National Policy On Education And Historical Foundations Of Nigeria Education 1p1hx

LECTURE NOTES ON

NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCTION & HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA ACHI A. N. NCE Geo/Econs, (Agbor), B. Sc. (Ed) Econs. (Abraka), M. Ed. [Phil. of Edu.] (Abraka), PGD Comp. Sci (Benin), P. hD. [Phil. of Edu.] (Nsukka) in-view

MNIM, RT(TRCN), MCIPM, MNES, AIBD, CBDA, MADEASON, MPEAN, SAC-USA, ATS-

USA

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SECTION A NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION

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Chapter One NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION INTRODUCTION The need for a national policy on education came about as a result of the National Curriculum Conference held between September 8 and 12, 1969 in Lagos and was organized by the Nigerian Educational Research Council (NERC) now Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC). It was attended by a crosssection of Nigerians. The conference was a culmination of expressions of general dissatisfaction with the existing education system which had become irrelevant to national needs, aspirations and goals. The report of the conference was compiled by Adeniji Adaralegbe, the Rapporteur-General and editor-in-Chief of the conference in a book titled, ‘A Philosophy for Nigerian Education’. After the National Curriculum Conference, a seminar of expert drawn from a wide range of interest groups within Nigeria was convened by the Federal Military Government in June, 1973. The seminar, which included voluntary agencies and external bodies, deliberated on what a national policy on education for an independent and sovereign Nigeria should be under the Chairmanship of Late Simeon Adebo and organized by Chief Y. Eke who was the then Federal Commissioner for Education. The recommendations of the 1969 National Curriculum Conference and the position of the government on future educational development as contained in the second National Development Plan (1970 – 1974) were considered during the process of writing the reports of the seminar. The outcome of the seminar was a draft document which, after due comments were received from the states and other interest groups, led to the final document, the National Policy on Education, first published in 1977. Since the publication of the first edition in 1977, the 2 nd and 3rd editions were published in 1981 and 1998 respectively in keeping with the dynamics of social change and the demands on education. This 4 th edition was necessitated by some policy innovations and changes, and the need to update the 3rd edition (1998) accordingly. These innovations and changes include: (a) The lifting of the suspension order on Open and Distance Learning Programme by Government, (b) revitalization and expansion of the National Mathematical Centre (NMC); (c) establishment of Teachers Registration Council (TRC); (d) introduction of information and Communication Technology (ICT) into the school curriculum as a second official language; (e) prescription of French Language in the primary and secondary schools, curriculum as second official language; (f) prescription of minimum number of subject to taken by SSCE candidates; (g) the integration of basic education in the programme of Quaranic schools, to ensure equal opportunity and effective implementation of UBE; (g) repositioning science, technical and vocational education in the scheme of national educational for optimum performance; and (h) general contextual change to reflect the state of professional practice in education, among others. Government’s intention was that the far-reaching provisions set out in all sections of the policy should transform all aspects of the nation’s life over time. To this end, Government set up a National Educational Policy implementation Committee to 3

translate the Policy into workable blue prints that would guide the bodies whose duty it would be to implement the policy. The Committee was also to develop monitoring system for educational plan as it evolved.

PHILOSOPHY AND GOALS OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 1. A nation’s policy on education is government’s way of realizing that part of the national goals which can achieve, using education as a tool. No policy on education, however, can be formulated without first identifying the overall philosophy and goals of the nation. 2. The OVERALL PHILOSOPHY OF NIGERIA is to: (a) live in unity and harmony as one indivisible, indissoluble, democratic and sovereign nation founded on the principal of freedom, equally and justice; (b) Promote inter-African solidarity and world peace through understanding. 3 The FIVE MAIN NATIONAL GOALS OF NIGERIA, which have been endorsed as the necessary foundation for the National Policy on education, are the building of:(a) a free and, democratic society; (b) a just egalitarian society; (c) a united, strong and self-reliant nations; (d) a great and dynamic economy; (e) a land full of bright opportunities for all citizens. 4. In Nigeria’s philosophy of Education, we BELIEVE that:(a) education is an instrument for national development, and the interaction of persons and ideas are all aspects of education; (b) education fosters the worth development of the individual, for each individual’s sake, and for general development of the society (c) the training of the mind in the understanding of the world around; (d) the acquisition of appropriate skills and competencies as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to the development of the society. 5. Nigeria's Philosophy of education therefore is BASED on:(a) the development of the individual into a' sound and effective citizen (b) the full integration of the individual into the community; and the provision of equal access' to educational opportunities for all citizens of the country at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels both inside and outside the formal school system. 6. For the philosophy to be in harmony with Nigeria's national goals, education has to be geared towards self realization, better human relationship, individual and national efficiency, effective citizenship, national consciousness, national unity as well as towards social, cultural, economic, political, scientific and technological progress. 7. The NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL GOALS, which derive from the philosophy, are therefore: (a) the inculcation of national consciousness and national unity; (b) the inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the individual and the Nigerian society; (c) the training of the mind in the understanding of the world around; and (d) the acquisition of appropriate skills and the development of mental, physical and social abilities and competencies as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to the development of the society. 4

8. In consequence, the quality of instruction at all levels has to be oriented towards inculcating the following VALUES; (a) respect for the worth and dignity of the individual; (b) faith in man’s ability to make rational decisions; (c) moral and spiritual principle in inter-personal and human relations (d) shared responsibility for the common good of society; (e) promotion of the physical, emotional and psychological development of all children; (f) acquisition of competencies necessary for self-reliance. 9. In order to realize fully the potentials of the contributions of education to the achievement of these goals and values, all other agencies will operate in concert with education. To that end, Government shall take various MEASURES TO IMPLEMENT THE POLICY; Accordingly:(a) education shall continue to be highly rated in the national development plans because education is the most important instrument of charge; any fundamental change in the intellectual and social outlook of any society has to be preceded by education; (b) life-long education shall be the basis of the nation’s educational policy; (c) education and training facilities shall continue to be expanded in response to social needs and made progressively accessible to afford the individual a far more diversified and flexible choice; (d) educational activities shall be centered on the leaner for maximum selfdevelopment and self-fulfillment; (e) Universal Basic education in a variety of forms; depending on needs and possibilities, shall be provided for all citizens; (f) Efforts shall be made to relate education to overall community needs; (g) Educational assessment and evaluation shall be liberalized by their being based in part on continuous assessment of the progress of the individual; (h) Modern education techniques shall be increasingly used and improved upon at all levels of the education system; (i) The education system shall be structured to develop the practice of selflearning. Government shall in this regard continue to encourage the establishment of Young Readers Clubs in schools (j) At any stage of the education process after junior secondary education, an individual shall be able to choose between continuing full-time studies, combining work with study, or embanking on full-time employment work with study, or embarking on full-time employment without excluding prospect of resuming studies later on; (k) Opportunity shall continue to be made for made for religious instruction; no child will be forced to accept any religious instruction which is contrary to the wishes of his or her parents; and (l) Physical and health education shall be emphasized at all levels of the education system. 10. The importance of language:- Government appreciates the importance of language as a means of promoting social interaction and national cohesion; preserving cultures. Thus every child shall learn the language of the immediate environment. Furthermore, in the interest of national unity it is expedient that every child shall require to learn one of the three Nigeria languages: Hausa, Igbo Yoruba. (a) For smooth interaction with our neighbours, it is desirable for every Nigeria to speak French. Accordingly, French shall be compulsory in primary and Junior Secondary Schools but Non-Vocational Elective at the senior Secondary School. 5

The national policy on education has introduced the 6-3-3-4 System of education. By implication it recommends six years of primary education, three years of junior secondary and three years of senior secondary education in Nigeria. Below is a brief examination of the components of this educational system as enshrined in the 2004 edition of the policy. BASIC EDUCATION Basic education shall be of 9-year duration comprising 6 years of primary education and 3 years of junior secondary education. It shall be free and compulsory. It shall also include adult and non-formal education programmes at primary and junior secondary education levels for the adults and out-of-school youths. The specific goals of basic education shall be the same as the goals of the levels of education to which it applies (i.e. primary education, junior secondary education and adult and non-formal education) Primary Education Primary education as referred to in this document is the education given in institutions for children aged 6 to 11 plus. Since the rest of the education system is built upon it, the primary level is the key to the success or failure of the whole system. The duration shall be six years. a. The Goals of Primary Education are: a. inculcate permanent literacy and numeracy, and ability to communicate effectively; b. lay a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking; c. give citizenship education as a basis for effective participation in and contribution to the life of the society; d. mould the character and develop sound attitude and morals in the child; e. develop in the 'child the ability to adapt to the child's changing environment; f. give the child opportunities for developing manipulative skills that will enable the child function effectively in the society within the limits of the child's capacity; . g. provide the child with basic tools for further educational advancement, including preparation for trades and crafts of the locality In pursuance of the goals above:(a) Primary education shall be tuition free, universal and compulsory. (b) Curriculum for primary education shall include: i) Languages: (a) Language of the environment (b) English (c) French (d) Arabic (ii) Mathematics (iii) Science (iv) Physical and Health Education (v) Religious Knowledge (vi) Agriculture/Home Economics (vii) Social Studies and Citizenship Education (viii) Cultural & Creative Arts (Drawing, Handicraft, Music and Cultural Activities) (ix) Computer Education (c) The following educational services shall be provided:(i) School library; (ii) Basic health scheme; (iii) Counselling; (iv) Educational resource centre; 6

(v) specialist teachers of particular subjects such as Mathematics, Science, Physical Education, Language Arts (in relation to English French, Sign Language and Nigerian Languages), Librarian, Music, Fine Art and Home Economics. (d) Teaching shall be by practical, exploratory and experimental methods. (e) The medium of instruction in the primary school shall be the language of the environment for the first three years. During this period, English shall be taught as a subject. (f) From the fourth year, English shall progressively be used as a medium of instruction and the language of immediate environment and French shall be taught as subjects. (g) For effective teaching and learning, the teacher-pupil ratio shall be 1:35 (h) Advancement from one class to another shall be based on continuous assessment; (i) The Primary School Leaving Certificate shall be based only on continuous assessment and shall be issued locally by the head teacher of the school. (j)With a view to correcting the imbalance between different parts of the country, with reference to the availability of educational facilities and the number of pupils receiving formal education and girls education.(i) State governments shall ensure the integration of formal basic education curriculum into Koranic and Islamiya schools; (ii) special efforts shall be made by all appropriate agencies to encourage parents to send their daughters to school. (K) Everything possible shall be done to discourage the incidence of dropping out at the primary level of education. However, if this occurs, provision shall be made in the context of adult and non-formal education to enable such early leavers to continue with their education, (L) Government welcomes the contributions of voluntary agencies, communities and private individuals in the .establishment and management of primary schools alongside those provided by the state and local governments as long as they meet the minimum standards laid down by the Federal Government. (m) In recognition of the prominent role of Information and Communication Technology in advancing knowledge and skills necessary for effective functioning in the modem world there is urgent need to integrate Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into education in Nigeria. Government shall therefore provide basic infrastructure and training for the realisation of this goal at the primary school level. SECONDARY EDUCATION Secondary education is the education children receive after primary education and before the tertiary stage. The broad goals of secondary education shall be to prepare the individual for:(a) useful living within the society; and (b) higher education In specific term, secondary education shall:(a) provide all primary school leavers with the opportunity for education of a higher-level, irrespective of sex, social status, religious or ethnic background; (b) offer diversified curriculum to cater for the differences in talents, opportunities and future roles; (c) provide trained manpower in the applied .science, technology and commerce at sub-professional grades (d) develop and promote Nigerian languages, art and culture in the context of world's cultural heritage; (e) inspire students with a desire for self improvement and achievement of excellence; (f) foster National unity with an emphasis on the common ties that unite us in our diversity; 7

(g) raise a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views and feelings of others, respect the dignity of labour, appreciate those values specified under our broad national goals and live as good citizens; (h) provide technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, industrial, commercial and economic development. To achieve the stated goals, secondary education shall be of six years duration, given in two stages» a junior secondary school stage and a senior secondary school stage; each shall be of three years duration. Junior Secondary School The junior secondary school shall be both pre-vocational and academic. It shall be tuition free, universal and compulsory. It shall teach basic subjects which will enable pupils to acquire 'further knowledge and skills. Every student shall offer i. a minimum of 10 and a maximum of 13 subjects: ii. all subjects in Group A iii. at least one subject each from Groups B & C. GROUP A. Core (i) English (ii) French (iii) Mathematics (iv) Language of environment to be taught as Ll (v) One major Nigerian Language other than that of the environment to be taught as L2* (vi) Integrated Science (vii) Social studies and Citizenship Education (viii) Introductory Technology The language of environment shall be taught as LI where it has orthography and literature. Where it does not have, it shall be taught with emphasis on oraley as L2. Government welcomes the participation of voluntary agencies, communities and private individuals in the establishment and management of secondary schools. State governments shall prescribe conditions to be met by the communities and others wishing to establish secondary schools. Government shall regulate the establishment of schools supervise and inspect schools regularly and ensure that all schools follow approved curricula and conform to the National policy on Education. The teacher-pupil ratio at this level of education shall be 1:40. Certification:(a) The Junior School Certificate (JSC) shall be based on continuous assessment and examination conducted by state and federal examinations boards. (b) The Senior School Certificate (SSC) shall be based on continuous assessment and a national examination. (c) Tertiary institution shall be required to continuously match their ission conditions with the practices directed by the Policy. (d) Nigeria shall use public examination bodies for conducting national examinations in order to ensure uniform standards at this level. Transition from secondary education to tertiary education shall be through the appropriate selection mechanisms. General (a)The junior secondary schools shall be planned as neighbourhood schools. .However, if there are special circumstances which warrant the establishment of boarding facilities in federal and state schools, such should be provided. It is essential that everything possible is done to foster a sense of national belonging in any school. 8

(b)Measures shall be taken to ensure that culture of the nation is kept alive through art. (c) Inter-state exchange visits of students shall be encouraged. (d)Youth clubs, organizations and school societies are important instruments for character training and shall be positively encouraged. (e)Co-curricular activities form an essential part of the child's education and should be actively encouraged. (f) Government shall provide necessary infrastructure and training for the integration of ICT in the school system in recognition of the role of ICT In advancing knowledge and skill in the modem world. TERTIARY EDUCATION Tertiary education is the education given after secondary education in universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, monotechnics including those institutions offering correspondence courses. The goals of tertiary education shall be to:(a) contribute to national development through high level relevant manpower training; (b) develop and inculcate proper values for the survival of the individual and society; (c) develop the intellectual capability of individuals to understand and appreciate their local and external environments; (d) acquire both physical and intellectual skills which will enable individuals to be self-reliant and useful of the society; (e) promote and encourage scholarship and community service; (f) forge and cement national unity; and (g) promote national and international understanding and interaction Tertiary educational institutions shall pursue these goals through: (a) teaching; (b) research and development; (c) virile staff development programmes; (d) generation and dissemination of knowledge; (e) a variety of modes of programmes including full-time, part-time, block-release, day-release, sandwich, etc; (f) access to training funds such as those provided by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF); (g) Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES); (h) maintenance of minimum educational standards through appropriate agencies; (i) inter-institutional co-operation; (j) dedicated services to the community through extra-mural and extension services.

All teachers in tertiary institutions shall be required to undergo training in the methods and techniques of teaching. To supplement government funding, universities and other tertiary institutions are encouraged to explore other sources of funding such as endowments, consultancy services and commercial ventures. (a) The internal organization and istration of each institution shall be its own responsibility; (b) The traditional areas of academic freedom for the institutions are to: (i) select their students, except where the law prescribes otherwise; (ii) appoint their staff; (iii) teach, select areas of research; and (iv) determine the content of courses. Government shall continue to respect this freedom as long as these areas are in consonance with national goals. University Education 9

University Education shall make optimum contribution to national development by: a) intensifying and diversifying its programmes for the development of high level manpower within the context of the needs of the nation; b) making professional course contents to reflect our national requirements; c) making all students, as part of a general programme of all-round improvement in university education, to offer general study courses such as history of ideas, philosophy of knowledge and nationalism. University research shall be relevant to the nation's developmental goals. In this regard, universities shall be encouraged to disseminate their research results to both government and industries. University teaching shall seek to inculcate community spirit in the students through projects and action research. Voluntary agencies, individuals and groups shall be allowed to establish universities provided they comply with minimum standards laid down by the Federal Government, (a) Technically-based professional courses in the universities shall have, as components, exposure to relevant future working environment. (b) It is imperative that teachers in professional fields have relevant industrial and professional experience. (a) A greater proportion of expenditure on university education shall be devoted to Science and Technology. (b) Not less than 60% of places shall be allocated to science and science-oriented courses in the conventional universities and not less than 80% in the universities of technology. Teacher Education (a) Since no education system may rise above the quality of its teachers, teacher education shall continue to be given major emphasis in all educational planning and development. (b) The minimum qualification for entry into the teaching profession shall be the Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE). Goals of Teacher Education in the National Policy on education are: (a) produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers for all levels of-our educational system; (b) encourage further the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers; (c) help teachers to fit into social life of the community and the society at large and enhance their commitment to national goals. (d) provide teachers with the intellectual and professional background adequate for their assignment and make them adapt to changing situations; (e) enhance teachers commitment to the teaching profession All teachers in institutions shall be professionally trained. Teacher education programmes shall be structured to equip teachers for the effective performance of their duties. The following institutions, among others, shall give the required professional training provided they continuously meet the required minimum standards: (a) Colleges of Education; (b) Faculties of Education; (c) Institutes of Education; (d) National Teachers' Institute, (e) Schools of Education in the Polytechnics. (f) National Institute for Nigerian languages (NINLAN); (g) National Mathematical Centre (NMC) . At the Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) and degree levels, education programmes shall continue to be expanded to also cater for the requirements of technical, business and special education. 10

Teacher education shall continue to take cognizance of changes in methodology in the curriculum. Teachers shall be regularly exposed to innovations in their profession. In-service training shall be developed as an integral part of continuing teacher education and shall also take care of all inadequacies. . Promotion opportunities shall be created to allow for professional growth at each level. Teaching services shall be so planned that teachers can transfer front state to state without loss of status. (a) Teaching is a legally recognized profession in Nigeria; in this regard, Government has' set up the Teachers' Registration Council to control and regulate, the practice of the profession. (b) Those already engaged in teaching but not professionally qualified shall be given a period of time within which to qualify for registration or leave the professional. (c) Newly qualified teachers shall serve a period of internship one (1) year for degree holders and two (2) years for NCE holders. Effort towards the improvement of quality education at the primary and secondary levels shall include:(a) appointment of academically and professionally qualified persons as teachers and head teachers; (b) regulate in-service training programmes for teachers and head teachers.

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SECTION B

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

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Chapter Two AFRICAN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION a. Characteristics of Indigenous Education The following characteristics can be identified with indigenous education. 1. Education is a social and collective responsibility of all the people in the society, with great importance attached to education; 2. Indigenous education is multivalent in character both in of its aims and the methods employed to achieve them. 3. Education is planned in gradual and progressive steps to enable the individual conform to the successive stages of physical, mental, and emotional development. 4. Indigenous education has a heavy stress on informal instruction. 5. There are no distinct categories of professional teachers or full time teachers for the purpose of general education. 6. Religion ethics and education are inextricably integrated. 7. Instruction is practical and geared towards specific situations. 8. Instruction is impacted through oral communication in the mother tongue. 9. Indigenous education is basically conservative. Content of Indigenous Education The content of indigenous education is the reflection of the aims of indigenous education which is the development of an ideal man who is well integrated into his society. As a result of this, the development of the intellect is secondary to functional skills. The content of indigenous education is based on the felt needs of the society. This reflects the nature of its local industry such as agriculture, trading, fishing, weaving, carving or pottery. By learning the felt needs of the society, the children are made to be good of the society. The content of indigenous education is based on the environment of the learner which is relevant to his life and culture. In this regard, the content of indigenous education provides the learner with skills needed to earn a living, foster the spirit of appreciation and maintains customs, traditions and cultural heritage. Conclusively, the content of indigenous education reflects the environment in which education takes place. The content of indigenous education can best be classified as: 1. The knowledge of physical environment; 2. The working of the social organization of which the learner is a member 3. The tools for pursuing desirable economic activities; 4. Character and morality; and; 5. Aesthetic values. The five content areas can be reduced to the provision of basic education, occupational and economic education and special education. Method of Teaching and Learning The misconception of equating education with schooling has made some scholars describe indigenous African education as an informal education. This is not correct. Indigenous education is both formal and informal. This view is held by Callaway (1964), Ocitti (1973), Bertels 1975) Read (1975) and Onwuka (1982). The whole community takes part in different ways in the education of her citizens, hence indigenous education is described as a t enterprise. The following Methods of Teaching are employed in African indigenous education 1. Indoctrination: This is the method by which the learner is filled with particular idea or beliefs which need no change or verification.

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2. Reward and punishment: Reward is used to encourage while punishment is used to discourage the actions of a learner 3. Oral Literature: This is done through speaking to the learner. This can be through story-telling, riddles, jokes, myths or legends. Oral literature helps to enrich the knowledge, vocabulary and skill in speaking their mother tongue. 4. Social Ceremonies: These include initiation ceremonies, such as circumcision or age grade. The learners are participating observers and learned better than when described to them. Cultural festivals arc also included in this method. 5. Imitation: This is a method where learners try to do what they have seen others do. This can be done through playing the role of a mother, a farmer, a hunter, a warrior or a builder. The following methods of learning are employed in African indigenous education. 1. Observation 2. Participation 3. Intuition 4. Deduction 5. Play 6. Apprenticeship Stages of the Indigenous Education Indigenous education in many African societies is based on age grades. It does not start from birth but from conception. 1. Pregnancy: Indigenous education starts from pregnancy where the mother of the unborn child has to conform to certain courses of action or order to ensure a desirable future for the child. The expectant mother is expected to carry out all her domestic chores but she is forbidden from doing strenuous and violent exertions in order to ensure easy delivery and good health of both the child and the mother. The pregnant woman is made to observe many taboos such as expecting her not to eat certain food so that the child can be physically strong when delivered. The expectant mother uses series of myrrh to rub here abdomen and the contortions she drinks are meant to shape the child to a desired size and good health. This is responsible for the proper care of the pregnant mother, as it is believed that the health of the mother will affect the child. During this period (pregnancy) the child is a ive agent of education. 2. Infancy: At birth, the child becomes an active agent of education and his education is given by the mother or and experienced woman in the extended family. Education at this stage centres on the training of the child to meet his needs such as food, bodily care, evacuation and sleep. This early training to sleep or elimination is usually' done by much petting, cooing, singing, rocking and re-assuring appellations in an effort to soothe and communicate pleasure to the child. The child later leans that his cry is always responded to by satisfying his hunger, being lured to sleep, being helped to evacuate or by regarding it as illness. The naming ceremony is performed within the seventh day to the ninth day varying from one society to another or depending on whether the child is a female, twins or male. As the child grows, he is encouraged to make efforts such as walking or talking. Each time he succeeds, he is rewarded and each time he performs any antisocial act, he is scolded or reprimanded. Thus, reward and punishment are effective instruments for education. Weaning of the child occurs at this period, when he is either able to eat solid food or when the mother is pregnant. The child is weaned when there is conception based on a belief that the milk of the pregnant mother is poisonous to the health of the child. There are bases for this belief because at the early stage of conception, the mother needs a great quantity of blood for the formation of the foetus but when the child is not weaned the mother may loose, too much blood. In addition, the milk from the breast is no more rich enough to enable the child grow well. To avoid malnutrition, a child is weaned at the conception of the mother. The mother plays the most important role in the education of the child during 14

the infancy period. She uses food as a great weapon in instilling discipline as she can withhold it to enforce her wishes. 3. Childhood: At the age of about five or six years, the child moves out for the discovery of other "worlds" beyond her mother. During this period, he masters her mother tongue which is the means of communication. This makes education easy and possible. Learning at this stage is mostly through play, imitation and observation. The males begin their education with their father while the females are attached to the mother. The boys become more associated with the father's trade or occupation. The child is taught the things around him such as the names of every tree, animals, fish and materials in the environment. 4. Adolescent: The adolescent period is characterized by renewed vigour in play and learning. The most important means of education is oral instruction through folklores, riddles, proverbs, myths and legends. The education of the boys and girls become more specialized. They are separated from each other. The education of the girls is to enable them make a good wife and mother. This is intensified as from the age of six. At the age of twelve, the girl does the cooking in the house and she is rebuked if the cooking is not properly performed. The girls also help to contribute to the economic welfare of the family. The girls can be taught special skill at this stage. For example, the Yoruba girl is taught the skill in cloth dyeing and the famous "Adire" cloth. 5. Adulthood: Indigenous education is a continuous process from pregnancy to death. At this stage, the number of teachers are reduced since they are usually one's elders. The education occurs in specific occasions such as circumcision ceremonies, death, and initiation to titles or cleansing of the community when one commits offence .against the spirits of the land. It is a common event for fathers-in-law and mothers-in-law to educate both brides and grooms about the marriage institution and how to settle any misunderstanding that may arise

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Chapter Three GREEK EDUCATION EDUCATION IN SPARTA 0 – 7: The education of a Spartan child begins at birth and it is usually a state affair, with the parents playing just minimal role at the early years of the child's Life. Weakness is not acceptable on the part of any child, hence. when a child is born, it was taken to the elders council for proper scrutiny to ensure that it is healthy and had the potentials of being a sturdy child. If the child is discovered to be a weakling or sickly, he/she was taken to the cold mountains to die, or given to the helots. However, if the child was certified healthy, it was given back to the mother to nurse for the first seven years. 7- 18: At the age of seven the child is handed over to the state who takes charge of its education. At-this stage, the child (especially the boys) no longer lives with the parents, he is put in a boarding house where he receives military training together with other boys of his age. This stage lasts for eleven years. Each of the boarding houses was placed under the leadership / supervision of one of the boys who had proved to be reliable, brave and resourceful. The boys received their military training from another young boy who had finished his own "training usually between tY.6 ages of 20--30. The training at this stage is usually tough and somewhat harsh. This training persisted until the boys attained the age of eighteen when they graduate to the rank of cadets (Ephebi) 18 – 20: At the graduation ceremony, they were given severe flogging at the alter of Artemis and the boy that received the most flogging without flinching was given a price. At this stage the boys became qualified to live in military barracks where they were no longer subjected to 'the harsh treatments they got at the boarding houses (Camps). Here they were given training in military/war tactics and manouvres. This period which is a period of national service to the country lasts for two years. At this stage the boys were made to spy on the helots and also help to guard the state 20 – 30: At the age of 20. when the boys haw' completed their national service they had attained the status of manhood and were then compelled-to marry, Though, married, they were 'not allowed to live with their wives until they have completed their ten year military service to the state. After this they could then live with their wives and start their families and that is when they were said to have become full citizens. However, they, were still expected to be ready at all times to answer to, the nation's 'call at, any time the need arose. Therefore they .were expected to always maintain their fitness through regular exercises until they became old. Reading and writing did not form part of the educational curriculum given to the Spartan Children.' Other-subjects that do not include much physical exercises such as poetry, architecture, arts, aesthetics were looked down upon by them as courses for weaklings which were not worthy of soldiers. The Spartan girls were equally trained to be very patriotic to their state.' Though they were not made to live in the camps, they were subjected to some of the training given to the boys such as wrestling, running, playing ball, throwing the javelins, casting the discus and general gymnastics. These were meant to make them healthy, strong and prepared for child-bearing. The Spartans believed that strong children (which were very important to them) would be produced by healthy and strong women, hence the emphasis on physical 16

training for the girls. The Spartan women were not given opportunity for any sentimentality, they were equally made to rank their state first above any other person or thing, hence they were expected to love the state more than their husbands or children, to the extent that rather than mourn they rejoiced when their husbands or sons died in the process of defending their State. Merits of the Spartan Education System 1. It bred men and women who were very patriotic. Such patriotism could reduce if not eliminate some social vices which would have been Inimical to the success of the society; because everybody was committed to working towards the best interest of the state. 2. It emphasized the education of the women more than the other Greek States. 3. It helped to breed children, who were healthy and physically strong, 4. The state-provided education for 'every citizen, this helps both the children and families to have opportunities to acquire education. 5. The idea of boarding and -prefectortal systems practiced today may be attributed to those of the ancient Sparta. 6. Physical education for boys and girls as practiced in our schools today has its origin in Sparta. 7. The scout movement and other similar voluntary organizations found in our schools today are said to have their roots in the expeditionary and camping life of the Spartan youths. 8. The public spirit and loyalty to the state which was developed by Spartan education has given rise to the singing of National Anthem and the recitation of National Pledges in modern educational systems. Demerits of the Spartan System of Education 1. The Spartan system of education was too punitive in nature. 2. Children were not given opportunity to express themselves and their God given unique talents. 3. The importance of the home was de-emphasized for the children, especially the boys who never spend considerable part of their lives at home except when they are old. 4. Less emphasis was placed on the affective domain of the children, therefore, their education cannot be said to be an all round one. 5. There was no effort made to develop Literacy and numeracy skills of the children. 6. The Spartan education had a narrow content because it concentrated mainly on military training. 7. The children are not trained to appreciate aesthetics or the beauty of nature

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Chapter Four ISLAMIC EDUCATION The Islamic religion far preceded the Christian religion for hundreds of years in Nigeria. It was the first foreign culture to come in with and influence the indigenous cultures in Nigeria especially, in the northern parts of Nigeria. Islam was introduced into West Africa in the 8 th century and by the 11th century, it had been accepted by Umme Jilmi, the ruler of old Kanem empire. Before this time, the north of Africa had been islamised. Kanem empire established diplomatic relations with the Moslem countries in North Africa, so much so that by the 13 th century, Kanem empire had become a centre of Islamic studies attracting famous Islamic Scholars from Mali. By the 13th century also, Islamic religion had spread over all the northern parts of Nigeria. Kano and Katsina had become great centres of Islamic learning. At this period, Islamic religion was practiced in the urban areas only. Although, it had converts in these areas, traditional religions were also still practiced. However, those that got converted were taught reading and writing in Arabic so that they could read the Koran thus giving birth to literacy education in Nigeria. On the other hand, the pastoralists who never came in with Islamic religion kept on practicing their indigenous religions. However, at about 1775, a leading Fulani Usman Dan Fodio, felt that Islam as being practiced then was not pure, therefore, wanted reforms that· would purely toe the lines of Islamic law. In 1804, he declared the Jihad (Holy War) against the Hausa Kings who were the rulers over the various empires in the northern parts of Nigeria. By 1809, the territory of all Hausa state was under Fulani control. The influence of Islamic religion later spread to some parts of Western Nigeria. lIorin and Ibadan became great-centres for Islamic studies as a result of this influence. Wherever the Moslems conquered, they encouraged educating the converts irrespective of sex. In other words, men and women were encouraged to learn. In fact, this period witnessed very high literary resurgence. Those that continued their education by furthering their learning in the Islamic learning centres, went back to their towns or villages establishing their own Koranic or Madrasahs Schools. Contributions of Islam to Scholarship and World Civilization 1. It was Islam that revived the human pursuit of Islamic Educaiioti in Nigeria science and through the Arabs the modern world achieved light and power through science. 2. The Muslims introduced the Arabic numerals in the"field of mathematics. 3. The Arabs discovered many substances in the field of chemistry such as potash, silver nitrate, nitric acid, sulphuric acid etc. 4. They made a lot of advances in geometry, they invented algebra, developed trigonometric concepts such as sine, tangent and contangent. 5. They made great advances in the field of medicine such that many of their methods of treatment are still in use today. It was reported that at the time when medical practice was forbidden in Europe because they expected people to be cured through religious practices (rites), the Arabs had a real science of medicine. 6. Arabic as a language helped in the understanding of the early history and civilization of West Africa. 18

7. The Muslims established universities and institutions of higher learning in many cities like Baghdad, Timbuktu, Cairo, Cordova etc, many centuries before universities started emerging from the western world. 8. The Muslim Arabs invented the pendulum and advanced the world's knowledge of optics in the field of physics.'" 9. They made a lot of contributions in the field of art and architecture as exemplified ill their construction of mosques, palaces.' etc. THE EARLY KORANIC SCHOOLS Basic features/Characteristics The proprietors of the Koranic schools were the teachers in the schools. Initially known as "Urnma", but presently they are referred to as "Malam". The schools were situated in their private residence, his veranda, the mosque or under a tree.  The main textbooks used for teaching are the volumes of the Koran and other Islamic books. The schools are open to Moslem children only.  There are no rigid rules, which the schools must conform to. For example, the period for resumption varies from one Koranic school to another. Although, generally, the schools start at 8.00 a.m. The school week starts on Saturday and ends on Wednesday. Thursday is for preparation against the worship that normally comes up on Fridays.  The schools run either a two-session-a-day system, in which case lessons end at 4.00pm or a three-session-a-day-system and the school closes at 9.00pm. For that of two sessions, the first session starts at 8.00am and terminates at 1O.00 a.m. While the second session (i.e. afternoon session) starts at 2.00pm and ends at 4.00pm. The 3 rd session starts at 7.30pm and ends at 9.00pm. The same streams of students run all the sessions.  Fees are paid either in cash or kind.  There is a very close bond between teacher and pupils. The teacher visits pupils when they are sick and even treats them, while pupils 'assist the teachers with certain tasks particularly those concerning-the arrangement or preaching venues. Stages of Islamic Education The Islamic education given to the children is in three stages: Stage One (Makaranta Allo) The First Stage is called “Makaranta Allo” which is equivalent to the primary school stage. The major aims at this stage are (1) To assist the child to memorize the first two parts or verses of the Koran and (2) To be able to read and write in Arabic. Any child above three years can for this stage. They sit around the teacher in groups of 20-40. This first stage is covered in three stages also. At the end of the third stage, the pupils perform their 'Wolimat' which is an elaborate graduation ceremony. The first step is for the pupils to memorize short chapters of the Koran. The teacher recites the verse to be memorized and the children repeat after him. This is done several times until he is sure that the children have mastered the correct pronunciation. The children are then left alone to keep on repeating the verse until they have memorized it. The verse is then linked to the one memorized earlier, they then recite the whole. Through this process children master whole chapters of the 19

Koran. The children are expected to master one or two of the sixty parts (esus) the Koran has been divided into. Having mastered the stage above, the pupils move on to the next stage which is that of learning the Arabic alphabets which are twenty-six in number. The twentysix alphabets-are divided into three sets of 10, 10 and 6. The-children are expected to master the first set before moving on to the second and eventually the last set of 6. The 26 alphabets are consonants. Having learnt recognizing and pronouncing them, they are taught how to write them on their slates. The teachers write 'on the boards while the children reproduce them on their slate. This lasts between 6-36 weeks depending on the students' rate of learning. The third stage which lasts for 6-18 months is when the students are taught the formation of syllables by supplying the vowels (which are four) at the appropriate positions. By the time the children have become proficient in this, it is assumed that they have acquired reading skills, therefore, they are expected to read the first two parts of the Koran that they memorized earlier in the first stage when they had not known how to read and write. The "Wolimat" or graduation ceremony is performed at the end of the stage just described. It is an important ceremony. The graduand, elegantly dressed and in company of equally well dressed friends, move from the house-of one relation to another reciting what his teacher wrote on his slate. This is to prove that he has actually acquired reading skills. He is given presents in each of the houses visited. At the end, a ram or cow is slaughtered in the teacher's house to celebrate. The teacher is equally given alot of presents by the graduand and his family. The presents range from goatskin prayer mat to a well-embroidered "agbada" Stage Two (Makaranta Ilmi) This stage is called “Makaranta Ilmi” which is equivalent to the secondary school stage. The curriculum is wider and deeper than that of the first stage. The students at this stage are often instructed by more than one Mallam because the Mallams must be experts if they are to effectively teach the children. The children go to their teachers just like in the first stage. The children are expected to know the meanings of the verses in the Koran at this stage. The teacher, using translations and repetition method, teach the children first of all; the meanings of the two chapters which they had memorised in the "first stage. They later progress to the other chapters. At this stage, the children are also exposed to other writings such as the Hadith, Islamic law, grammatical infections, syntax, algebra, logic, rhetoric, versification and arithmetic etc. This stage affords the children the opportunity of identifying the areas they would be able to specialize in. At the end, of this stage, the students shall have already mastered the Arabic language and are quite proficient in it. The Third Stage: This is the equivalence of university education. Having chosen the area they wish to specialize, the children can now proceed to foreign Islamic learning centres such as Fez, Timbuktu or other learning centres that abound in Nigeria such as Kano, llorin and lbadan for specialist training. On the other hand, they might continue learning under local specialists. At the end of their training, depending on their area of specialisation, they are given license to practice either as an Imam (preacher), Alkali (judge) or Mallam (Teacher). Merits of Early Koranic Schools

20

1. Islamic education pre-dated Western education for hundreds of years. It encouraged the converts to learn. The beginning of literacy education in Nigeria is traceable to the Koranic schools. 2. The system was able to produce very good scholars who were able to write books on the Islamic religion. This not, only ensured the survival of the religion during proselytisation of the Christian missionaries, it also ensured the documentation of facts. 3. The early Koranic schools stimulated the pursuit, acquisition and dissemination of knowledge. 4. Even though the Koranic teachers had limited knowledge, it was enough for them to bring the peasantry and the learned Muslim communities together. They did this through the teaching and the propagation of the Islamic religion. 5. It, encouraged good school-community relationship especially in the area of the teacher being concerned with the children's welfare such as visiting and treating sick children. 6. Discipline was highly emphasised, this ensured the development of desirable moral attitudes in the learners. 7. It also introduced some Arabic words into Nigerian languages particularly, Hausa, Yoruba, Kanuri and Fulani languages. For example such words as 'Alafia' and ‘barika' commonly use in Yoruba language had their origins in Arabic. 8. Islamic education also brought Arabic architecture which is reflected in the designs of mosque buildings and Islamic places all over Nigeria. " 9. It laid the foundation for sharia laws that are being used in some parts of Nigeria today. 10.It was economically rewarding as those who had it were employed in government offices. 11.It was cheap and within the reach of everybody irrespective of social status. Demerits of Islamic Education 1. Knowledge was limited to Arabic reading and writing. They lacked knowledge in other areas of learning. 2. Learning was done through the rote learning technique which not the best method of learning from all empirical studies. 3. Oftentimes' the teachers were not very qualified. Particularly at the secondary stage of learning. 4. The grammar method of learning the 'Arabic grammar was not the best method as students only mernorised the grammatical rules. 5. They lacked central control hence the proprietors who were eventually the teachers determined the operation of the schools, drew up their own scheme and could declare a holiday if any religious activity happened to take him away from home. 6. The Islamic religion almost completely wiped out their indigenous cultures perhaps leaving only their languages which were also influenced.

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Chapter Five CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY/WESTERN EDUCATION Introduction Christian Missionary education is synonymous with the history of western education in Nigeria. One of the most remarkable developments of education in Western Europe during the second half of the 19th century was the crystallization of the National System of Education Known as formal education in identifiable features. The British influence has been most original and tremendous. It was under the British colonial adventure that the Christian missionary introduced formal education which was institutionalized in Nigeria in 1843 and supervised by them the Christian missionaries as the sole producer. Before now the Islamic culture had pervaded the northern part and some parts of western Nigeria, all the other parts continued with their indigenous cultures because the Islamic influence never got in with them. This state of affairs did not however, remain like that for long. By the turn of the 15th century, the Portuguese Merchants had started exploring the coasts of West Africa. (Itedjere, 2005). The question then arises - what led the Portuguese to this venture? The Muslims in the northern part of Africa had conquered the whole of the Iberian peninsula but the Christians had fought back. By the 13 th century, the powers of the Muslims were confined to the small emirate of Granada. In the process of fighting back, a number of Christian kingdoms sprang up, amongst them Aragon, Castile and Portugal. Castile and Portugal already, possessed trade interests in North Africa which in turn was already trading with West Africa. But North Africa prevented Portugal from trading with West Africa. By the end of the 13th century, the house of Aviz, the ruling dynasty in Portugal felt that the war against Islam should be extended to North Africa. By the-time Ceuta was captured in 1415, the young son of the Portuguese king Prince Henry, was appointed as the governor of that place. He spearheaded the exploration of the coasts of West Africa. In other words, the Portuguese came to West Africa because: 1. They wanted to have direct trade links with West Africa instead of through the Muslims in North Africa. 2. They wanted to convert West Africans to Christianity so that they would have Christian allies that would assist them in their onslaught against the Islamic religion. ' Their coming led to the initial attempt at introducing western education in Nigeria.

Initial attempt at Introducing Missionary Education Although the Portuguese merchants had traded with other areas such as Senegal and the Gold Coast (now Ghana) in the early part of the 15th century, they did not arrive in Nigeria till about 1472. After settling in Lagos they later extended their activities to Brass, Warri and Benin. Since commerce was their major aim of coming, they felt that elements of reading and writing should be taught to the natives in order to make them good trading partners. They also felt that the natives had to be Christianised. They wrote to their king in Portugal requesting him to send missionaries. The king obliged them. The Roman Catholic faith was dominant in Portugal at that time. So the missionaries that came were Catholics. The missionaries built schools in the palaces of the rulers of Lagos, Benin and Brass who had been converted to Christianity. They taught reading and writing to the sons of the converted kings and chiefs. 22

However, this first attempt was brought to an abrupt end when the Portuguese merchants decided capturing and selling the natives as slaves to Europe and the Americas. They were later ed in this nefarious trade by the French, English, Dutch and a host of others. This activity devastated the whole of West Africa. There was no more peace anywhere. This actually ended this first attempt at introducing western education. For nearly 300 years, Nigeria was in a vacuum in of western Education.

The Second Attempt Background History of the 2nd Attempt By the turn of the 18th century, some whites in Europe, particularly in Britain, began to see the evil, injustice and man's inhumanity to man in the slave trade. This period was also characterised by the springing up of several religious bodies such as the Baptist Missionary Society (1798), the London Missionary Society (1798), the Church Missionary Society and a host of others. These religious bodies revolutionised the people's attitude towards religion and morality. It was this revolution that led to the formation of the anti-slave-trade movement. The religious bodies vigorously campaigned against this ugly trade. In 1772, Lord Mansfield, the Lord Justice of England, ed a judgement ending slavery. This resulted in many slaves becoming-free in England. In 1807, an Act of Parliament made it illegal for any British subject to engage in the African slave trade and in 1833 another act was ed abolishing slave trade throughout the British Empire. Denmark (1808), United States (1813), Sweden and the Netherlands (1814) had also ed similar laws- making-slave-trade illegal: All these acts resulted in the freedom of so many slaves. To solve the problems of the large population of freed slaves. The British government established Sierra-Leone for her freed slaves. The first batch of freed slaves arrived there in May 1787. The government of United States of America assisting the American Colonisation Society; also took the same step and established Liberia in 1821. However, Britain was unable to secure the abolition of slavery throughout the Americas. She was also unable to stop slave-trade in the coasts of West Africa. European traders as well as American slave traders (all hiding under the American flag) and the rulers and chiefs of the towns, emirates and kingdoms in Nigeria still carried on with the slave trade. For instance, Lagos, under King Kosoko who drove Akintoye from the throne in 1845 with the assistance of Brazilian slave traders, was a major port for slave trade. Infact the rulers and chiefs never wanted slave trade to end. So, the British anti-slave-trade movements then argued that agriculture, industry and legitimate trade must be fostered and developed so that there would be a final end to slave trade. They felt that this could, be achieved if they established model communities in West Africa so that they could demonstrate to the natives good methods of agriculture, industry and government. But paramount to these anti-slave-trade movements was the urgent' need to convert the natives to Christianity. The industrial revolution had already started in Europe at this time also. Palm oil was in great demand and British trade in palm oil was already flourishing. So they felt it was necessary to find out what the country and the people were like, what useful commodities were produced and what improvement in methods of production could be made. The British also wanted to ascertain the social and 'political conditions under which the missionaries and 'traders would work.

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The abolitionists equally felt that the wrong done to West Africans by the European slave traders should be corrected. They argued that the West Africans had seen only the worst sides of European civilisation particularly its acquisitive and destructive aspects. So they felt that by going to West Africa the natives would be given the opportunity to acquire its moral and material benefits. In other words, they wanted to spread the positive aspects of western civilisation rather than the negative and destructive sides. It was in response to these proposals that the British government sent an expedition to Nigeria in 1841 under Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, the parliamentary leader of the anti-slave trade movement. They were 146 in that expedition. Out of this number, two were of the Church Missionary Society (C.M.S.) and one was a liberated slave, a Yoruba - Samuel Ajayi Crowther (Crowther had been liberated as a slave on the high seas. He was settled in Sierra Leone. He had this education in Sierra Leone and later in England). Coinciding with the efforts of these anti-slave trade movements was the call by the Yoruba emigrants from Sierra Leone. Most of these emigrants were slaves who had been freed and settled in Sierra Leone. They had been exposed to Christianity and education as they had come in with C.M.S. and the Wesleyans in Sierra Leone. Most of them were also of Yoruba decent who were able to trace their roots. Majority of them settled in Badagry and Abeokuta, having had a foretaste of education and Christianity, they invited missionary bodies in Sierra Leone to come to Nigeria to help Christianise their kith and kin and to also assist them in providing education for their children. In response to this call, the Wesleyan Methodists Missionary Society led by Thomas Birch Freeman arrived in Badagry in 1842. He was accompanied by Mr. arid Mrs William de Graft from Gold Coast. As soon as they arrived, they established a mission there and because the emigrants needed assistance in the area of education a school was also immediately begun under the supervision of De Graft. In 1843, the Church Missionary Society (C.M.S.) arrived, but was to study the situation. In 1845, they came and established a mission also in Badagry. The Southern Baptist Convention ed in the establishment of schools in 1853 in Ijaiye, then later at Ogbomosho. The Roman Catholic Mission ed the race in 1862 establishing a stronghold in Lagos. In the East the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland led by Rev. Hope Waddell started serious missionary and literacy activities in Calabar in 1846. The C.M. S. later established schools at Onitsha, Iddah, Gbede, Akassa and Bonny. However, the activities of the missionaries were limited to southern Nigeria because the Muslims in northern Nigeria did not like western education since they saw it as an instrument of conversion to Christianity. The Early Missionary Schools All the missions came purposely to plant Christianity. It was not easy for them to convert the adult population. They felt it would be easier to convert the children. They realised too that the task would be easier if they did do through literacy education. Hence they established schools alongside the churches. The Methodists established the first known primary school in Nigeria at Badagry. It was known as 'Nursery of the Infant Church'. It was managed by Mr. & Mrs. de Graft. The 50 pupils in the school were children of Sierra Leone emigrants. They taught the 4Rs-reading, writing, arithmetic and religious education but with religious education as the principal subject. They also taught grammar and spelling. All these subjects were taught so as to enable the students read and translate the Bible and other religious tracts. They also 24

hoped that the learning of these subjects would equally enable the students to express themselves orally and also in writing. For the students to be familiar with the home background of the missions, they were taught the History and Geography of Britain. They also paid attention to the teaching of agriculture and the teaching of domestic science to the girls. Love for manual labour was fostered not only in the students but also in the natives. For instance, monetary awards were sometimes given to farmers after talking to them on agriculture. There was much emphasis on agriculture because they wanted the children to be able to use their hands after leaving school However, all subjects were taught and explained from the Bible's point of-view. The arithmetic taught was to produce clerks and messengers for the various governmental offices and commercial houses. By this time, the British officials were already in firm control of parts of Nigeria. So there were governmental offices that needed workers. The British traders also had shops and needed workers. It was to satisfy the demands of these sets of Europeans that arithmetic was taught in the early schools Tuition was free. Any child willing to learn was willingly itted. Most of the missions preferred the boarding system. This was because they felt that their homes were barbaric and would have barbaric influence on them. The textbooks, pencils, clothes and money needed in the schools were sent from the home missions. The children themselves were proud of the opportunity they had. They saw themselves as superior to their counterparts who were-not in school. They imitated and preferred the Whitman’s ways. The missionaries encouraged this. Obstacles Encountered by the Early Schools It was not all smooth sailing for the early schools. Not everybody accepted education without question. In the first place, there was low student enrolment as a result of stiff opposition and lack of co-operation. The missionary education was vehemently opposed by the traditionalists, the priests and priestesses and the Muslim's. The traditionalists opposed it because it was different from theirs and they lacked understanding of its aims. On the other hand, the priests and priestesses were afraid of losing their grips on their . So they persecuted any person that attended the schools and churches. For instance, as reported by Fajana (1978) that in Abeokuta, those attending the churches were deprived of getting marriage mates. As a result of this, most parents withdrew their children from the schools. The Muslims who were afraid and suspicious of missionary education vehemently resisted the attempt to attract their children to the schools. Those that allowed their children to attend the schools did so half-heartedly. They regarded it as a waste of the children's time to send them to school. Those that sent children sent either their slaves or their motherless children. Moreover, those that sent their children expected immediate rewards; if slow to come, they withdrew their children. Further, the type of training given in the schools, made the children offer no -useful services to their parents at home. They saw themselves as too important to assist their parents at home. or to work in the farms. This led to doubts about the value of western education, Parents therefore immediately withdrew their children. So the missionaries had to mount ission campaign from house to house and from farm to farm begging parents to send their children to school. Those that allowed their children were given monetary or other gifts such as clothes, books, slates and pencils. Even the students were paid for 25

attending schools. Where fees were paid due to the initial enthusiasm, they were abandoned and schools were made free. Actually, the earliest educated Nigerians apart from the children of the emigrants were the children of not-well-to-do parents. Another problem encountered by the early schools is irregular attendance. The children that were sent to school did not love schooling either. They preferred their traditional homes. They preferred hunting, fishing or farming. As Fajana (1978) noted in Bonny, in 16 weeks some children attended school only twice. The total number of children enrolled was 78 but the average daily attendance never rose above 25. In addition to the children’s dislike for school, local conditions and seasons contributed to the irregular attendance. Traders often took their children away for a long time. During the planting and harvesting periods, parents took their wards away. Schools were therefore forced to function in the afternoons only. Sometimes, they were forced to close down for a while. Thirdly, the missions sometimes ran into financial problems. The pupils paid no fees. The missionaries depended on foreign missions to finance the schools. They equally depended on offerings collected on Sundays in the churches. But the money never amounted to anything. Sometimes, they had to sell some of the inducements so they could buy materials and other necessary things needed for the smooth running of the schools. The Merits of Early Missionary Education Despite all the shortcomings, early missionary education contributed a lot to the development of Nigeria, It helped to: 1. Lay the foundation for the western educational being practiced in Nigeria today. 2. Stop the slave trade and other evil practices such as the killing of twins in the eastern part of Nigeria. 3. Inculcate discipline and dignity for manual labour in the children. 4. Open up avenues for social and economic mobility – those that had education had limitless job opportunities. Those that attended these early schools were employed as teachers, clerks, messengers, interpreters etc. They thus became very important personalities in the community. They were seen as being close to the white man and very near to government. Of course, there been paid salaries even though not much, placed them at a higher economic level than their counterparts that did not have the missionary education. 5. Their intellectual horizons were broadened and as a result were able to criticise the system which led to the reforms and self-rule e.g. the various education laws and Nigeria's since1960, 6. Establish printing presses which led to the production of books. 7. Alphabetise many indigenous Nigeria languages on the basis of which their orthographies developed. As a result they were able to transcribe the languages to the written form. It is on this basis that all Nigerian languages could be put in the written form. The Beginning of Secondary Education All the missions were not interested in providing secondary education. They felt it was not a prerequisite for evangelical service. They equally felt that the basic education their converts acquired at the primary School level was sufficient' for them to carry out their work evangelically and secularly. Hence secondary and higher education were neglected. 26

It was the demand by influential church , rich merchants and immigrants living in Lagos that led to the establishment of secondary schools. . T. B. Macaulay of the C.M.S. opened the first Grammar School in Lagos in 1859 with the little or no from the C.M.S. mission. It occupied four rooms in an old cotton warehouse. An emigrant businessman, captain J. P. L. Davies had to organise a contribution from where he got £13 which was used for buying learning facilities such as chairs and desks. He gave an advance of £25 from the purchase of books. The children that finished their primary education in the other missions and who wanted to further their education had no other alternative than to switch to the C.M.S. Grammar school and consequently become of the CM.S. Church. The other missions started losing ground for fear of this, they started building secondary schools. For instance Wesleyan Methodists raised £500 and requested their mission to equally raise another £500. With that amount, the Wesleyan Boys High School was established in 1879. Between 1859 – 1914 twelve post primary institutions were established in Southern Nigeria.

TABLE1: TWELVE EARLIEST SCHOOLS ESTABLISHED IN NIGERIA AGENCY FOUNDING C. M. S. R. C. M. Methodist Methodist Baptist Church of Scotland C. M. S. Government Private African initiative C. M. S. C. M. S.

SCHOOL

LOCATION

C M.S. Grammar School St. Gregory’s College Methodist Boys’ High School Methodist Girls High School Baptist Boys’ High School Hope Waddell Institute Abeokuta Grammar School King’s College

Lagos Lagos Lagos

YEAR FOUNDED 1859 1876 1878

Lagos

1879

Lagos Calabar Abeokuta

1885 1895 1908

Lagos

1909

Eko Boy’s High School

Lagos

190

Ibadan Ijebu-Ode

1913 1913

Ibadan Grammar School Ijebu-Ode Grammar School R. C. M. St. Mary’s Convent All schools except two were boys’ school. Source:

Lagos 1913 Fafunwa, Babs, A. 1974)

Features of the Early Secondary Schools Most of the schools were boarding schools. The missions and the government favoured the boarding system because they felt this was the only civilised way the children could be trained to become civilised. They believed this system would give them the opportunity to supervise, control and direct the children properly without the 'evil and uncivilized' influences of their home environment. The secondary schools were purely literary. They taught a very large number of subjects. According to Fajana (1918), the subjects were English and Orthography, writing, Dictation, Arithmetic and Algebra, Grammar, History (Religious and secular) Geography, classics, prose and poetry. There were also optional subjects which were offered at extra costs. They were in two parts: In the first part were Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French and other modern languages, geometry, trigonometry, Book-keeping, drawing, rhetoric and logic, moral philosophy and political economy. In the second part were Roman and Greek History, 27

Mythology and antiquities, physiology; geology and botany. The Hope Waddell Institute added practical courses to the curriculum just enumerated. The practical courses included printing, carpentry and mechanics. ( Akpochafo, 1990). These large numbers of subjects were taught in such a way that the students assimilated little or nothing. Apart from the manner of the teaching, the children who entered these schools then, were inadequately prepared from the primary schools. The parents and the children who entered the schools only saw this as an opportunity of having better wage-earning prospects. At that time there was acute shortage of clerks and interpreters. It was so acute that the government was making its recruitment from the Gold Coast (Ghana), Sierra Leone and the West Indies. Due to this acute demand, parents never allowed their children to complete schooling before removing them to seek employment. The schools were equally poorly staffed. Some of the missions were so poor that they could not afford to employ two graduates. The poor remuneration equally led to the exodus of the few teachers from the teaching profession. The end result was that there was a general fall in the standard. The products of the schools were far below standard. TECHNICAL EDUCATION The missions were interested in providing technical education but its result was disappointing. The Roman Catholics, for example, established an agricultural school at Topo, Badagry in 1875 where they taught technical subjects as well as reading and writing. The school produced its own food from the farms. However, technical education was not a success, rather, it was the Grammar schools that flourished despite all their flaws. The failure of technical education could be attributed to the following reasons: ( I) Lack of finance - due to this factor, the missions could not maintain the schools, neither were they able to buy the expensive equipment required. (Technical education was more expensive to run than a grammar school) (2) There were no factories to absorb the graduates from the technical school. There were demands for literate clerks than for carpenters, masons, brick makers or printers. The colonial government did not employment such school leavers either. Where they were given employment, they were discriminated against particularly in ranking and wages. The incentives which were given to others were never given to them. Invariably many of the students drifted to other areas such as clerical services and the clergy. In time technical education died a natural death. Achievements/Contributions of the Christian Missionaries 1. The missionaries helped in curtailing and in many cases stopping some obnoxious traditional practices in the country, such as superstitious beliefs, killing of twins, human sacrifices/ritual murders, slave trade etc. They rather encouraged the regard for the dignity of human life. 2. The missionaries made most indigenes have the belief in one supreme God. 3. They established schools through which tremendous contributions were made towards the intellectual development of the Nigerian people. 4. The missionaries helped in settling some prolonged wars and intercommunal clashes in different parts of the country. 5. The missionaries were largely responsible for reducing to writing most Nigerian Languages. They encouraged and financed the translation of the Bible, Christian and other educational Literature into local languages 28

6.

They also provided much medical services in the country. They built hospitals, maternity centres, dispensaries and also Leper Clinics, through which many people were treated. This helped reduce considerably many deaths that hitherto occurred out of ignorance. 7. With religious instructions, the missionaries were able to inculcate some worthy moral values in the natives, such as respect for the dignity of human lives, humility, honesty and a general code of conduct for teachers and pupils was set. 8. The Christian missionaries can also be credited for contributing much towards the economic development of the nation. This was demonstrated in the suggestion of T. F. Buxton, (a member of the anti-slavery movement in London) that the missionaries and teachers should go to the interior part of the Niger with the the plough", this was to make' both Christianity and agriculture to flourish and to bring about commerce which would turn the people's attention away from slave trade. 9. The mission schools produced the present day political leaders of Nigeria, most of who were beneficiaries of the schools. 10. The mission education made a lot' of contributions towards the social, political, religious and economic life of the Nigerian people. Problems of Christian Missionaries 1. Athough all the missions had similar educational policies, these policies were not executed in the same manner. They also lacked central co-ordination. These resulted in differences. In the first place, there was no general curriculum as each mission designed its own curriculum. Each mission taught what it felt necessary and practicable taking the availability of teachers into consideration. Where the teachers were not enough, they taught Bible studies and domestic science to girls. 2. There were no common textbooks for the various classes in all the missions. There was also the problem of language to be used for instruction. While some schools used Yoruba, others used Portuguese while others still used English. 3. There was no uniform time for starting and closing schools. The teacher opened and closed the school at his own convenience especially as he was also expected to perform other duties such as being the catechist and the community doctor. 4. There was no uniform qualification of teachers. There was no uniform salary either. Each mission determined the qualification as well as the salary of its teachers. In most cases the teachers were not qualified and were poorly paid. 5. Teacher-pupil ratio could not be fixed. A teacher had a limitless number of pupils to teach. 6. There was no uniform system of evaluation either. Each mission conducted its own examination and awarded its own certificates. There was no supervision of the school's infrastructural facilities, personnel and pupils by the missions, so standard could not be enforced. 7. The transcription of the various indigenous languages was equally uncoordinated. This resulted in the use of the different orthographies by the different missions. e.g. the sound [kp] as in 'akpu' in Ika language is represented by the letters k, p but the same sound is represented by the letter 'p' in Yoruba. So the student will write 'apu' instead of 'akpu'. 8. There was a lot of competition and rivalry amongst the mission. They competed for fame and supremacy this led to disunity amongst the missions and consequently the adherents were confused because as far as the natives were concerned, all the missions were one. 9. The missions failed to realise that the natives already had their own form of education. But as far as the missions were concerned, there was no form of 29

education in Nigeria before their arrival. So, they tried to shield the pupils from the influence of their homes. In turn, the pupil saw their own culture as inferior and tended to feel superior to those not in school. Also, the children looked down on their own culture due to the teaching given to them. For instance, the pupils were encouraged to change thejr Nigerian names to English and Biblical names. The pupils were very proud of the changes. This was a. sure way of losing their identity as Nigerian cultures were not projected. 10. The competition for fame and supremacy also led to the establishment of substandard schools. In most cases, the churches served as schools on weekdays while the schools became churches on Sundays.

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Chapter Six PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP WHAT IS PPP? Public private partnership has been defined as arrangements between governments and private sector entities for the purpose of providing public infrastructure, community facilities and related services. Such partnerships are characterized by the sharing of investment, risk, responsibility and reward between the partners (). . Public private partnership has also been defined by the Canadian council for PPP (1999) as cooperative venture where there is an allocation of the risks inherent in the provision of public service between the public and private sectors. Partnership has been defined by the Encarta Dictionary to mean „the relationship between two or more people or organizations that are involved in the same activity‟. Infrastructure is defined as the large-scale public systems, services, and facilities of a country or region that are necessary for economic activity including power and water supplies, public transportation, telecommunications, roads, and schools . CONSTRAINTS OF PPP 1. Corruption: The major bottleneck of PPP is level of corruption in Nigeria, it is difficult to trust some individuals in the management of money or school ission and so, many Nigerians were jittery. The last Federal Government that attempted it had no sufficient time to plan, enlighten the public and implement it to its legal and logical conclusion, and so created a lot of apprehensions. 2. Ignorance and Fear: The PPP concept is yet to take root in Nigeria hence the ignorance and fear displayed by many groups and individuals. However, not a few Nigerians believe and desire to see the educational system including the Ministries and the schools reformed. The initial pubic reaction was that the PPP was a ploy by the Federal Government to sell or privatize the Unity schools, which they felt amount to Government shirking its responsibility to Nigerian children (Sango, 2006; Nadaba, 2007). They were also afraid that school fees would rise beyond common people's purse, thus making the schools elitist (Bosah, 2006). 3. Over-centralisation of management: Another factor killing the system is over-centralisation of management. It has been the trend since independence and this continued with the take-over of all community schools by the Federal Government (FG) in 1976. One of the shortcomings of that move was that it has deprived the leadership of schools the much-needed initiative to run their schools successfully. Bureaucracy delays decision-making and mistakes are descended upon with severity. School heads therefore wait on Ministries dictation to run their schools and this has stilled innovativeness and quality delivery. Freedom to take appropriate decisions is important to leadership success. 4. In recent times, market forces are taking central place in the management of many public enterprises including education. The trend in school management in the last two or three decades in some English-speaking countries (e.g. England and Wales) is a paradigm shift to autonomy or decentralisation (Coleman, 1994). Such as charter schools, autonomous or self-managed schools or school-based management have emerged to describe this trend. These are public schools that have opted to be independent of bureaucratic control so as to control their own resources and performance. In the United States of America, charter schools are "governmentfunded and government-regulated and they may be operated by private boards or corporations" (Coulson, 2003, p.4). Coulsn observed that in the United States of America: In times of greater centralised authority, large istrative 31

structures, such as states, school districts, and school boards, maintain control over decisions regarding educational policy, budget, and operations. When the pendulum swings towards decentralisation, much of this control shifts to smaller school boards for example, and more recently, individual schools, (p.l). 5. Political issues: This is a very important aspect of public private partnership because where there is the absence of political will to PPP, then its likelihood of working will be very slim and also is the fact that the next istration may not be interested in or may want to reconcess it due to different reasons among which is the fact that there is this tendency with new istrations to change some policies decided upon by the previous istrations, so concessionaires try to speed up commissions of projects before the deadline of the present istration and at the end of the day causing increase in the cost. 6. Funding issues: This is a major problem for any concession agreement because raising that kind of needed credit locally is almost impossible especially considering the fact that most banks were skeptical about the project as it is new and there is no precedent to show for the success or failure as the case may be. 7. Legal issues: Until very recently, there were no legal framework for PPPs in Nigeria and this has posed a serious challenge to both the government and the concessionaires because there were no legally defined operating parameters to describe how to go about with PPP. Though the recent enactment of the ICRC Act has to an extent addressed this issue. The Act laid down broad principles on which concessions are to be granted and has given certain guarantees and hope to potential concessionaires PROSPECTS 1. Partnership envisaged should cuts across different but mutually inclusive groups of stakeholders, including International Non-Government Organizations and Development Agencies such as United Nations Educational, Scientific and Culture (UNESCO), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Multinational Corporations such as Alesco Cooperation Limited, Shell, Chevron, Taxaco, Total Final ELF, ExxonMobile and others Organized Private Sector (OPS) such as Nigerian Association of Chambers of Commerce, Industry, Marine and Agriculture (NACCIMA), MAN Global and selected Non-quoted private sector companies such as Econet, Minneapolis Telecommunications Network (MTN), Globalcom, Etisalat, Zain, Dangote and Folawiyo Groups. Professional Bodies such as Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN), Institute of Chartered ants of Nigeria (ICAN), and Nigerian Institute of Management (NIM), among others are not left out. 2. Nigerian public/private sector partnership should go beyond the Education Tax Fund. Nigeria should take advantage of the international experience and allow for significant contributions to educational development. 3. in order for government to deliver the minimum standard of services, products and or care required for a PPP to thrive, it must put in place, laws, regulations and institutions or enhance existing ones, as well as improve the enabling environment for private sector participation (PSP) in the provision and development of infrastructure to occur. 4. Stakeholders’ commitment to the PPP would be accomplished by focusing on micro, small and medium-sized operations, involve community leaderships like community development associations, town unions, non-governmental organizations, local, state and/or regional governmental authorities including private company operators. 32

5. PPPs must, therefore, be facilitated through processes aimed at translating the desires of stakeholders into form of partnerships so desired.

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