Crystal Methodology 4g1r62

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY CHAPTER 1: AGILE WHAT IS AGILE? Agile software development refers to a group of software development methodologies based on iterative development, where requirements and solutions evolve through collaboration between self-organizing cross-functional teams.

WHAT IS AGILE METHODOLOGY? Agile methodology in project management is a process by which a team can manage a project by breaking it up into several stages called "sprints".

WHY DO WE USE AGILE METHODOLOGY? Clients can make small objective changes without huge amendments to the budget or schedule. The process involves breaking down each project into prioritized requirements, and delivering each individually within an iterative cycle. An iteration is the routine of developing small sections of a project at a time.

WHAT ARE THE STEPS IN AGILE METHODOLOGY? The Stages of the Agile Software Development Life Cycle 

Scope out and prioritize projects. ...



Diagram requirements for the initial sprint. ...



Construction/iteration. ...



Release the iteration into production. ...



Production and ongoing for the software release. ...



Retirement. ...



Agile software development sprint planning.

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 1

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY 1. Scope out and prioritize projects During the first step of the agile software development life cycle, the team scopes out and prioritizes projects. Some teams may work on more than one project at the same time depending on the department’s organization. For each concept, you should define the business opportunity and determine the time and work it’ll take to complete the project. Based on this information, you can assess technical and economic feasibility and decide which projects are worth pursuing.

2. Diagram requirements for the initial sprint Once you have identified the project, work with stakeholders to determine requirements. You might want to use flow diagrams or high-level UML diagrams to demonstrate how the new feature should function and how it will fit into your existing system. From there, select team to work on the project and allocate resources. Create a timeline or a swimlane process map in Lucidchart to delineate responsibilities and clearly show when certain work needs to be completed for the duration of the sprint. For example, our product team created the following diagram to visualize how the team would implement the Print & Ship feature for Lucidpress, Lucidchart’s sister product. The columns show each team member’s workload, and the rows show the work completed during each sprin

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 2

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY

3. Construction/iteration Once a team has defined requirements for the initial sprint based on stakeholder and requirements, the work begins. UX designers and developers begin work on their first iteration of the project, with the goal of having a working product to launch at the end of the sprint. , the product will undergo various rounds of revisions, so this first iteration might only include the bare minimum functionality. The team can and will have additional sprints to expand upon the overall product.

4. Release the iteration into production You’re nearly ready to release your product into the world. Finish up this software iteration with the following steps: 

Test the system. Your quality assurance (QA) team should test functionality, detect bugs, and record wins and losses.



Address any defects.

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 3

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY 

Finalize system and documentation. Lucidchart can help you visualize your code through UML diagrams or demonstrate flows so everyone understands how the system functions and how they can build upon it further.



Release the iteration into production.

5. Production and ongoing for the software release This phase involves ongoing for the software release. In other words, your team should keep the system running smoothly and show s how to use it. The production phase ends when has ended or when the release is planned for retirement.

6. Retirement During the retirement phase, you remove the system release from production, typically when you want to replace a system with a new release or when the system becomes redundant, obsolete, or contrary to your business model.

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 4

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY Agile software development sprint planning Within the agile SDLC, work is divided into sprints, with the goal of producing a working product at the end of each sprint. A sprint typically lasts two weeks, or 10 business days. The workflow of a sprint should follow this basic outline: 

Plan. The sprint begins with a sprint planning meeting, where team come together to lay out components for the round of work. The product manager prioritizes work from a backlog of tasks to assign the team.



Develop. Design and develop the product in accordance with the approved guidelines.



Test/QA. Complete thorough testing and documentation of results before delivery.



Deliver. Present the working product or software to stakeholders and customers.



Assess. Solicit from the customer and stakeholders and gather information to incorporate into the next sprint.

In addition to sprint planning meetings, your team should gather for daily meetings to check in and touch base on the progress, hash out any conflicts, and work to keep the process moving forward. Remain flexible and open to changes, too. After all, this methodology is called “agile” for a reason. Bottom line: The goal of the agile software development life cycle is to create and deliver working software as soon as possible. Plan your projects and keep them on track with Lucidchart

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 5

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY TYPES OF AGILE METHODOLOGY Following are some of the most widey used agile implementations 

Scrum - Scrum is one of the most popular implementation of agile where different roles like - product owner, scrum master and team are assigned to different participants of software development. Daily scrum meeting are organisved for the updates and a build is delivered in a two to three week cycle called sprint.



Extreme Programming (XP) - Extreme programming is an agile implementation in which frequent customer and changes are incorporated with focus on quality software. Quality of software is maintained by following the coding practices like pair programming(code reviews, unit testing etc.) to the extreme level. Hence, the name extreme programming.



Kanban - Kanban is a development approach in which the tasks are organized in a Kanban board, wherein we can track the progress of the work, helping in decision making.



Crystal Clear - Crystal clear development like other agile methodologies focusses on frequent delivery and . It is a lightweight approach based on the fact that customization of process and practices is required to meet the project specific requirements.



Lean Software Development - Lean software developement methodology is based on seven lean principles - eliminate waste(like any code not adding value), amplify learning, decide late, deliver fast, empower team, build integrity and See the Whole(see the product as a whole).

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 6

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY FEATURES OF AGILE Following are some of the features of Agile methodology1. Agile allows frequent deliverables to the end . 2. Customer s and changes are embraced and incorporated in the iterations based on their priority. 3. It emphasis on colloborative work of cross functional team. 4. It focuses on more interaction and face-to-face communications. 5. It promotes regular review of the whole development process and fine tuning if required.

ADVANTAGES OF AGILE Following are the advantages of Agile methodology1. Agile is very much suited for projects where requirements and the end product is not very clear. 2. It promotes customer satisfaction as their s and changes are embraced. 3. It reduces risk factor as early deliverables are made visible to the end s. 4. Exhaustive planning is not required at the beginning of the development process. 5. It is easy to manage with minimal rules and more flexibility. 6. Dividing the project into incremental deliverable builds leads to more focus on quality of the product.

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 7

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY DISADVANTAGES OF AGILE Following are the disadvantages of Agile methodology1. As it is highly customer-centric, so it can pose problem when the customer does not have clear understanding of the product and process. 2. Lack of formal documentation and deg leads to very high dependency on the individuals for traning and other tasks. 3. For complex projects, the resource requirement and effort are difficult to estimate. 4. Frequent deliverables, and collaboration can be very demanding for some customers. 5. Because of the ever-evolving features, there is always a risk of ever-lasting project.

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 8

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY CHAPTER 2: CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY INTRODUCTION Crystal methods are a family of methodologies (the Crystal family) that were developed by Alistair Cockburn in the mid-1990s. The methods come from years of study and interviews of teams by Cockburn. Cockburn’s research showed that the teams he interviewed did not follow the formal methodologies yet they still delivered successful projects. The Crystal family is Cockburn’s way of cataloguing what they did that made the projects successful. Crystal methods are considered and described as “lightweight methodologies”. The use of the word Crystal comes from the gemstone where, in software , the faces are a different view on the “underlying core” of principles and values. The faces are a representation of techniques, tools, standards and roles.

Methodology, techniques, and policies are differentiated between by Cockburn: 

Methodology - set of elements (e.g. practices, tools)



Techniques - skill areas (e.g. developing use cases)



Policies - dictate organizational musts

Crystal methods are focused on: 1. People 2. Interaction 3. Community 4. Skills 5. Talents 6. Communications Cockburn says that Process, while important, should be considered after the above as a secondary focus. The idea behind the Crystal Methods is that the teams involved in developing DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 9

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY software would typically have varied skill and talent sets and so the Process element isn’t a major factor. Since teams can go about similar tasks in different ways, the Crystal family of methodologies are very tolerant to this which makes the Crystal family one of the easiest agile methodologies to apply. In his research, Cockburn [1999], he defines behaviour of people in teams: 

“People are communicating beings, doing best face-to-face, in person, with real-time question and answer.”



“People have trouble acting consistently over time.”



“People are highly variable, varying from day to day and place to place.”



“People generally want to be good citizens, are good at looking around, taking initiative, and doing ‘whatever is needed’ to get the project to work.”

The points above are why Crystal methods are so flexible and why they avoid strict and rigid processes typically found in older methodologies.

THE CRYSTAL FAMILY Cockburn developed the different methods in the family of methodologies to suit teams of different sizes which need different strategies to solve diverse problems. The Crystal family of methodologies use different colours to denote the “weight” of which methodology to use. If a project were a small one a methodology such as Crystal Clear, Crystal Orange or Crystal Yellow may be used or if the project was a mission-critical one where human life could be endangered then the methods Crystal Diamond or Crystal Sapphire would be used.

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 10

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY The family is divided into different colours. Some examples: 1. Crystal Clear 2. Crystal Yellow 3. Crystal Orange 4. Crystal Orange Web 5. Crystal Red 6. Crystal Maroon 7. Crystal Diamond 8. Crystal Sapphire There are five “colors” which represent the five families of Crystal methodogies, which are to be adopted based on the size of the project (i.e., the number of people involved on a project

Clear–upto

6

people

Yellow–upto 20

people

Orange–upto

people

40

Red–upto 80

people

Maroon–upto 200

people

On the other hand, Crystal Sapphire or Crystal Diamond methods are used in large projects that involve potential risk to human life. If you are in a project that has a Crystal Clear framework, and you increase the people in your project to greater than 6, then Alistair Cockburn recommends the project the next higher framework level (Crystal Yellow), rather than trying to expand the prior Crystal Clear practices. As you go up in levels, the project is expected to be harder.

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 11

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY 4 Levels of Criticality in Crystal Besides having a “size” factor which determines the framework, the other factor mentioned above which effects the framework is that of “criticality”, which is the level of potential damage the system can cause if it does not perform as designed Comfort (C) Discretionary Money (D) Essential Money (E) Life (L)

[Source:

A

Practical

Guide

to

Seven

Agile

Methodologies

Part

2,

( http://www.devx.com/architect/Article/32836/0/page/2 )] The Crystal Family of Methodologies. One characteristic of Crystal is its intentional scaling to projects based on size and criticality. The larger a project gets (from left to right), the darker the colour.

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 12

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY What are the roles prescribed by Crystal? The Crystal approach defines a number of roles: Project Sponsor, Senior Designer/Programmer, Designer/Programmers (Business Class Designers, Programmers, Software Documenters and Unit Testers) and s. Also, there are a number of other roles such as Architect, Coordinator, Requirements Gatherer, Business Expert, Business Analyst/Designer, Project Manager, Design Mentor, Usage Expert, Lead Design Programmer, UI designer, Technical Facilitator and Technical Writer.

COMMONALITY Between all the methods in the Crystal family, there are seven prevailing common properties. Cockburn found that the more of these properties that were in a project, the more likely it was to succeed. The seven properties are: 1. Frequent delivery 2. Reflective improvement 3. Close or osmotic communication 4. Personal safety 5. Focus 6. Easy access to expert s 7. Technical environment with automated tests, configuration management, and frequent integration

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 13

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY Frequent delivery Frequent Delivery is the regular releasing of iterations of the software program. This idea comes from agile methodologies. Designers and developers decide what features to include in each release and they design and test for each release. With Crystal methods, iterations are to be released weekly up to quarterly – the release times are dependant on the length of the project. By releasing iterations, stakeholders will be able to spot problems earlier in the project which will save a lot of hassle later on. Another point on this is that if the end s decide that the project does not do things the way they’d like it to be done, then steps can be taken to resolve this before it is too late. With Crystal methods, there can be more than one iteration in a release. This is because it may not be feasible to release every iteration, so a collection of iterations are gathered and delivered in a single release.

Reflective improvement Reflective improvement involves developers taking a break from regular development and trying to find ways to better their processes. Iterations help with this by providing on whether or not the current process is working. With Crystal methods, the idea of teams holding “reflection workshop” meetings every couple of weeks is encouraged. These workshops help find processes that are and aren’t working well and help the team to modify them so that a strategy can be developed that works well for the team.

Close or osmotic communication In Crystal Clear and the smaller of the Crystal methodologies, Osmotic Communication is used. Osmotic communication involves the team being together in a room and getting information to flow around it. With regards to larger teams (over 8 or so), where distraction can arise, Close Communication is used.

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 14

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY The team must be in the same room for this to work. This is because if the developer has to break concentration to move somewhere else to ask a question then their thought process will probably be lost. By using this type of communication, information flows quickly throughout the team. Questions can be rapidly answered and all the team know what is going on as well as having the ability to correct any misconceptions that may arise. By listening to the others in the team, a developer can pick up on what the others are doing, gain experience and develop new ideas. Developers working near each other can help with problems that the other is encountering. Communication overhead is greatly reduced by using this type of communication. The need for email updates, extra documentation, etc is lowered. By having the team together, each member knows what the others are doing so they should be able to take over their team-mate's parts of the project if needed.

Personal safety This has got to do with the issue of free speaking within a group of people. If a person is ridiculed whenever they ask a question, suggest an idea, etc then they will be less likely to speak up the next time. The people in the team must be able to trust each other and feel free to speak up about issues or whatever arises.

Focus Focus in crystal refers to two things; firstly focusing on an individual task in a project for enough time that progress will be made and secondly, it refers to the direction in which the project is heading. With the first, the flow of progress is taken into while thinking of issues that would affect it such as interruptions, meetings, long questions, phone calls, etc. It can take a while to get back into the flow again so this delays completion of the current task.

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 15

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY Crystal defines two rules for dealing with issues that may interrupt focus. One is to set a twohour period where the developer is to have no interruptions. The other is to assign a developer to a project for at least two days before being switched to another project. With the second meaning of focus, issues such as definition of goals are discussed. The definitions should be clear and the developers should know exactly what the goals of the project are. The project leader should prioritise the goals which will allow developers to focus on particular areas.

Easy access to expert s This involves the developers working with a person of expertise in the project area so that the expert answers any questions, suggest solutions to problems, etc. The expert should be an actual/real-life and not just a tester from the development team. The more involved the expert is (in practical ), the better since they would have more hands-on experience. The more time that the expert can give will greatly help the overall project but this is not always feasible. There should be a minimum of a once a week, two-hour meeting with the expert , and the ability to make phone calls to the expert too.

Technical environment with automated tests, configuration management, and frequent integration The idea behind this is that there should be continuous integration and testing so that if any changes are made, then errors, breakages, etc can be spotted. Since this is done on a regular basis, problems are less likely to grow as they can be resolved earlier in the project. The process of checking-in code into a repository can help in identifying the problem code and remove it by reverting back or updating with correct code. This is where configuration management and automated testing come in. These allow for quicker unit testing and eventual resolution of problems.

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 16

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY SET

SCALED

ACCORDING

TO

TEAM

SIZE

AND

MISSION

CRITICALITY OF A PROJECT Emphasis on the human factor and testing. 

Types of Crystal methodologies: Clear, Yellow, Orange, Orange Web, Red, Maroon, Diamond, Sapphire o

Ranging from the most lightweight and the least mission critical, operating with the smallest team to the most described, most mission critical, huge team projects.



Common properties o

Frequent delivery through iterations

o

Reflective improvements through dedicated brainstorming

o

Close communication: developer team is in the same room/building

o

Personal safety: speak freely in groups without managerial consequences

o

Focus: 2 hour periods without interruptions on a task basis; clear project goals and definition

o

Easy access to expert s: project domain experts answer questions and suggest solutions; minimally meet every week for 2 hours

Crystal methodologies have multiple flavours, which are only minimally differing from one an other on the different steps. Hereby due to space and time constraints we list the ones that could be used for highly different type of projects and are having multiple different approaches.



Some of the methodologies detailed: o

Clear (lightweight, not mission critical) 

Lightest, ing fixed price contracts



Only 3 roles: Sponsor, Senior Designer, Programmer



Teams can use techniques mixed from other methodologies



Project requires documentation (type not defined)



Priorities 

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Project safety: deliver in time and budget Page 17

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY 

o

Effectiveness



Focus on people not on processes or deliverables



Suitable for teams of 2-6 in the same room

Orange (more complex, medium sized projects) 

More roles: Architect, Business Analyst, Project manager, …



Expect a release in every ~100 days



Safer: emphasis on testing



Defines a set of deliverables



DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC



Requirement documentation



Release schedule



Project plan



Status reports



UI design mock-ups



Object Model



Manual



Test plan

Suitable for teams of 21-40

Page 18

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY CHAPTER 3: THE CRYSTAL MINDSET Software Development as a Cooperative Game Making software consists only of making ideas concrete in an economic context: People inventing and communicating, solving a problem they don't yet understand (which keeps changing), Creating a solution they don't really understand (and which keeps changing), Expressing

ideas in

restricted languages they don’t really understand, (and which keep

changing) To an interpreter unforgiving of error. Resources are limited, and every choice has economic consequences. It is a cooperative game of invention and communication

Software development is a Cooperative Game of Invention and Communication. To understand team software development: • Understand goal-directed cooperative games • Understand people communicating • Understand people inventing • Understand people cooperating Notes on Cooperative Game: Two goals: Primary Goal → →→ → Deliver this software Secondary Goal → →→ → Set up for the next game

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 19

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY Two conflicting games in one Net result: Not repeatable !

Naur 1986: The primary result of programming is the theory held by the programmers 1. Theory: The knowledge a person must have to do certain things intelligently, explain, answer queries, argue about them... 2. The programmer must Build a Theory of how certain affairs of the world will be handled by a program; Explain how the affairs of the world are mapped into the program and documentation; Respond to demands for modifications, perceiving the similarity of the new demand with the facilities built. • This knowledge transcends that possible in documentation. 3. This theory is the mental possession of a programmer; the notion of programmer as an easily replaceable component in program production has to be abandoned.

Naur 1986: Modifying a program depends on the new programmers building the same theory ! 4. Problems of program modification arise from assuming that programming consists of text production, instead of theory building. 5. The decay of a program from modifications made by programmers without proper grasp of the underlying theory becomes understandable. The need for direct participation of persons who possess the appropriate insight becomes evident. For a program to retain its quality it is mandatory that each modification is firmly grounded in its theory. 6. The conclusion seems inescapable that at least with certain kinds of large programs, the continued adaption, modification, and correction, is essentially dependent on a certain kind of knowledge possessed by a group of programmers who are closely and continuously connected with them

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 20

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY COMMUNICATION Perfect communication is impossible You try to communicate what you “know” • What you “know” depends on your individualized parsing of the world around you; • You don’t know what it is you do know; • You don’t know the thing you are trying to communicate; • You don’t know what you are actually communicating; • Your listener sees only a part of what you are saying; • What your listener learns depends on his/her internal stat Communication is touching into shared experience Linked sequences of shared experience becomes a shared experience 

Project colleagues have rich shared experiences, a shortcut vocabulary

Implications for documentation: 

Can never fully specify requirements



can never fully document design



must assume reader’s experiences more => can write less less => must write more.

Our task is to manage the incompleteness of communications

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 21

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY PEOPLE PEOPLE are essential but non-linear active components in the development process Weak on 

Consistency



Discipline



Following instructions



Changing habits

Strong on: 

Communicating



Looking around



Copy/modify

Motivated on: 

Pride in work



Pride in contributing



Pride in accomplishment

The alignment of people’s goals affects the team efficiency A mission statement understood by all is critical to goal alignment.

Normal team

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Aliged Team

Page 22

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY Amicability between people determines how quickly information moves Amicability : Willingness to listen with good will The “amicability index” indicates how easily information es from one part of the organization to another. A low amicability index implies that people block the flow of information, intentionally or through not listening well. Amicability grows and rots fastest in osmotic communication settings

People, cooperation, communication issues determine much of a project’s speed Can they easily detect something needs attention? (Good at Looking Around) Will they care enough to do something about it? (Pride-in-work; Amicability) Can they effectively along the information? (Proximity; face-to-face, convection currents)

Crystal’s “Genetic Code (DNA) Crystal is the lightest, least intrusive set of rules that puts a project in the safety zone. Crystal’s purpose: Keep people from hurting each other, keeping each other informed Crystal’s nature: A set of conventions that gets updated Crystal’s Philosophy: 

People differ in working styles



Projects differ in needs



Software development is communication-intensive, experiment-based, needing lots of in all directions



Less is generally better (for methodologies)

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 23

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY Crystal’s common genetic code. 1 Cooperative Game Mindset: A series of resourcelimited cooperative games of communication and invention. 2 Critical Project Properties: Frequent delivery Close communication Reflective Improvement 3 Key Techniques: Discretionary, but with a starter set. 4 Design Priorities: Project safety Development efficiency Habitability 5 Design Principles:

(7 principles, including: face-to-face, concurrent development, different

rules for different circumstances) 6 Design Samples: Crystal Clear Crystal Orange Crystal Orange-web

Crystal’s Starter Strategies & Techniques Strategies •Methodology Shaping •Reflection Workshop •Blitz Planning •Delphi Estimation •Daily Stand-ups •Agile Interaction Design •Process Miniature •Side-by-Side Programming •Burn Charts •Exploratory 360° •Early Victory DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 24

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY •Walking Skeleton •Incremental Rearchitecture •Information Radiators

Critical technique in Crystal: The reflection workshop each month or iteration. Hang a 2-column flipchart Keep these

Fill in the chart (30 minutes)

Try these

test lock-down quiet pair testing

Hang the chart in a public, visible, frequently seen place !

time daily meetings fines for

Try the ideas

Problems

interruptions

too many

programmers

Repeat each month or after each iteration

interruptions

help testers

shipping buggy code

Crystal’s Design Priorities • Project Safety • Development Efficiency • Process Habitability

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 25

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY Crystal’s Design Principles 1. Prefer face-to-face communication 

Interactive face-to-face communication is the cheapest and fastest channel for exchanging information

2. Methodology weight is costly 3. Use heavier methodologies for larger / distributed teams 4. Use More ceremony for more criticality 5. Use more & communications, with fewer intermediate deliverables 6. Discipline, skills, understanding counter process, formality, documentation 7. Efficiency is expendable at non-bottleneck activitie

PROJECT VISIBILITY The “burn-down” chart and variations show a project’s progress visibly and publicly Visibility of rate-of-progress and achievements are critical project management information Works because task list is fixed in size “Iceberg” list useful when task list changes daily 

Use spreadsheet or similar



List tasks



Developers estimate time, Managers prioritize



Sort in priority order



Derive which tasks are in schedule for this current iteration / delivery.



Managers can change priorities.

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 26

CRYSTAL METHODOLOGY ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CRYSTAL Advantages: 

Disadvantages:

It ensures frequent deliveries, in order to identify eventual problems 

in every stage; 



There is always space to improve

the methodology family means that

characteristics, taking some time

the principles might vary with the

from software development and

size of the team and the size of the

allowing for a discussion about how

project, resulting in projects that

to perfect processes;

might not be so straightforward;

Allows for a closer communication



It might not work in teams scattered

and promotes interaction and sharing

through different areas, because of

of

the constant need to communicate

knowledge

between

team

; 

The fact that there are variants in

and reflect;

Requires a technical environment with automated tests, configuration management

and



Planning and development is not dependent on the requirements.

frequent

integration.

DEPT OF CSE., RYMEC

Page 27