing of animals. Jains are prohibited from consuming root vegetables such as potatoes, garlic, onions, carrots, radishes, cassava, sweet potatoes, turnips, etc., as the plant needed to be killed in the process of accessing these prior to their end of life cycle. In addition, the root vegetables interact with soil and therefore contain far more micro-organisms than other vegetables. Also, the root vegetables themselves are composed of infinite smaller organisms, hence, consuming these vegetables would mean killing all those organisms as well. However, they consume rhizomes such as dried turmeric and dried ginger. Eggplants, pumpkins, etc. are also not consumed by some Jains owing to the large number of seeds in the vegetable, as a seed is a form of life. However, tomatoes are consumed normally as its seeds are difficult to be killed (even at high temperatures/pressures). Mushrooms, fungus and yeasts are forbidden because they are parasites, grow in non-hygienic environments and may harbor other life forms. Jains are also not supposed to consume food left overnight because of contamination by microbes. Most Jain recipes substitute potato with plantain.[48]

10. Apart from all these, Jains also follow strict diets on "teethees" - eleven days (six days in Shukla Paksha - New Moon Fortnight and five days in Krishna Paksha - Full Moon Fortnight). They do not eat greens on these days, also termed as not to touch / use any sharp cutting object in the kitchen. These days and are enlisted below: 1. All Bij - Second day of both the fortnights for aaradhna of "Samyag Darshan" 2. Pacham - Fifth day of Shukla Paksha & Agyiras - Eleventh day of both the fortnights for aaradhna of 14 Purva Gyan 3. Aatham - Eight day of both the fortnights, Chaudas - Fourteenth day of both the fortnights, Punam - Full Moon Day & Amavas - New Moon Day for aaradhna of Charitra. The reason for stricter dietary observance on these eleven days is that the probability of the finalisation of the next birth is much more on these days compared to the other days.